CHAPTER 3: THEORY OF BATERRY

Definition of battery;

Alkaline battery
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Alkaline battery

From left to right: C, AA, AAA, N, and 9V alkaline

batteries
Self-discharge rate <0.3%/month
Time durability 5–10 years
Nominal cell voltage 1.5 V

Alkaline batteries are a type of primary battery dependent upon the reaction between zinc and
manganese(IV) oxide (Zn/MnO2). A rechargeable alkaline battery allows reuse of specially
designed cells.

Compared with zinc-carbon batteries of the Leclanché or zinc chloride types, alkaline batteries
have a higher energy density and longer shelf-life, with the same voltage. Button cell silver-
oxide batteries have higher energy density and capacity but also have a higher cost than similar-
size alkaline cells.

The alkaline battery gets its name because it has an alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide,
instead of the acidic ammonium chloride or zinc chloride electrolyte of the zinc-carbon batteries.
Other battery systems also use alkaline electrolytes, but they use different active materials for the
electrodes.
Alkaline batteries account for 80% of manufactured batteries in the US and over 10 billion
individual units produced worldwide. In Japan alkaline batteries account for 46% of all primary
battery sales. In Switzerland alkaline batteries account for 68%, in the UK 60% and in the EU
47% of all battery sales including secondary types.[1][2][3][4][5]

Alkaline batteries are used in many household items such as MP3 players, CD players, digital
cameras, pagers, toys, lights, and radios, to name a few.

History
See also: History of the battery

Nickel-iron batteries manufactured between 1972 and 1975 under the "Exide" brand, originally
developed in 1901 by Thomas Edison.

Batteries with alkaline (rather than acid) electrolyte were first developed by Waldemar Jungner
in 1899, and, working independently, Thomas Edison in 1901. The modern alkaline dry battery
using the zinc/manganese (IV) oxide chemistry was invented by Canadian engineer Lewis Urry
in the 1950s while working for Union Carbide's Eveready Battery division in Cleveland, OH,
building on earlier work by Edison.[6] On October 9, 1957, Urry, Karl Kordesch, and P.A. Marsal
filed US patent (2,960,558) for the alkaline battery. It was granted in 1960 and was assigned to
the Union Carbide Corporation.[7]

When introduced in the late 1960s, alkaline batteries contained a small amount of toxic mercury
amalgam to control side reactions at the zinc cathode. With mercury content reduced by law and
improvements in the purity and consistency of materials, manufacturers have reduced the
mercury content in modern cells.[8]

Chemistry

In an alkaline battery, the negative electrode is zinc and the positive electrode manganese (IV)
oxide. The alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide is not part of the reaction, only the zinc
and manganese (IV) oxide are consumed during discharge. The alkaline electrolyte of potassium
hydroxide remains, as there are equal amounts of OH− consumed and produced.
Section through an alkaline battery.

The half-reactions are:

Zn(s) + 2OH−(aq) → ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e− [e° = 1.28 V]

2MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2e− → Mn2O3(s) + 2OH−(aq) [e° = +0.15 V]

Overall reaction:

Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) ZnO(s) + Mn2O3(s) [e° = 1.43 V]

Capacity

Several sizes of button and coin cells. Some are alkaline and others are silver oxide. Two 9v batteries
were added as a size comparison. Enlarge to see the size code markings.

Capacity of an alkaline battery is greater than an equal size Leclanché cell or zinc-chloride cell
because the manganese (IV) oxide is purer and denser, and space taken up by internal
components such as electrodes is less. An alkaline cell can provide between three and five times
capacity.

The capacity of an alkaline battery is strongly dependent on the load. An AA-sized alkaline
battery might have an effective capacity of 3000 mAh at low drain, but at a load of 1 ampere,
which is common for digital cameras, the capacity could be as little as 700 mAh. The voltage of
the battery declines steadily during use, so the total usable capacity depends on the cut-off
voltage of the application. Unlike Leclanche cells, the alkaline cell delivers about as much
capacity on intermittent or continuous light loads. On a heavy load, capacity is reduced on
continuous discharge compared with intermittent discharge, but the reduction is less than for
Leclanche cells.
Voltage

The nominal voltage of a fresh alkaline cell is 1.5 V. Multiple voltages may be achieved with
series of cells. The effective zero-load voltage of a non discharged alkaline battery varies from
1.50 to 1.65 V, depending on the purity of the manganese (IV) oxide used and the contents of
zinc oxide in the electrolyte. The average voltage under load depends on level of discharge and
the amount of current being drawn, varying from 1.1 to 1.3 V. The fully discharged cell has a
remaining voltage in the range of 0.8 to 1.0 V.[8]

Current

The amount of current an alkaline battery can deliver is roughly proportional to its physical size.
This is a result of decreasing internal resistance as the internal surface area of the cell increases.
A general rule of thumb is that an AA alkaline battery can deliver 700 mA without any
significant heating. Larger cells, such as C and D cells, can deliver more current. Applications
requiring currents of several amperes, such as powerful flashlights and portable stereos, will
require D-sized cells to handle the increased load.

Construction

Alkaline batteries are manufactured in standardized cylindrical forms interchangeable with zinc-
carbon batteries, and in button forms. Several individual cells may be interconnected to form a
true "battery", such as those sold for use with flashlights and the 9 volt transistor-radio battery.

A cylindrical cell is contained in a drawn steel can, which is the cathode connection. The positive
electrode mixture is a compressed paste of manganese (IV) oxide with carbon powder added for
increased conductivity. The paste may be pressed into the can or deposited as pre-molded rings.
The hollow center of the cathode is lined with a separator, which prevents contact of the
electrode materials and short-circuiting of the cell. The separator is made of a non-woven layer
of cellulose or a synthetic polymer. The separator must conduct ions and remain stable in the
highly alkaline electrolyte solution.

The negative electrode is composed of a dispersion of zinc powder in a gel containing the
potassium hydroxide electrolyte. The zinc powder provides more surface area for chemical
reactions to take place, compared to a metal can. This lowers the internal resistance of the cell.
To prevent gassing of the cell at the end of its life, more manganese dioxide is used than required
to react with all the zinc.

When describing AAA, AA, C, sub-C and D size cells, the negative electrode is connected to the
flat end, and the positive terminal is the end with the raised button. This is usually reversed in
button cells, with the flat ended cylindrical can being the positive terminal.

Recharging of alkaline batteries

Main article: Recharging alkaline batteries
Some alkaline batteries are designed to be recharged (see rechargeable alkaline battery), but most
are not. Attempts to recharge may cause rupture, or the leaking of hazardous liquids which will
corrode the equipment.

Leaks

Leaked alkaline battery

Alkaline batteries are prone to leaking potassium hydroxide, a caustic agent that can cause
respiratory, eye and skin irritation.[note 1] This can be reduced by not attempting to recharge
disposable alkaline cells, not mixing different battery types in the same device, replacing all of
the batteries at the same time, storing in a dry place, and removing batteries for storage of
devices.

All batteries gradually self-discharge (whether installed in a device or not) and dead batteries
will eventually leak. Extremely high temperatures can also cause batteries to rupture and leak
(such as in a car during summer).

The reason for leaks is that as batteries discharge — either through usage or gradual self-
discharge — the chemistry of the cells changes and some hydrogen gas is generated. This out-
gassing increases pressure in the battery. Eventually, the excess pressure either ruptures the
insulating seals at the end of the battery, or the outer metal canister, or both. In addition, as the
battery ages, its steel outer canister may gradually corrode or rust, which can further contribute
to containment failure.

Once a leak has formed due to corrosion of the outer steel shell, potassium hydroxide absorbs
carbon dioxide from the air to form a feathery crystalline structure of potassium carbonate that
grows and spreads out from the battery over time, following along metal electrodes to circuit
boards where it commences oxidation of copper tracks and other components, leading to
permanent circuitry damage.

The leaking crystalline growths can also emerge from seams around battery covers to form a
furry coating outside the device, that corrodes any objects in contact with the leaking device.

Disposal

With the reduction in mercury in 1996, alkaline batteries are allowed to be disposed of as regular
domestic waste in some locations. However, older alkaline batteries with mercury, and the
remaining other heavy metals and corrosive chemicals in all batteries (new and old) still present
problems for disposal especially landfills.[9][10] There is also the issue of simplifying the disposal
of batteries to exclude them all so that the most toxic will be diverted from general waste
streams.

Disposal varies by jurisdiction. For example the state of California considers all batteries as
hazardous waste when discarded, and has banned the disposal of batteries with other domestic
waste.[11] In Europe, battery disposal is controlled by the WEEE Directive and Battery Directive
regulations, and as such alkaline batteries must not be thrown in with domestic waste. In the EU,
most stores that sell batteries are required by law to accept old batteries for recycling.

Recycling

Alkaline batteries do not contain valuable materials, so disposal has a net cost to the party
disposing of the material.

In the US, one company shreds and separates the battery case metals, manganese and zinc.[12]
Another company mixes batteries in as a feedstock in steel making furnaces, to make low-grade
steel such as rebar; the zinc fumes are recovered separately.[13]

Nickel oxyhydroxide battery (abb. NiOx) is a type of primary cell. It is not rechargeable and
must be disposed after a single use. NiOx batteries can be used in high-drain applications such as
digital cameras.

NiOx batteries used in low-drain applications, have a lifespan similar to a premium alkaline
battery.[citation needed] NiOx batteries produce a higher voltage (1.7V) than alkaline batteries (1.5V)
which can cause problems in certain products, such as equipment with incandescent light bulbs
(such as flashlights/torches), or devices without a voltage regulator.
A zinc-nickel oxyhydroxide battery

Oxyride battery cathode structure compared with traditional alkaline battery

Construction

The nickel oxyhydroxide cell is different from a standard alkaline battery in the manufacturing
process and in chemical composition.

The chemical difference is the addition of nickel oxyhydroxide to the manganese dioxide and
graphite for the cathode. This results in an unloaded voltage of 1.7 V DC per cell. The cells
sustain a higher average voltage during discharge compared to alkaline batteries. This may cause
a false indication in equipment that monitors battery voltage as an indication of remaining
operating time.[1]

Finer grained graphite in the cathode and a vacuum pouring process that inserts a higher quantity
of electrolyte in the cell are used during the manufacturing of the nickel oxyhydroxide cells.[2]
References

1.

 http://shure.custhelp.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/3276/~/using-the-panasonic-oxyride-batteries-
with-uhf-r-wireless An example of an equipment manufacturer testing nickel oxyhydroxide batteries.

2.  Katerina E. Aifantis, Stephen Andrew Hackney, Stephen A. Hackney, R. Vasant Kumar (ed) High
Energy Density Lithium Batteries: Materials, Engineering, Applications, Wiley-VCH, 2010 ISBN 3-
527-32407-0 page 49

External links

 Can a New Disposable Battery Change Your Life? Parts of It, Maybe by David Pogue
 New Consumer Primary Battery Chemistry Introduced after a 40-year Dryspell
 Panasonic Oxyride Editorial Review - The Revolution in Battery Power

[hide]

 v
 t
 e

Galvanic cells

 Voltaic pile
 Battery
o Flow battery
Types o Trough battery
 Concentration cell
 Fuel cell
 Thermogalvanic cell

 Alkaline
 Aluminium–air
 Bunsen
Primary cell  Chromic acid
(non-  Clark
rechargable)  Daniell
 Dry
 Edison-Lalande
 Grove
  Leclanché
 Lithium
 Mercury
 Nickel oxyhydroxide
 Silicon–air
 Silver oxide
 Weston
 Zamboni
 Zinc–air
 Zinc–carbon

 Automotive
 Lead–acid
o gel / VRLA
 Lithium–air
 Lithium–ion
o Lithium polymer
o Lithium iron phosphate
o Lithium titanate
o Lithium–sulfur
o Dual carbon battery
 Molten salt
 Nanopore
Secondary  Nanowire
cell  Nickel–cadmium
(rechargeable)  Nickel–hydrogen
 Nickel–iron
 Nickel–lithium
 Nickel–metal hydride
 Nickel–zinc
 Polysulfide bromide
 Potassium-ion
 Rechargeable alkaline
 Sodium-ion
 Sodium–sulfur
 Vanadium redox
 Zinc–bromine
 Zinc–cerium

 Anode
Cell parts  Binder
 Catalyst
  Cathode
 Electrode
 Electrolyte
 Half-cell
 Ions
 Salt bridge
 Semipermeable membrane

Categories:

 Disposable batteries

Lithium battery
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about disposable lithium batteries. It is not to be confused with Lithium-ion battery.

CR2032 lithium button cell battery

Lithium 9 volt, AA, and AAA sizes. The top unit has three lithium-manganese dioxide cells internally, the
bottom two are lithium-iron disulfide single cells physically and electrically compatible with 1.5 volt zinc
batteries.
Lithium batteries are disposable (primary) batteries that have lithium metal or lithium
compounds as an anode.

They stand apart from other batteries in their high charge density (long life) and high cost per
unit. Depending on the design and chemical compounds used, lithium cells can produce voltages
from 1.5 V (comparable to a zinc–carbon or alkaline battery) to about 3.7 V.

By comparison, lithium-ion batteries are rechargeable batteries in which lithium ions move
between the anode and the cathode, using an intercalated lithium compound as the electrode
material instead of the metallic lithium used in lithium batteries.

Lithium batteries are widely used in products such as portable consumer electronic devices.

Description

The term "lithium battery" refers to a family of different chemistries, comprising many types of
cathodes and electrolytes. The battery requires from 0.15 to 0.3 kg of lithium per kWh.

Diagram of lithium button cell battery with MnO2 (manganese dioxide) at cathode

The most common type of lithium cell used in consumer applications uses metallic lithium as
anode and manganese dioxide as cathode, with a salt of lithium dissolved in an organic solvent.

Disassembled CR2032 battery From left — negative cup from inner side with layer of lithium (oxidized in
air), separator (porous material), cathode (manganese dioxide), metal grid — current collector, metal
casing (+) (damaged while opening the cell), on the bottom is plastic insulation ring
Another type of lithium cell having a large energy density is the lithium-thionyl chloride cell.
Invented by Adam Heller, Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries are generally not sold to the
consumer market, and find more use in commercial/industrial applications, or are installed into
devices where the consumer does not replace them.[citation needed] The cell contains a liquid mixture
of thionyl chloride (SOCl2) and lithium tetrachloroaluminate (LiAlCl
4), which act as the cathode and electrolyte, respectively. A porous carbon material serves as a
cathode current collector which receives electrons from the external circuit. Lithium-thionyl
chloride batteries are well suited to extremely low-current applications where long life is
necessary, such as wireless alarm systems.

Chemistries
Open-
Nominal
Chemistry Cathode Electrolyte circuit Wh/kg Wh/L
voltage
voltage

Lithium perchlorate in
Heat-treated
propylene carbonate and 3V 3.3 V 280 580
manganese dioxide
dimethoxyethane

Li-MnO2 "Li-Mn". The most common consumer-grade lithium battery, about 80% of the lithium
("CR") battery market. Uses inexpensive materials. Suitable for low-drain, long-life, low-cost
applications. High energy density per both mass and volume. Operational temperature
ranges from -30 °C to 60 °C. Can deliver high pulse currents.[1] With discharge, the internal
impedance rises and the terminal voltage decreases. High self-discharge at high
temperatures.

Lithium tetrafluoroborate in
propylene carbonate,
Carbon monofluoride 3V 3.1 V 360–500 1000
dimethoxyethane, or
gamma-butyrolactone

Li-(CF)x Cathode material formed by high-temperature intercalation of fluorine gas into graphite
("BR") powder. Compared to manganese dioxide (CR), which has the same nominal voltage, it
provides more reliability.[1] Used for low to moderate current applications in memory and
clock backup batteries. Used in aerospace applications, qualified for space since 1976,
military applications both terrestrial and marine, in missiles, and in artificial cardiac
pacemakers.[2] Operates up to around 80 °C. Very low self-discharge (<0.5%/year at 60 °C,
<1%/yr at 85 °C). Developed in the 1970s by Matsushita.[3]

Propylene carbonate,
Iron disulfide 1.4–1.6 V 1.8 V 297
dioxolane, dimethoxyethane
Li-FeS2
("FR") "Lithium-iron", "Li/Fe". Called "voltage-compatible" lithium, because it can work as a
replacement for alkaline batteries with its 1.5 V nominal voltage. As such, Energizer lithium
cells of AA[4] and AAA size employ this chemistry. 2.5 times higher lifetime for high current
discharge regime than alkaline batteries, better storage life due to lower self-discharge,
 10–20 years storage time. FeS2 is cheap. Cathode often designed as a paste of iron sulfide
powder mixed with powdered graphite. Variant is Li-CuFeS2.

Lithium
Thionyl chloride tetrachloroaluminate in 3.5 V 3.65 V 500–700 1200
thionyl chloride

Liquid cathode. For low temperature applications. Can operate down to −55 °C, where it
retains over 50% of its rated capacity. Negligible amount of gas generated in nominal use,
limited amount under abuse. Has relatively high internal impedance and limited short-
Li-SOCl2 circuit current. High energy density, about 500 Wh/kg. Toxic. Electrolyte reacts with water.
Low-current cells used for portable electronics and memory backup. High-current cells
used in military applications. In long storage, forms passivation layer on anode, which may
lead to temporary voltage delay when put into service. High cost and safety concerns limit
use in civilian applications. Can explode when shorted. Underwriters Laboratories require
trained technician for replacement of these batteries. Hazardous waste, Class 9 Hazmat
shipment.[5]

Lithium
Thionyl chloride with
tetrachloroaluminate in 3.7–3.8 V 3.9 V 350 770
bromine chloride
Li- thionyl chloride
SOCl2,BrCl, Liquid cathode. A variant of the thionyl chloride battery, with 300 mV higher voltage. The
Li-BCX higher voltage drops back to 3.5 V soon as the bromine chloride gets consumed during the
first 10–20% of discharge. The cells with added bromine chloride are thought to be safer
when abused.

Sulfuryl chloride 3.7 V 3.95 V 330 720

Liquid cathode. Similar to thionyl chloride. Discharge does not result in build-up of
elemental sulfur, which is thought to be involved in some hazardous reactions, therefore
sulfuryl chloride batteries may be safer. Commercial deployment hindered by tendency of
Li-SO2Cl2 the electrolyte to corrode the lithium anodes, reducing the shelf life. Chlorine is added to
some cells to make them more resistant to abuse. Sulfuryl chloride cells give less
maximum current than thionyl chloride ones, due to polarization of the carbon cathode.
Sulfuryl chloride reacts violently with water, releasing hydrogen chloride and sulfuric
acid.[6]

Lithium bromide in sulfur

Sulfur dioxide on
dioxide with small amount of 2.85 V 3.0 V 250 400
teflon-bonded carbon
acetonitrile
Li-SO2
Liquid cathode. Can operate down to −55 °C and up to +70 °C. Contains liquid SO2 at high
pressure. Requires safety vent, can explode in some conditions. High energy density. High
cost. At low temperatures and high currents, performs better than Li-MnO2. Toxic.
 Acetonitrile forms lithium cyanide, and can form hydrogen cyanide in high temperatures.[7]
Used in military applications.

Addition of bromine monochloride can boost the voltage to 3.9 V and increase
energy density.[8]
Iodine that has been
A solid monomolecular layer
mixed and heated
of crystalline Lithium iodide
with poly-2-
that conducts lithium ions
vinylpyridine (P2VP) to 2.8 V 3.1 V
from the anode to the
form a solid organic
cathode but does not
charge transfer
Li-I2 conduct Iodine.[9]
complex.

Solid electrolyte. Very high reliability and low self discharge rate. Used in medical
applications that need a long life, e.g. pacemakers. Does not generate gas even under
short circuit. Solid-state chemistry, limited short-circuit current, suitable only for low-
current applications. Terminal voltage decreases with degree of discharge due to
precipitation of lithium iodide.

Silver chromate Lithium perchlorate solution 3.1/2.6 V 3.45 V

Li-Ag2CrO4 Very high reliability. Has a 2.6 V plateau after reaching certain percentage of discharge,
provides early warning of impending discharge. Developed specifically for medical
applications, for example, implanted pacemakers.

lithium hexafluorophosphate
or lithium
Silver oxide+vanadium
hexafluoroarsenate in
pentoxide (SVO)
propylene carbonate with
Li-Ag2V4O11, dimethoxyethane
Li-SVO, Li-
CSVO Used in medical applications, like implantable defibrillators, neurostimulators, and drug
infusion systems. Also projected for use in other electronics, such as emergency locator
transmitters. High energy density. Long shelf life. Capable of continuous operation at
nominal temperature of 37 °C.[10] Two-stage discharge with a plateau. Output voltage
decreasing proportionally to the degree of discharge. Resistant to abuse.

Lithium Perchlorate
Copper(II) oxide 1.5 V 2.4 V
dissolved in Dioxolane

Li-CuO Can operate up to 150 °C. Developed as a replacement of zinc-carbon and alkaline
batteries. "Voltage up" problem, high difference between open-circuit and nominal
voltage. Produced until the mid-1990s, replaced by lithium-iron sulfide. Current use
limited.
Li- Copper oxyphosphate
Cu4O(PO4)2
See Li-CuO

Li-CuS Copper sulfide 1.5 V

Lead sulfide and

Li-PbCuS 1.5 V 2.2 V
copper sulfide

Propylene carbonate,
Iron sulfide 1.5–1.2 V
dioxolane, dimethoxyethane
Li-FeS
"Lithium-iron", "Li/Fe". used as a replacement for alkaline batteries. See lithium-iron
disulfide.

Lead bismuthate 1.5 V 1.8 V

Li-Bi2Pb2O5 Replacement of silver-oxide batteries, with higher energy density, lower tendency to leak,
and better performance at higher temperatures.

Li-Bi2O3 Bismuth trioxide 1.5 V 2.04 V

Vanadium pentoxide 3.3/2.4 V 3.4 V 120/260 300/660

Li-V2O5
Two discharge plateaus. Low-pressure. Rechargeable. Used in reserve batteries.

Li-CoO2 Lithium cobalt oxide

Lithium nickel cobalt

Li-NiCoO2
oxide

LiAlCl4 or LiGaCl4 in SO2, a

Copper chloride liquid, inorganic, non-
aqueous electrolyte.
Li-CuCl2 Rechargeable. This cell has three voltage plateaus as it discharges (3.3 V, 2.9 V and
2.5 V).[11] Discharging below the first plateau reduces the life of the cell.[11] The complex
salt dissolved in SO2 has a lower vapor pressure at room temperature than pure sulfur
dioxide,[12] making the construction simpler and safer than Li-SO2 batteries.

Manganese dioxide 3 V[13]

Li/Al-MnO2
Rechargeable. Also known as ML type.

Vanadium pentoxide 3 V[14]

Li/Al-V2O5
Rechargeable. Also known as VL type.
 Organic, aqueous, glass-
1800– 1600–
Porous carbon ceramic (polymer-ceramic
Li–air 660 [15] 600 [15]
composites)
(Lithium–
air battery) Rechargeable. No commercial implementation is available as of 2012 due to difficulties in
achieving multiple discharge cycles without losing capacity.[15] There are multiple possible
implementations, each having different energy capacities, advantages and disadvantages.

The liquid organic electrolyte is a solution of an ion-forming inorganic lithium compound in a

mixture of a high-permittivity solvent (propylene carbonate) and a low-viscosity solvent
(dimethoxyethane).

Applications

Lithium batteries find application in many long-life, critical devices, such as pacemakers and
other implantable electronic medical devices. These devices use specialized lithium-iodide
batteries designed to last 15 or more years. But for other, less critical applications such as in toys,
the lithium battery may actually outlast the device. In such cases, an expensive lithium battery
may not be cost-effective.

Lithium batteries can be used in place of ordinary alkaline cells in many devices, such as clocks
and cameras. Although they are more costly, lithium cells will provide much longer life, thereby
minimizing battery replacement. However, attention must be given to the higher voltage
developed by the lithium cells before using them as a drop-in replacement in devices that
normally use ordinary zinc cells.

Lithium batteries also prove valuable in oceanographic applications. While lithium battery packs
are considerably more expensive than standard oceanographic packs, they hold up to three times
the capacity of alkaline packs. The high cost of servicing remote oceanographic instrumentation
(usually by ships) often justifies this higher cost.

Sizes and formats

See also: Button cell, Battery nomenclature and List of battery sizes
Small lithium batteries are very commonly used in small, portable electronic devices, such as
PDAs, watches, camcorders, digital cameras, thermometers, calculators, laptop BIOS,[16]
communication equipment and remote car locks. They are available in many shapes and sizes,
with a common variety being the 3 volt "coin" type manganese variety, typically 20 mm in
diameter and 1.6–4 mm thick.

The heavy electrical demands of many of these devices make lithium batteries a particularly
attractive option. In particular, lithium batteries can easily support the brief, heavy current
demands of devices such as digital cameras, and they maintain a higher voltage for a longer
period than alkaline cells.

Popularity

Lithium primary batteries account for 28% of all primary battery sales in Japan but only 1% of
all battery sales in Switzerland. In the EU only 0.5% of all battery sales including secondary
types are lithium primaries.[17][18][19][20]

Safety issues and regulation

The computer industry's drive to increase battery capacity can test the limits of sensitive
components such as the membrane separator, a polyethylene or polypropylene film that is only
20-25 µm thick. The energy density of lithium batteries has more than doubled since they were
introduced in 1991. When the battery is made to contain more material, the separator can
undergo stress.

Rapid-discharge problems

Lithium batteries can provide extremely high currents and can discharge very rapidly when
short-circuited. Although this is useful in applications where high currents are required, a too-
rapid discharge of a lithium battery can result in overheating of the battery, rupture, and even
explosion. Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries are particularly susceptible to this type of
discharge. Consumer batteries usually incorporate overcurrent or thermal protection or vents to
prevent explosion.

Air travel

From January 1, 2013 much stricter regulations for the carriage of Lithium batteries were
introduced by IATA regarding the carriage of lithium batteries by air. They were adopted by the
International Postal Union; however, some countries, e.g. the UK, have decided that they will not
accept Lithium batteries unless they are included with the equipment they power.

Because of the above risks, shipping and carriage of lithium batteries is restricted in some
situations, particularly transport of lithium batteries by air.

The United States Transportation Security Administration announced restrictions effective

January 1, 2008 on lithium batteries in checked and carry-on luggage. The rules forbid lithium
batteries not installed in a device from checked luggage and restrict them in carry-on luggage by
total lithium content.[21]

Australia Post prohibited transport of lithium batteries in air mail during 2010.[22]

UK regulations for the transport of lithium batteries were amended by the National Chemical
Emergency Centre in 2009.[23]

In late 2009, at least some postal administrations restricted airmail shipping (including Express
Mail Service) of lithium batteries, lithium-ion batteries and products containing these (such as
laptops and cell phones). Among these countries are Hong Kong, USA, and Japan.[24][25][26]

Lithium batteries and methamphetamine labs

Unused lithium batteries provide a convenient source of lithium metal for use as a reducing agent
in methamphetamine labs. Some jurisdictions have passed laws to restrict lithium battery sales or
asked businesses to make voluntary restrictions in an attempt to help curb the creation of illegal
meth labs. In 2004 Wal-Mart stores were reported to limit the sale of disposable lithium batteries
to three packages in Missouri and four packages in other states.[27]

Health issues on ingestion

Button cell batteries are attractive to small children and often ingested. In the past 20 years,
although there has not been an increase in the total number of button cell batteries ingested in a
year, researchers have noted a 6.7-fold increase in the risk that an ingestion would result in a
moderate or major complication.[28]

The primary mechanism of injury with button battery ingestions is the generation of hydroxide
ions, which cause severe chemical burns, at the anode. This is an electrochemical effect of the
intact battery, and does not require the casing to be breached or the contents released.
Complications include oesophageal strictures, Tracheo-oesophageal fistulas, vocal cord
paralysis, aorto-oesophageal fistulas, and death.[29] The majority of ingestions are not witnessed;
presentations are non-specific; battery voltage has increased; the 20 to 25 mm button battery size
are more likely to become lodged at the cricopharyngeal junction; and severe tissue damage can
occur within 2 hours. The 3 V, 20 mm CR2032 lithium battery has been implicated in many of
the complications from button battery ingestions by children of less than 4 years of age.[30]
Button batteries can also cause significant necrotic injury when stuck in the nose or ears.[31]

Disposal

Regulations for disposal and recycling of batteries vary widely; local governments may have
additional requirements over those of national regulations. In the United States, one
manufacturer of lithium iron disulfide primary batteries advises that consumer quantities of used
cells may be discarded in municipal waste, as the battery does not contain any substances
controlled by US Federal regulations.[32] Another manufacturer states that "button" size lithium
batteries contain perchlorate, which is regulated as a hazardous waste in California; regulated
quantities would not be found in typical consumer use of these cells.[33]

As lithium in used but non working (ie extended storage) button cells is still likely to be in the
cathode cup, it is possible to extract commercially useful quantities of the metal from such cells
as well as the manganese dioxide and specialist plastics. From experiment the usual failure mode
is that they will read 3.2V or above but be unable to generate useful current (<5mA versus
>40mA for a good new cell) Some also alloy the lithium with magnesium (Mg) to cut costs and
these are particularly prone to the mentioned failure mode.

Latest technology: lithium-air batteries

In November 2015, a team of University of Cambridge researchers announced the creation of a

new battery technology capable of prolonging the battery life and battery efficiency by inventing
a lithium-oxygen battery that uses graphene electrodes to offer high-density, more than 90%
efficiency, and can be recharged for up to 2,000 times. The lithium-air batteries are described as
the “ultimate” batteries because they propose a high theoretical energy density of up to ten times
the energy offered by regular lithium-ion batteries. The technology, however, as of November
2015, will not be immediately available in any industry and it could take up to 10 years for
lithium-air batteries to equip devices.[34] The immediate challenge facing scientists involved in
its invention is that the battery needs a special porous graphene electrode, among other chemical
components, and a narrow voltage gap between charge and discharge to significantly increase
efficiency.
Rechargeable battery
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A battery bank used for an uninterruptible power supply in a data center

A rechargeable lithium polymer mobile phone battery

A common consumer battery charger for rechargeable AA and AAA batteries

A rechargeable battery, storage battery, secondary cell, or accumulator is a type of electrical
battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, while a non-
rechargeable or primary battery is supplied fully charged, and discarded once discharged. It is
composed of one or more electrochemical cells. The term "accumulator" is used as it
accumulates and stores energy through a reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable
batteries are produced in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt
systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations
of electrode materials and electrolytes are used, including lead–acid, nickel cadmium (NiCd),
nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).

Rechargeable batteries initially cost more than disposable batteries, but have a much lower total
cost of ownership and environmental impact, as they can be recharged inexpensively many times
before they need replacing. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes and
voltages as disposable types, and can be used interchangeably with them.

Contents

 1 Usage and applications

 2 Charging and discharging
o 2.1 Damage from cell reversal
o 2.2 Damage during storage in fully discharged state
o 2.3 Depth of discharge
o 2.4 Lifespan
 3 Active components
 4 Types
o 4.1 Common types
o 4.2 Experimental types
 5 Alternatives
 6 See also
 7 References
 8 Further reading
 9 External links

Usage and applications

Rechargeable batteries are used for automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light vehicles
(such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools, and
uninterruptible power supplies. Emerging applications in hybrid internal combustion-battery and
electric vehicles are driving the technology to reduce cost, weight, and size, and increase
lifetime.[1]

Older rechargeable batteries self-discharge relatively rapidly, and have to be charged before first
use; some newer low self-discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months, and are
typically sold factory-charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.
Grid energy storage applications use rechargeable batteries for load-leveling, storing electric
energy at times of low demand for use during peak periods, and for renewable energy uses, such
as storing power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night. Load-
leveling reduces the maximum power which a plant must be able to generate, reducing capital
cost and the need for peaking power plants.

The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association estimated in 2006 that US demand for
rechargeable batteries was growing twice as fast as demand for disposables.[2]

Small rechargeable batteries are used to power portable electronic devices, power tools,
appliances, and so on. Heavy-duty batteries are used to power electric vehicles, ranging from
scooters to locomotives and ships. They are used in distributed electricity generation and stand-
alone power systems.

Charging and discharging

A solar-powered charger for rechargeable AA batteries

Further information: Battery charger

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative
material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the
external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow between the
electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the
electrochemical reaction, as in lead–acid cells.

The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using AC
mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power outlet.
Regardless, to store energy in a secondary cell, it has to be connected to a DC voltage source.
The negative terminal of the cell has to be connected to the negative terminal of the voltage
source and the positive terminal of the voltage source with the positive terminal of the battery.
Further, the voltage output of the source must be higher than that of the battery, but not much
higher: the greater the difference between the power source and the battery's voltage capacity,
the faster the charging process, but also the greater the risk of overcharging and damaging the
battery.
Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers
without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14
hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five
hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers
must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal
voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs.
The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating.

Diagram of the charging of a secondary cell battery.

Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a "C" rate of current.
The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour. For
example, trickle charging might be performed at C/20 (or a "20 hour" rate), while typical
charging and discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The available capacity
of electrochemical cells varies depending on the discharge rate. Some energy is lost in the
internal resistance of cell components (plates, electrolyte, interconnections), and the rate of
discharge is limited by the speed at which chemicals in the cell can move about. For lead-acid
cells, the relationship between time and discharge rate is described by Peukert's law; a lead-acid
cell that can no longer sustain a usable terminal voltage at a high current may still have usable
capacity, if discharged at a much lower rate. Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the
discharge capacity on 8-hour or 20-hour or other stated time; cells for uninterruptible power
supply systems may be rated at 15 minute discharge.

Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to voltage per cell (VPC) for the individual
cells that make up the battery. For example, to charge a 12 V lead-acid battery (containing 6 cells
of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.

Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinc–carbon cells output 1.5V when new, but this voltage drops
with use. Most NiMH AA and AAA cells are rated at 1.2 V, but have a flatter discharge curve
than alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline batteries.
Damage from cell reversal

Subjecting a discharged cell to a current in the direction which tends to discharge it further to the
point the positive and negative terminals switch polarity causes a condition called cell reversal.
Generally, pushing current through a discharged cell in this way causes undesirable and
irreversible chemical reactions to occur, resulting in permanent damage to the cell. Cell reversal
can occur under a number of circumstances, the two most common being:

 When a battery or cell is connected to a charging circuit the wrong way around.
 When a battery made of several cells connected in series is deeply discharged.

In the latter case, the problem occurs due to the different cells in a battery having slightly
different capacities. When one cell reaches discharge level ahead of the rest, the remaining cells
will force the current through the discharged cell.

Many battery-operated devices have a low-voltage cutoff that prevents deep discharges from
occurring that might cause cell reversal.

Cell reversal can occur to a weakly charged cell even before it is fully discharged. If the battery
drain current is high enough, the cell's internal resistance can create a resistive voltage drop that
is greater than the cell's forward emf. This results in the reversal of the cell's polarity while the
current is flowing.[3][4] The higher the required discharge rate of a battery, the better matched the
cells should be, both in the type of cell and state of charge, in order to reduce the chances of cell
reversal.

In some situations, such as when correcting Ni-Cad batteries that have been previously
overcharged,[5] it may be desirable to fully discharge a battery. To avoid damage from the cell
reversal effect, it is necessary to access each cell separately: each cell is individually discharged
by connecting a load clip across the terminals of each cell, thereby avoiding cell reversal.

Damage during storage in fully discharged state

If a multi-cell battery is fully discharged, it will often be damaged due to the cell reversal effect
mentioned above. It is possible however to fully discharge a battery without causing cell
reversal—either by discharging each cell separately, or by allowing each cell's internal leakage to
dissipate its charge over time.

Even if a cell is brought to a fully discharged state without reversal, however, damage may occur
over time simply due to remaining in the discharged state. An example of this is the sulfation that
occurs in lead-acid batteries that are left sitting on a shelf for long periods. For this reason it is
often recommended to charge a battery that is intended to remain in storage, and to maintain its
charge level by periodically recharging it. Since damage may also occur if the battery is
overcharged, the optimal level of charge during storage is typically around 30% to 70%.

Depth of discharge
Main article: Depth of discharge
Depth of discharge (DOD) is normally stated as a percentage of the nominal ampere-hour
capacity; 0% DOD means no discharge. Seeing as the usable capacity of a battery system
depends on the rate of discharge and the allowable voltage at the end of discharge, the depth of
discharge must be qualified to show the way it is to be measured. Due to variations during
manufacture and aging, the DOD for complete discharge can change over time or number of
charge cycles. Generally a rechargeable battery system will tolerate more charge/discharge
cycles if the DOD is lower on each cycle.[6]

Lifespan

If batteries are used repeatedly even without mistreatment, they lose capacity as the number of
charge cycles increases, until they are eventually considered to have reached the end of their
useful life. Many commonly-used types of rechargeable batteries are specified to last between
400 and 1,000 full charge-discharge cycles.

Active components

The active components in a secondary cell are the chemicals that make up the positive and
negative active materials, and the electrolyte. The positive and negative are made up of different
materials, with the positive exhibiting a reduction potential and the negative having an oxidation
potential. The sum of these potentials is the standard cell potential or voltage.

In primary cells the positive and negative electrodes are known as the cathode and anode,
respectively. Although this convention is sometimes carried through to rechargeable systems—
especially with lithium-ion cells, because of their origins in primary lithium cells—this practice
can lead to confusion. In rechargeable cells the positive electrode is the cathode on discharge and
the anode on charge, and vice versa for the negative electrode.

Types
See also: List of battery types

Voltage Self-
a Energy densityb Powerc E/$e Cyclesg Lifeh
disch.f
Type
(MJ/kg (Wh/kg (Wh/L (Wh/$ (%/mont
(V) (W/kg) (#) (years)
) ) ) ) h)

5-8
0.11- (automotive
Lead–acid 2.1 30-40 60-75 180 5-8 3-4% 500-800
0.14 battery), 20
(stationary)

Alkaline 1.5 0.31 85 250 50 7.7 <0.3 100-1000 <5

0.07– 19– 5-
Nickel–iron 1.2 100 20-40% 50+
0.09[7] 25[7] 7.3[8]
 Voltage Self-
a Energy densityb Powerc E/$e Cyclesg Lifeh
disch.f
Type
(MJ/kg (Wh/kg (Wh/L (Wh/$ (%/mont
(V) (W/kg) (#) (years)
) ) ) ) h)

0.14- 50- 1.25-

Nickel–cadmium 1.2 40-60 150 20% 1500
0.22 150 2.5[8]

15+ (satellite
application
with
Nickel–hydrogen 1.5 0.27 75 60 220 20,000+ frequent
charge-
discharge
cycles)

Nickel–metal 0.11- 140-

1.2 30-80 250-1000 2.75 30% 500-1000
hydride 0.29 300

Nickel–zinc 1.7 0.22 60 170 900 2-3.3 100-500

Lithium cobalt 150- 250- 2.8- 400–

3.6 0.58 1800 5-10% 2-6
oxide 250 360 5[9] 1200[10]

Lithium-ion 0.47- 130- 2.8- 500~100

3.7 300 3000+ 5% 2-3
polymer 0.72 200 5.0 0

8.000
100%
Lithium iron 0.32- 3.0- DOD to
3.25 80-120 170‡ 1400 >10
phosphate 0.4 24[11] 74%
capacity[1
2]

0.94-
Lithium sulfur[13] 2.0 400[15] 350 ~1400[16]
1.44[14]

0.5-
Lithium–titanate 2.3 0.32 90 4000+ 9000+ 20+
1.0‡

Sodium-ion[17] 1.7 30 3.3 5000+ Testing

Thin film lithium ? 300[18] 959[18] 6000[18] ?p[18] 40000[18]

0.27-
Zinc-bromide 75-85
0.31
 Voltage Self-
a Energy densityb Powerc E/$e Cyclesg Lifeh
disch.f
Type
(MJ/kg (Wh/kg (Wh/L (Wh/$ (%/mont
(V) (W/kg) (#) (years)
) ) ) ) h)

Under
Zinc-cerium 2.5[19]
testing

10
1.15- 0.09- 25-
Vanadium redox 20%[21] 14,000[22] (stationary)[2
1.55 0.13 35[20] 1]

Sodium-sulfur 0.54 150

0.25- 70- [8] 4.54[24

Molten salt 2.58 [23] 160 150-220 ] 3000+ <=20
1.04 290

Silver-zinc 1.86 0.47 130 240

Quantum Battery
(oxide 8000(W/
1.5-3 500 100,000
semiconductor)[25][ L)
26]

‡ citations are needed for these parameters

Notes

 a
Nominal cell voltage in V.

Graph of mass and volume energy densities of several secondary cells (by direction:
down=heavier,up=lighter,right=powerful,left=weaker)
  b
Energy density = energy/weight or energy/size, given in three different units
 c
Specific power = power/weight in W/kg
 e
Energy/consumer price in W·h/US$ (approximately)
 f
Self-discharge rate in %/month
 g
Cycle durability in number of cycles
 h
Time durability in years
 i
VRLA or recombinant includes gel batteries and absorbed glass mats
 p
Pilot production

Common types

The lead–acid battery, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, is the oldest type of
rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-
volume ratio, its ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have a relatively large
power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with the low cost, makes it attractive for use in
motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors.

The nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd) was invented by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden in 1899. It
uses nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. Cadmium is a toxic element,
and was banned for most uses by the European Union in 2004. Nickel–cadmium batteries have
been almost completely superseded by nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) batteries.

The nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH) became available in 1989.[27] These are now a
common consumer and industrial type. The battery has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the
negative electrode instead of cadmium.

The lithium-ion battery was introduced in the market in 1991, and in is the choice in most
consumer electronics and have the best energy density and a very slow loss of charge when not
in use.

Lithium-ion polymer batteries are light in weight, offer slightly higher energy density than Li-ion
at slightly higher cost, and can be made in any shape. They are available[28] but have not
displaced Li-ion in the market.

Experimental types

The lithium–sulfur battery was developed by Sion Power in 1994.[29] The company claims
superior energy density to other lithium technologies.[30]

The thin film battery (TFB) is a refinement of lithium ion technology by Excellatron.[31] The
developers claim a large increase in recharge cycles to around 40,000 and higher charge and
discharge rates, at least 5 C charge rate. Sustained 60 C discharge and 1000C peak discharge rate
and a significant increase in specific energy, and energy density.[32] Infinite Power Solutions
makes TFB for microelectronic applications.[33]
A smart battery has voltage monitoring circuit built inside. Carbon foam-based lead acid battery:
Firefly Energy developed a carbon foam-based lead acid battery with a reported energy density
of 30-40% more than their original 38 Wh/kg,[34] with long life and very high power density.

UltraBattery, a hybrid lead-acid battery and ultracapacitor invented by Australia’s national

science organisation CSIRO, exhibits tens of thousands of partial state of charge cycles and has
outperformed traditional lead-acid, lithium and NiMH-based cells when compared in testing in
this mode against variability management power profiles.[35] UltraBattery has kW and MW-scale
installations in place in Australia, Japan and the U.S.A. It has also been subjected to extensive
testing in hybrid electric vehicles and has been shown to last more than 100,000 vehicle miles in
on-road commercial testing in a courier vehicle. The technology is claimed to have a lifetime of
7 to 10 times that of conventional lead-acid batteries in high rate partial state-of-charge use, with
safety and environmental benefits claimed over competitors like lithium-ion. Its manufacturer
suggests an almost 100% recycling rate is already in place for the product.

The potassium-ion battery delivers around a million cycles, due to the extraordinary
electrochemical stability of potassium insertion/extraction materials such as Prussian blue.

The sodium-ion battery is meant for stationary storage and competes with lead–acid batteries. It
aims at a low total cost of ownership per kWh of storage. This is achieved by a long and stable
lifetime. The effective number of cycles is above 5000 and the battery is not damaged by deep
discharge. The energy density is rather low, somewhat lower than lead–acid.[citation needed]

The quantum battery (oxide semiconductor) was developed by MJC. It is a small, lightweight
cell with a multi-layer film structure and high energy and high power density. It is
incombustible, has no electrolyte and generates a low amount of heat during charge. Its unique
feature is its ability to capture electrons physically rather than chemically.[36]

In 2007, Yi Cui and colleagues at Stanford University's Department of Materials Science and
Engineering discovered that using silicon nanowires as the anode of a lithium-ion battery
increases the anode's volumetric charge density by up to a factor of 10, leading to the
development of the nanowire battery.[37]

Another development is the paper-thin flexible self-rechargeable battery combining a thin-film

organic solar cell with an extremely thin and highly flexible lithium-polymer battery, which
recharges itself when exposed to light.[38]

Ceramatec, a research and development unit of CoorsTek, as of 2009 was testing a battery
comprising a chunk of solid sodium metal mated to a sulfur compound by a paper-thin ceramic
membrane which conducts ions back and forth to generate a current. The company claimed that
it could fit about 40 kilowatt hours of energy into a package about the size of a refrigerator, and
operate below 90 °C; and that their battery would allow about 3,650 discharge/recharge cycles
(or roughly 1 per day for one decade).[39]

Battery electrodes can be microscopically viewed while bathed in wet electrolytes, resembling
conditions inside operating batteries.[40]
In 2014, an Israeli company, StoreDot, claimed to be able to charge batteries in 30
seconds.[41][42][43]

Alternatives

A rechargeable battery is only one of several types of rechargeable energy storage systems.[44]
Several alternatives to rechargeable batteries exist or are under development. For uses such as
portable radios, rechargeable batteries may be replaced by clockwork mechanisms which are
wound up by hand, driving dynamos, although this system may be used to charge a battery rather
than to operate the radio directly. Flashlights may be driven by a dynamo directly. For
transportation, uninterruptible power supply systems and laboratories, flywheel energy storage
systems store energy in a spinning rotor for conversion to electric power when needed; such
systems may be used to provide large pulses of power that would otherwise be objectionable on a
common electrical grid.

Ultracapacitors—capacitors of extremely high value— are also used; an electric screwdriver

which charges in 90 seconds and will drive about half as many screws as a device using a
rechargeable battery was introduced in 2007,[45] and similar flashlights have been produced. In
keeping with the concept of ultracapacitors, betavoltaic batteries may be utilized as a method of
providing a trickle-charge to a secondary battery, greatly extending the life and energy capacity
of the battery system being employed; this type of arrangement is often referred to as a "hybrid
betavoltaic power source" by those in the industry.[46]

Ultracapacitors are being developed for transportation, using a large capacitor to store energy
instead of the rechargeable battery banks used in hybrid vehicles. One drawback of capacitors
compared to batteries is that the terminal voltage drops rapidly; a capacitor that has 25% of its
initial energy left in it will have one-half of its initial voltage. By contrast, battery systems tend
to have a terminal voltage that does not decline rapidly until nearly exhausted. The undesirable
characteristic complicates the design of power electronics for use with ultracapacitors. However,
there are potential benefits in cycle efficiency, lifetime, and weight compared with rechargeable
systems. China started using ultracapacitors on two commercial bus routes in 2006; one of them
is route 11 in Shanghai.[47]

Flow batteries, used for specialized applications, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte
liquid. A flow battery can be considered to be a type of rechargeable fuel cell.

Nickel–metal hydride battery

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"NiMH" redirects here. For other uses, see NIMH.

Not to be confused with nickel–hydrogen battery.

Nickel–metal hydride battery

Modern NiMH rechargeable cells

Energy density 140–300 Wh/L

Specific power 250–1,000 W/kg

Charge/discharge
66%[1]
efficiency

13.9–70.6% at room
temperature
36.4–97.8% at 45 °C
Self-discharge rate
Low self-discharge: 1.3–2.9%
at 20 °C
(per month)

Cycle durability 500–2000[2] cycles

Nominal cell voltage 1.2 V

A nickel–metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH or Ni–MH, is a type of rechargeable

battery. The chemical reaction at the positive electrode is similar to that of the nickel–cadmium
cell (NiCd), with both using nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH). However, the negative electrodes
use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy instead of cadmium. A NiMH battery can have two to three
times the capacity of an equivalent size NiCd, and its energy density can approach that of a
lithium-ion battery.
History

Disassembled NiMH AA battery:

1. Positive terminal
2. Outer metal casing (also negative terminal)
3. Positive electrode
4. Negative electrode with current collector (metal grid, connected to metal casing)
5. Separator (between electrodes)

See also: History of the battery

Work on NiMH batteries began at the Battelle-Geneva Research Center following the
technology's invention in 1967. It was based on sintered Ti2Ni+TiNi+x alloys and NiOOH-
electrodes.[clarification needed] Development was sponsored over nearly two decades by Daimler-Benz
and by Volkswagen AG within Deutsche Automobilgesellschaft, now a subsidiary of Daimler
AG. The batteries' specific energy reached 50 W·h/kg (180 kJ/kg), power density up to 1000
W/kg and a life of 500 charge cycles (at 100% depth of discharge). Patent applications were filed
in European countries (priority: Switzerland), the United States, and Japan. The patents
transferred to Daimler-Benz.[3]

Interest grew in the 1970s with the commercialisation of the nickel–hydrogen battery for satellite
applications. Hydride technology promised an alternative, less bulky way to store the hydrogen.
Research carried out by Philips Laboratories and France's CNRS developed new high-energy
hybrid alloys incorporating rare earth metals for the negative electrode. However, these suffered
from alloy instability in alkaline electrolyte and consequently insufficient cycle life. In 1987,
Willems and Buschow demonstrated a successful battery based on this approach (using a mixture
of La0.8Nd0.2Ni2.5Co2.4Si0.1) which kept 84% of its charge capacity after 4000 charge–discharge
cycles. More economically viable alloys using mischmetal instead of lanthanum were soon
developed. Modern NiMH cells were based on this design.[4] The first consumer grade NiMH
cells became commercially available in 1989.[5]

In 1998, Ovonic Battery Co. improved the Ti–Ni alloy structure and composition and patented its
innovations.[6]

In 2008, more than two million hybrid cars worldwide were manufactured with NiMH
batteries.[7]
In the European Union and due to its Battery Directive, nickel–metal hydride batteries replaced
Ni–Cd batteries for portable consumer use.[8]

About 22% of portable rechargeable batteries sold in Japan in 2010 were NiMH.[9] In
Switzerland in 2009, the equivalent statistic was approximately 60%.[10] This percentage has
fallen over time due to the increase in manufacture of lithium-ion batteries: in 2000, almost half
of all portable rechargeable batteries sold in Japan were NiMH.[9]

In 2015 BASF produced a modified microstructure that helped make NiMH batteries more
durable, in turn allowing changes to the cell design that saved considerable weight, allowing the
gravimetric energy density to reach 140 watt-hours per kilogram.[11]

Electrochemistry
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July
2015)

The negative electrode reaction occurring in a NiMH cell is:

H2O + M + e− OH− + MH

The charge reaction is read left-to-right and the discharge reaction is read right-to-left.

On the positive electrode, nickel oxyhydroxide, NiO(OH), is formed:

Ni(OH)2 + OH− NiO(OH) + H2O + e−

The metal M in the negative electrode of a NiMH cell is an intermetallic compound. Many
different compounds have been developed for this application, but those in current use fall into
two classes. The most common is AB5, where A is a rare earth mixture of lanthanum, cerium,
neodymium, praseodymium and B is nickel, cobalt, manganese, or aluminium. Some cells use
higher-capacity negative electrode materials based on AB2 compounds, where A is titanium or
vanadium and B is zirconium or nickel, modified with chromium, cobalt, iron, or manganese.[12]
Any of these compounds serve the same role, reversibly forming a mixture of metal hydride
compounds.

When overcharged at low rates, oxygen produced at the positive electrode passes through the
separator and recombines at the surface of the negative. Hydrogen evolution is suppressed and
the charging energy is converted to heat. This process allows NiMH cells to remain sealed in
normal operation and to be maintenance-free.

NiMH cells have an alkaline electrolyte, usually potassium hydroxide. The positive electrode is
nickel hydroxide and the negative electrode is hydrogen ions or protons. The hydrogen ions are
stored in a metal hydride structure that is the electrode.[13] For separation hydrophilic polyolefin
nonwovens are used.[14]
Charge

Charging voltage is in the range of 1.4–1.6 V/cell. In general, a constant-voltage charging

method cannot be used for automatic charging. When fast charging, it is advisable to charge the
NiMH cells with a smart battery charger to avoid overcharging, which can damage cells.[15] A
NiCd charger is not a substitute for an automatic NiMH charger.[citation needed]

Trickle charging

The simplest of the safe charging methods is with a fixed low current, with or without a timer.
Most manufacturers claim that overcharging is safe at very low currents, below 0.1 C (C/10)
(where C is the current equivalent to the capacity of the battery divided by one hour).[16] The
Panasonic NiMH charging manual warns that overcharging for long enough can damage a
battery and suggests limiting the total charging time to 10 to 20 hours.[15]

Duracell further suggests that a trickle charge at C/300 can be used for batteries that must be kept
in a fully charged state.[16] Some chargers do this after the charge cycle, to offset natural self-
discharge. A similar approach is suggested by Energizer,[13] which indicates that self-catalysis
can recombine gas formed at the electrodes for charge rates up to C/10. This leads to cell
heating. The company recommends C/30 or C/40 for indefinite applications where long life is
important. This is the approach taken in emergency lighting applications where the design
remains essentially the same as in older NiCd units, except for an increase in the trickle charging
resistor value.[citation needed]

Panasonic's handbook recommends that NiMH batteries on standby be charged by a lower duty
cycle approach, where a pulse of a higher current is used whenever the battery's voltage drops
below 1.3 V. This can extend battery life and use less energy.[15]

ΔV charging method

NiMH charge curve

In order prevent cell damage, fast chargers must terminate their charge cycle before overcharging
occurs. One method is to monitor the change of voltage with time. When the battery is fully
charged the voltage across its terminals drops slightly. The charger can detect this and stop
charging. This method is often used with nickel–cadmium cells which display a large voltage
drop at full charge. However, the voltage drop is much less pronounced for NiMH and can be
non-existent at low charge rates, which can make the approach unreliable.[16]
Another option is to monitor the change of voltage with respect to time and stop when this
becomes zero, but this risks premature cutoffs.[16] With this method, a much higher charging rate
can be used than with a trickle charge, up to 1 C. At this charge rate, Panasonic recommends to
terminate charging when the voltage drops 5–10 mV per cell from the peak voltage.[15] Since this
method measures the voltage across the battery, a constant current (rather than a constant
voltage) charging circuit is used.

ΔT temperature charging method

The temperature change method is similar in principle to the ΔV method. Because the charging
voltage is nearly constant, constant-current charging delivers energy at a near-constant rate.
When the cell is not fully charged, most of this energy is converted to chemical energy.
However, when the cell reaches full charge, most of the charging energy is converted to heat.
This increases the rate of change of battery temperature, which can be detected by a sensor such
as a thermistor. Both Panasonic and Duracell suggest a maximum rate of temperature increase of
1 °C per minute. Using a temperature sensor allows an absolute temperature cutoff, which
Duracell suggests at 60 °C.[16] With both the ΔT and the ΔV charging methods, both
manufacturers recommend a further period of trickle charging to follow the initial rapid
charge.[citation needed]

Safety

NiMH cell that popped its cap due to failed safety valve

A resettable fuse in series with the cell, particularly of the bimetallic strip type, increases safety.
This fuse opens if either the current or the temperature gets too high.[16]

Modern NiMH cells contain catalysts to handle gases produced by over-charging (2 H2 + O2 —

catalyst → 2 H2O). However, this only works with overcharging currents of up to 0.1 C (nominal
capacity divided by ten hours). This reaction causes batteries to heat, ending the charging
process.[16] Some quick chargers have a cooling fan.

A method for very rapid charging called in-cell charge control involves an internal pressure
switch in the cell, which disconnects the charging current in the event of overpressure.
One inherent risk with NiMH chemistry is that overcharging causes hydrogen buildup,
potentially rupturing the cell. Therefore, cells have a vent to release the gas in the event of
serious overcharging.[17]

Nickel metal hydride batteries are made of environmentally friendly materials.[18] The batteries
contain only mild toxins and are recyclable.[13]

Loss of capacity

Memory effect from repeated partial discharge can occur, but is reversible through charge
cycling.[19]

Discharge

A fully charged cell supplies an average 1.25 V/cell during discharge, declining to about 1.0–1.1
V/cell (further discharge may cause permanent damage in the case of multi-cell packs, due to
polarity reversal). Under a light load (0.5 ampere), the starting voltage of a freshly charged AA
NiMH cell in good condition is about 1.4 volts.[20]

Over-discharge

Complete discharge can reverse polarity in one or more cells, which can permanently damage
them. This situation can occur in the common arrangement of four AA cells in series in a digital
camera, where one completely discharges before the others due to small differences in capacity
among the cells. When this happens, the good cells start to drive the discharged cell in reverse.
Some cameras, GPS receivers and PDAs detect the safe end-of-discharge voltage of the series
cells and auto-shutdown, but devices such as flashlights and some toys do not. A single cell
driving a load or a cell connected in parallel to other cells cannot suffer from polarity reversal,
because no other cells are present.[citation needed]

Irreversible damage from polarity reversal is a particular danger, even when a low voltage
threshold cutout is employed, should the cells vary in temperature. This is because capacity
significantly declines as the cells are cooled. This results in a lower voltage under load of the
colder cells.[21]

Self-discharge

NiMH cells historically had a somewhat higher self-discharge rate (equivalent to internal
leakage) than NiCd cells. The self-discharge rate varies greatly with temperature, where lower
storage temperature leads to slower discharge rate and longer battery life. The self-discharge is
5–20% on the first day and stabilizes around 0.5–4% per day at room temperature.[22][23][24][25][26]
But at 45 °C it is approximately three times as high.[16]
Low self-discharge

The low self-discharge nickel–metal hydride battery (LSD NiMH) has a significantly lower
rate of self-discharge. The innovation was introduced in 2005 by Sanyo, under their Eneloop
brand.[27] By using an improved electrode separator and improved positive electrode,
manufacturers claim the cells retain 70% to 85% of their capacity when stored one year at 20 °C
(68 °F), compared to about half for normal NiMH batteries. They are otherwise similar to other
NiMH batteries, and can be charged in the typical chargers. These cells are marketed as "hybrid",
"ready-to-use" or "pre-charged" rechargeables. Retention of charge depends in large part on the
battery's impedance or internal resistance (the lower the better), and on its physical size and
charge capacity.

Separators keep the two electrodes apart to slow electrical discharge while allowing the transport
of ionic charge carriers that close the circuit during the passage of current.[28] High quality
separators are critical for battery performance.

Thick separators are one way to reduce self-discharge, but take up space and reduce capacity;
while thin separators tend to raise the self-discharge rate. Some batteries may have overcome this
tradeoff using thin separators with more precise manufacturing and by using a more advanced
sulfonated polyolefin separator.

Low self-discharge cells have lower capacity than standard NiMH cells because of the
separator's larger volume. The highest-capacity low-self-discharge AA cells have 2000–
2600 mA·h capacity, and AAA 1000 mA·h, compared to 2800 mA·h and 1300 mA·h for high-
capacity AA and AAA NiMH cells.[29]

Compared to other battery types

NiMH cells are often used in digital cameras and other high drain devices, where over the
duration of single charge use they outperform primary (such as alkaline) batteries.

NiMH cells are advantageous for high current drain applications, largely due to their lower
internal resistance. Typical alkaline AA size batteries, which offer approximately 2600 mA·h
capacity at low current demand (25 mA), provide only 1300 mA·h capacity with a 500 mA
load.[30] Digital cameras with LCDs and flashlights can draw over 1000 mA, quickly depleting
them. NiMH cells can deliver these current levels without similar loss of capacity.[13]

Certain devices that were designed to operate using primary alkaline chemistry (or zinc–
carbon/chloride) cells will not function with NiMH cells. However most devices compensate for
the voltage drop of an alkaline battery as it discharges down to about one volt. Low internal
resistance allows NiMH cells to deliver a near-constant voltage until they are almost completely
discharged. Battery level indicators overstate the remaining charge if it was designed to read
alkaline cells. The voltage of alkaline cells decreases steadily during most of the discharge cycle.

Lithium-ion batteries have a higher specific energy than nickel–metal hydride batteries,[31] but
they are significantly more expensive.[32]
As of 2005 nickel metal hydride batteries constituted three percent of the battery market.[18]

Applications

High power Ni–MH battery of Toyota NHW20 Prius, Japan

Nickel–metal hydride 24V battery pack made by VARTA, Museum Autovision, Altlussheim, Germany

Consumer electronics

NiMH batteries have replaced NiCd for many roles, notably small rechargeable batteries. NiMH
batteries are commonly available in AA (penlight-size) batteries. These have nominal charge
capacities (C) of 1.1–2.8 Ah at 1.2 V, measured at the rate that discharges the cell in five hours.
Useful discharge capacity is a decreasing function of the discharge rate, but up to a rate of
around 1×C (full discharge in one hour), it does not differ significantly from the nominal
capacity.[33] NiMH batteries nominally operate at 1.2 V per cell, somewhat lower than
conventional 1.5 V cells, but will operate many devices designed for that voltage.

Electric vehicles
Main article: Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries

Applications of NiMH electric vehicle batteries include all-electric plug-in vehicles such as the
General Motors EV1, Honda EV Plus, Ford Ranger EV and Vectrix scooter. Hybrid vehicles
such as the Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, Ford Escape Hybrid, Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid and
Honda Civic Hybrid also use them.

Stanford R. Ovshinsky invented and patented a popular improvement of the NiMH battery and
founded Ovonic Battery Company in 1982. General Motors purchased Ovonics' patent in 1994.
By the late 1990s, NiMH batteries were being used successfully in many fully electric vehicles,
such as the General Motors EV1 and Dodge Caravan EPIC minivan. In October 2000, the patent
was sold to Texaco, and a week later Texaco was acquired by Chevron. Chevron's Cobasys
subsidiary provides these batteries only to large OEM orders. General Motors shut down
production of the EV1 citing lack of battery availability as a chief obstacle. Cobasys control of
NiMH batteries created a patent encumbrance for large automotive NiMH
batteries.[34][35][36][37][38]

Lead–acid battery
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lead–acid battery

Lead–acid car battery

Specific energy 33[1]–42 Wh/kg[2]

Energy density 60–110 Wh/l[2]

Specific power 180 W/kg [3]

Charge/discharge efficiency 50–95%[4]

Energy/consumer-price 7(sld)to 18(fld) Wh/US$[5]

Self-discharge rate 3–20%/month[2]

 Cycle durability 500–800 cycles[6]

Nominal cell voltage 2.0 V[7]

Charge temperature interval min. −35 °C, max. 45 °C

The lead–acid battery was invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté and is the oldest
type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-
to-volume ratio, its ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have a relatively
large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with their low cost, makes it attractive for use
in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors.

As they are inexpensive compared to newer technologies, lead–acid batteries are widely used
even when surge current is not important and other designs could provide higher energy
densities. Large-format lead–acid designs are widely used for storage in backup power supplies
in cell phone towers, high-availability settings like hospitals, and stand-alone power systems. For
these roles, modified versions of the standard cell may be used to improve storage times and
reduce maintenance requirements. Gel-cells and absorbed glass-mat batteries are common in
these roles, collectively known as VRLA (valve-regulated lead–acid) batteries.

Lead–acid battery sales account for 40–45% of the value from batteries sold worldwide (1999,
not including China and Russia), a manufacturing market value of about US$15 billion.[8]

History
Main article: History of the battery

The French scientist Gautherot observed in 1801 that wires that had been used for electrolysis
experiments would themselves provide a small amount of "secondary" current after the main
battery had been disconnected.[9] In 1859, Gaston Planté's lead–acid battery was the first battery
that could be recharged by passing a reverse current through it. Planté's first model consisted of
two lead sheets separated by rubber strips and rolled into a spiral.[10] His batteries were first used
to power the lights in train carriages while stopped at a station. In 1881, Camille Alphonse Faure
invented an improved version that consisted of a lead grid lattice, into which a lead oxide paste
was pressed, forming a plate. This design was easier to mass-produce. An early manufacturer
(from 1886) of lead–acid batteries was Henri Tudor.

Using a gel electrolyte instead of a liquid allows the battery to be used in different positions
without leakage. Gel electrolyte batteries for any position date from 1930s, and even in the late
1920s portable suitcase radio sets allowed the cell vertical or horizontal (but not inverted) due to
valve design (see third Edition of Wireless Constructor's Encyclopaedia by Frederick James
Camm). In the 1970s, the valve-regulated lead acid battery (often called "sealed") was
developed, including modern absorbed glass mat types, allowing operation in any position.

Electrochemistry
Discharge

Fully discharged: two identical lead sulfate plates

In the discharged state both the positive and negative plates become lead(II) sulfate (PbSO
4), and the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. The
discharge process is driven by the conduction of electrons from the negative plate back into the
cell at the positive plate in the external circuit.

Negative plate reaction:

Pb(s) + HSO−
4(aq) → PbSO
4(s) + H+
(aq) + 2e−

Positive plate reaction:

PbO
2(s) + HSO−
4(aq) + 3H+
(aq) + 2e− → PbSO
4(s) + 2H
2O(l)

The total reaction can be written as

Pb(s) + PbO
2(s) + 2H
2SO
4(aq) → 2PbSO
4(s) + 2H
2O(l)
The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants is 642.6 g/mol, so theoretically a cell can
produce two faradays of charge (192,971 coulombs) from 642.6 g of reactants, or 83.4 ampere-
hours per kilogram (or 13.9 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 12-volt battery).[citation needed] For a 2
volts cell, this comes to 167 watt-hours per kilogram of reactants, but a lead–acid cell in practice
gives only 30–40 watt-hours per kilogram of battery, due to the mass of the water and other
constituent parts.[citation needed]

Charging

Overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of
water, which is lost to the cell. Periodic maintenance of lead–acid batteries requires inspection of
the electrolyte level and replacement of any water that has been lost.

Due to the freezing-point depression of the electrolyte, as the battery discharges and the
concentration of sulfuric acid decreases, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze during winter
weather when discharged.

Ion motion

During discharge, H+
produced at the negative plates moves into the electrolyte solution and then is consumed into the
positive plates, while HSO−
4 is consumed at both plates. The reverse occurs during charge. This motion can be by
electrically driven proton flow or Grotthuss mechanism, or by diffusion through the medium, or
by flow of a liquid electrolyte medium. Since the density is greater when the sulfuric acid
concentration is higher, the liquid will tend to circulate by convection. Therefore a liquid-
medium cell tends to rapidly discharge and rapidly charge more efficiently than an otherwise
similar gel cell.

Measuring the charge level

A hydrometer can be used to test the specific gravity of each cell as a measure of its state of charge.

Because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction, this battery has one major
advantage over other chemistries. It is relatively simple to determine the state of charge by
merely measuring the specific gravity (S.G.) of the electrolyte; the S.G. falls as the battery
discharges. Some battery designs include a simple hydrometer using colored floating balls of
differing density. When used in diesel-electric submarines, the S.G. was regularly measured and
written on a blackboard in the control room to indicate how much longer the boat could remain
submerged.[11]

The battery's open-circuit voltage can also be used to gauge the state of charge.[12] If the
connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the state of charge of each cell can be
determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health of the battery as a whole.

Voltages for common usages

This section does not cite any references (sources). Please help improve this section by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
(February 2012)

For the three-stage charging procedure of lead acid batteries, see IUoU battery charging.

These are general voltage ranges per cell:

 Open-circuit (quiescent) at full charge: 2.10 V

 Open-circuit at full discharge: 1.95 V
 Loaded at full discharge: 1.75 V
 Continuous-preservation (float) charging: 2.23 V for gelled electrolyte; 2.25 V for AGM
(absorbed glass mat) and 2.32 V for flooded cells

1. All voltages are at 20 °C (68 °F), and must be adjusted for temperature changes. The open-circuit
voltage cannot be adjusted with a simple temperature coefficient because it is non-linear
(coefficient varies with temperature). See voltage vs. temperature table.
2. Float voltage recommendations vary among manufacturers due to different lead acid
concentration and positive plate grid alloy.
3. Precise float voltage (±0.05 V) is critical to longevity; insufficient voltage (causes sulfation) is
almost as detrimental as excessive voltage (causes positive plate corrosion, expansion and
electrolyte loss.)

Typical (daily) charging: 2.37–2.4 V (depending on temperature and manufacturer's

recommendation)

 Equalization charging (for flooded lead acids): 2.5–2.67[13] V (5A per 100Ah,[14] Battery temperature
must be absolutely monitored very closely, check manufacturers recommendation)
 Charging in sulfated state (stored discharged for days or weeks) not accepting small charge current:
> 3 V[15] (only until a charge current is flowing)
 Charging in sulfated state: up to 2.6[16]–2.66 V [16]
  Discharging in sulfated state: 1.6 V (when charging at low rates doesn't improve, discharge rate
approximately 5A per 10Ah)[16]
 Gassing threshold: 2.415[17]–2.48[18] V for sealed, 2.41 V for PzS, 2.36–2.41 V for GiS, PzV, GiV[19]
(the value is manufacturer specific, gas is always produced even in storage,[20] 99% of the gas production
recombines under normal charging conditions, the higher the voltage exponentially more gas is produced:
from 2.3 to 2.5 is factor 1 to > 20,[21] charging above the gassing voltage with high charging current the
side reaction will occur enhanced[19])

Construction of battery
Plates

An opened two-wheeler self-starter battery

The lead–acid cell can be demonstrated using sheet lead plates for the two electrodes. However,
such a construction produces only around one ampere for roughly postcard-sized plates, and for
only a few minutes.

Gaston Planté found a way to provide a much larger effective surface area. In Planté's design, the
positive and negative plates were formed of two spirals of lead foil, separated with a sheet of
cloth and coiled up. The cells initially had low capacity, so a slow process of "forming" was
required to corrode the lead foils, creating lead dioxide on the plates and roughening them to
increase surface area. Initially this process used electricity from primary batteries; when
generators became available after 1870, the cost of production of batteries greatly declined.[8]
Planté plates are still used in some stationary applications, where the plates are mechanically
grooved to increase their surface area.

In 1880, Camille Alphonse Faure patented a method of coating a lead grid (which serves as the
current conductor) with a paste of lead oxides, sulfuric acid and water, followed by curing phase
in which the plates were exposed to gentle heat in a high humidity environment. The curing
process caused the paste to change to a mixture of lead sulfates which adhered to the lead plate.
Then, during the battery's initial charge (called "formation") the cured paste on the plates was
converted into electrochemically active material (the "active mass"). Faure's process significantly
reduced the time and cost to manufacture lead–acid batteries, and gave a substantial increase in
capacity compared with Planté's battery.[22] Faure's method is still in use today, with only
incremental improvements to paste composition, curing (which is still done with steam, but is
now a very tightly controlled process), and structure and composition of the grid to which the
paste is applied.
The grid developed by Faure was of pure lead with connecting rods of lead at right angles. In
contrast, present-day grids are structured for improved mechanical strength and improved current
flow. In addition to different grid patterns (ideally, all points on the plate are equidistant from the
power conductor), modern-day processes also apply one or two thin fibre-glass mats over the
grid to distribute the weight more evenly. And while Faure had used pure lead for his grids,
within a year (1881) these had been superseded by lead-antimony (8%-12%) alloys to give the
structures additional rigidity. However, high-antimony grids have higher hydrogen evolution
(which also accelerates as the battery ages), and thus greater outgassing and higher maintenance
costs. These issues were identified by U. B. Thomas and W. E. Haring at Bell Labs in the 1930s
and eventually led to the development of lead-calcium grid alloys in 1935 for standby power
batteries on the U.S. telephone network. Related research led to the development of lead-
selenium grid alloys in Europe a few years later. Both lead-calcium and lead-selenium grid
alloys still add antimony, albeit is much smaller quantities than the older high-antimony grids:
lead-calcium grids have 4%-6% antimony while lead-selenium grids have 1%-2%. These
metallurgical improvements give the grid more strength, which allows it carry more weight, i.e.
more active material, and so the plates can be thicker, which in turn contributes to battery
lifespan since there is more material available to shed before the battery becomes unusable.
High-antimony alloy grids are still used in batteries intended for frequent cycling, e.g. in motor-
starting applications where frequent expansion/contraction of the plates needs to be compensated
for, but where outgassing is not significant since charge currents remain low. Since the 1950s,
batteries designed for infrequent cycling applications, e.g. standby power batteries, increasingly
have lead-calcium or lead-selenium alloy grids since these have less hydrogen evolution and thus
lower maintenance overhead. Lead-calcium alloy grids are cheaper to manufacture (the cells thus
have lower up-front costs), and have a lower self-discharge rate, and lower watering
requirements, but have slightly poorer conductivity, are mechanically weaker (and thus require
more antimony to compensate), and are strongly subject to corrosion (and thus a shorter lifespan)
than cells with lead-selenium alloy grids.

Modern-day paste contains carbon black, blanc fixe (barium sulfate) and lignosulfonate. The
blanc fixe acts as a seed crystal for the lead–to–lead sulfate reaction. The blanc fixe must be fully
dispersed in the paste in order for it to be effective. The lignosulfonate prevents the negative
plate from forming a solid mass during the discharge cycle, instead enabling the formation of
long needle–like dendrites. The long crystals have more surface area and are easily converted
back to the original state on charging. Carbon black counteracts the effect of inhibiting formation
caused by the lignosulfonates. Sulfonated naphthalene condensate dispersant is a more effective
expander than lignosulfonate and speeds up formation. This dispersant improves dispersion of
barium sulfate in the paste, reduces hydroset time, produces a more breakage-resistant plate,
reduces fine lead particles and thereby improves handling and pasting characteristics. It extends
battery life by increasing end-of-charge voltage. Sulfonated naphthalene requires about one-third
to one-half the amount of lignosulfonate and is stable to higher temperatures.[23]

Once dry, the plates are stacked with suitable separators and inserted in a cell container. The
alternate plates then constitute alternating positive and negative electrodes, and within the cell
are later connected to one another (negative to negative, positive to positive) in parallel. The
separators inhibit the plates from touching each other, which would otherwise constitute a short
circuit. In flooded and gel cells, the separators are insulating rails or studs, formerly of glass or
ceramic, and now of plastic. In AGM cells, the separator is the glass mat itself, and the rack of
plates with separators are squeezed together before insertion into the cell; once in the cell, the
glass mats expand slightly, effectively locking the plates in place. In multi-cell batteries, the cells
are then connected to one another in series, either through connector through the cell walls, or by
a bridge over the cell walls. All intra-cell and inter-cell connections are of the same lead alloy as
that used in the grids. This is necessary to prevent galvanic corrosion.

So-called "deep cycle" batteries employ a different geometry for their positive electrodes. In this
geometry, the positive electrode is not a flat plate but a row of lead-oxide cylinders or tubes
strung side by side (hence the term "tubular" or "cylindrical" batteries for this geometry). The
advantage of this geometry is an increased surface area in contact with the electrolyte, which in
turn allows higher discharge/charge currents than a flat-plate cell of the same volume and depth-
of-charge. Tubular-electrode cells thus exhibit a higher power density than flat-plate cells. This
makes tubular/cylindrical geometry plates especially suitable for high-current applications with
storage weight/space limitations, such as for forklifts or for starting marine diesel engines.
However, because tubes/cylinders have less active material in the same volume, they also have a
lower energy density than flat-plate cells. And, less active material at the electrode also means
they have less material available to shed before the cell becomes unusable. Tubular/cylindrical
electrodes are also more complicated to manufacture uniformly, which tends to make them more
expensive than flat-plate cells. These trade-offs limit the range of applications in which
tubular/cylindrical batteries are meaningful to situations where there is insufficient space to
install higher capacity (and thus larger) flat-plate units.

About 60% of the weight of an automotive-type lead–acid battery rated around 60 A·h (8.7 kg of
a 14.5 kg battery) is lead or internal parts made of lead; the balance is electrolyte, separators, and
the case.[8]

Separators

Separators between the positive and negative plates prevent short-circuit through physical
contact, mostly through dendrites ("treeing"), but also through shedding of the active material.
Separators obstruct the flow of ions between the plates and increase the internal resistance of the
cell. Wood, rubber, glass fiber mat, cellulose, and PVC or polyethylene plastic have been used to
make separators. Wood was the original choice, but deteriorated in the acid electrolyte. Rubber
separators are stable in battery acid. Rubber provides valuable electrochemical advantages that
other materials cannot.

An effective separator must possess a number of mechanical properties; such as permeability,

porosity, pore size distribution, specific surface area, mechanical design and strength, electrical
resistance, ionic conductivity, and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service, the
separator must have good resistance to acid and oxidation. The area of the separator must be a
little larger than the area of the plates to prevent material shorting between the plates. The
separators must remain stable over the battery's operating temperature range.
Absorbed glass mat
This section contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to
present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to
content or by moving it to Wikiversity, Wikibooks or Wikivoyage. (April 2015)

In the absorbed glass mat design, or AGM for short, the spacer between the cells is replaced by a
glass fibre mat soaked in electrolyte. There is only enough electrolyte in the mat to keep it wet,
and if the battery is punctured the electrolyte will not flow out of the mats. Likewise, the mat
greatly reduces evaporation, to the point that the batteries do not require periodic refilling of the
water. This combination of features allows the battery to be completely sealed, which makes
them useful in portable devices and similar roles.

To address the formation of hydrogen gas during discharge, calcium is added to the plates to
absorb the gas. This only works during slow discharges, and gas buildup remains a problem
when the battery is deeply or rapidly discharged. To deal with these events, AGMs often include
a one-way blow-off valve, and are often known as "valve regulated lead–acid", or VRLA,
designs.

Another advantage to the AGM design is that the electrolyte becomes the separator material, and
mechanically strong. This allows the plate stack to be compressed together in the battery shell,
slightly increasing energy density compared to liquid or gel versions. AGM batteries often show
a characteristic "bulging" in their shells when built in common rectangular shapes.

The mat also prevents the vertical motion of the electrolyte within the battery. When a normal
wet cell is stored in a discharged state, the heavier acid molecules tend to settle to the bottom of
the battery, causing the electrolyte to stratify. When the battery is then used, the majority of the
current flows only in this area, and the bottom of the plates tend to wear out rapidly. This is one
of the reasons a conventional car battery can be ruined by leaving it stored for a long period and
then used and recharged. The mat significantly prevents this stratification, eliminating the need
to periodically shake the batteries, boil them, or run an "equalization charge" through them to
mix the electrolyte. Stratification also causes the upper layers of the battery to become almost
completely water, which can freeze in cold weather, AGMs are significantly less susceptible to
damage due to low-temperature use.

While AGM cells do not require watering, their recombination process is fundamentally limited
by the usual chemical processes. Hydrogen gas will also flow right through the plastic case itself.
Some have found that it is profitable to add water to an AGM battery, but you must do it slowly
to allow for the water to mix via diffusion throughout the battery. You must also add water
before the batteries need it. When a lead acid battery loses water, its acid concentration increases,
increasing the corrosion rate significantly. AGM cells already have a high acid content in an
attempt to lower the water loss rate, and this brings about short life. If the open circuit voltage of
your AGM cells is significantly higher than 2.093 volts, or 12.56v for a 12v battery, you have a
higher acid content than a flooded cell; while this is normal for an AGM battery it is not
desirable for long life.
AGM cells intentionally overcharged will show a higher open circuit voltage according to the
water lost (and acid concentration increased). One Amp-Hour of overcharge will liberate 0.335
Grams of water; some of this liberated hydrogen and oxygen will recombine, but not all of it.

Gelled electrolytes
Main article: VRLA_battery § Gel_battery

During the 1970s researchers developed the sealed version or "gel battery", which mixes a silica
gelling agent into the electrolyte (Silica gel based lead Acid batteries used in Portable Radios
from early 1930s were not fully sealed). This converts the formerly liquid interior of the cells
into a semi-stiff paste, providing many of the same advantages of the AGM. Such designs are
even less susceptible to evaporation and are often used in situations where little or no periodic
maintenance is possible. Gel cells also have lower freezing and higher boiling points than the
liquid electrolytes used in conventional wet cells and AGMs, which makes them suitable for use
in extreme conditions.

The only downside to the gel design is that the gel prevents rapid motion of the ions in the
electrolyte, which reduces carrier mobility and thus surge current capability. For this reason, gel
cells are most commonly found in energy storage applications like off-grid systems.

"Maintenance free", "sealed" and "VRLA"

Both gel and AGM designs are sealed, do not require watering, can be used in any orientation,
and use a valve for gas blowoff. For this reason, both designs can be called maintenance free,
sealed and VRLA. However, it is quite common to find resources stating that these terms refer to
one or another of these designs, specifically.

Applications

Most of the world's lead–acid batteries are automobile starting, lighting and ignition (SLI)
batteries, with an estimated 320 million units shipped in 1999.[8] In 1992 about 3 million tons of
lead were used in the manufacture of batteries.

Wet cell stand-by (stationary) batteries designed for deep discharge are commonly used in large
backup power supplies for telephone and computer centers, grid energy storage, and off-grid
household electric power systems.[24] Lead–acid batteries are used in emergency lighting and to
power sump pumps in case of power failure.

Traction (propulsion) batteries are used in golf carts and other battery electric vehicles. Large
lead–acid batteries are also used to power the electric motors in diesel-electric (conventional)
submarines when submerged, and are used as emergency power on nuclear submarines as well.
Valve-regulated lead acid batteries cannot spill their electrolyte. They are used in back-up power
supplies for alarm and smaller computer systems (particularly in uninterruptible power supplies
("UPS")) and for electric scooters, electric wheelchairs, electrified bicycles, marine applications,
battery electric vehicles or micro hybrid vehicles, and motorcycles.
Lead–acid batteries were used to supply the filament (heater) voltage, with 2 V common in early
vacuum tube (valve) radio receivers.

Portable batteries for miners' cap lamps headlamps typically have two or three cells.[25]

Cycles
Starting batteries
Main article: Automotive battery

Lead–acid batteries designed for starting automotive engines are not designed for deep
discharge. They have a large number of thin plates designed for maximum surface area, and
therefore maximum current output, but which can easily be damaged by deep discharge.
Repeated deep discharges will result in capacity loss and ultimately in premature failure, as the
electrodes disintegrate due to mechanical stresses that arise from cycling. Starting batteries kept
on continuous float charge will have corrosion in the electrodes which will result in premature
failure. Starting batteries should be kept open circuit but charged regularly (at least once every
two weeks) to prevent sulfation.

Starting batteries are lighter weight than deep cycle batteries of the same battery dimensions,
because the cell plates do not extend all the way to the bottom of the battery case. This allows
loose disintegrated lead to fall off the plates and collect under the cells, to prolong the service life
of the battery. If this loose debris rises high enough it can touch the plates and lead to failure of a
cell, resulting in loss of battery voltage and capacity.

Deep cycle batteries

Main article: Deep cycle battery

Specially designed deep-cycle cells are much less susceptible to degradation due to cycling, and
are required for applications where the batteries are regularly discharged, such as photovoltaic
systems, electric vehicles (forklift, golf cart, electric cars and other) and uninterruptible power
supplies. These batteries have thicker plates that can deliver less peak current, but can withstand
frequent discharging.[26]

Some batteries are designed as a compromise between starter (high-current) and deep cycle
batteries. They are able to be discharged to a greater degree than automotive batteries, but less so
than deep cycle batteries. They may be referred to as "Marine/Motorhome" batteries, or "leisure
batteries".
Fast and slow charge and discharge

Charge current needs to match the ability of the battery to absorb the energy. Using too large a charge
current on a small battery can lead to boiling and venting of the electrolyte. In this image a VRLA battery
case has ballooned due to the high gas pressure developed during overcharge.

The capacity of a lead–acid battery is not a fixed quantity but varies according to how quickly it
is discharged. An empirical relationship between discharge rate and capacity is known as
Peukert's law.

When a battery is charged or discharged, only the reacting chemicals, which are at the interface
between the electrodes and the electrolyte, are initially affected. With time, the charge stored in
the chemicals at the interface, often called "interface charge" or "surface charge", spreads by
diffusion of these chemicals throughout the volume of the active material.

Consider a battery that has been completely discharged (such as occurs when leaving the car
lights on overnight, a current draw of about 6 amps). If it then is given a fast charge for only a
few minutes, the battery plates charge only near the interface between the plates and the
electrolyte. In this case the battery voltage might rise to a value near that of the charger voltage;
this causes the charging current to decrease significantly. After a few hours this interface charge
will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte; this leads to an interface charge so low
that it may be insufficient to start the car.[27] As long as the charging voltage stays below the
gassing voltage (about 14.4 volts in a normal lead–acid battery), battery damage is unlikely, and
in time the battery should return to a nominally charged state.

Valve regulated

In a valve regulated lead acid battery (VRLA) the hydrogen and oxygen produced in the cells
largely recombine into water. Leakage is minimal, although some electrolyte still escapes if the
recombination cannot keep up with gas evolution. Since VRLA batteries do not require (and
make impossible) regular checking of the electrolyte level, they have been called maintenance
free batteries. However, this is somewhat of a misnomer. VRLA cells do require maintenance.
As electrolyte is lost, VRLA cells "dry-out" and lose capacity. This can be detected by taking
regular internal resistance, conductance or impedance measurements. Regular testing reveals
whether more involved testing and maintenance is required. Recent maintenance procedures
have been developed allowing "rehydration", often restoring significant amounts of lost capacity.
VRLA types became popular on motorcycles around 1983,[28] because the acid electrolyte is
absorbed into the separator, so it cannot spill.[29] The separator also helps them better withstand
vibration. They are also popular in stationary applications such as telecommunications sites, due
to their small footprint and installation flexibility.[30]

The electrical characteristics of VRLA batteries differ somewhat from wet-cell lead–acid
batteries, requiring caution in charging and discharging.[clarification needed]

Sulfation and desulfation

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adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
(December 2013)

Sulfated plates from 12V 5Ah battery

Lead–acid batteries lose the ability to accept a charge when discharged for too long due to
sulfation, the crystallization of lead sulfate.[31] They generate electricity through a double sulfate
chemical reaction. Lead and lead dioxide, the active materials on the battery's plates, react with
sulfuric acid in the electrolyte to form lead sulfate. The lead sulfate first forms in a finely
divided, amorphous state, and easily reverts to lead, lead dioxide and sulfuric acid when the
battery recharges. As batteries cycle through numerous discharges and charges, some lead sulfate
is not recombined into electrolyte and slowly converts to a stable crystalline form that no longer
dissolves on recharging. Thus, not all the lead is returned to the battery plates, and the amount of
usable active material necessary for electricity generation declines over time.

Sulfation occurs in lead–acid batteries when they are subjected to insufficient charging during
normal operation. It impedes recharging; sulfate deposits ultimately expand, cracking the plates
and destroying the battery. Eventually so much of the battery plate area is unable to supply
current that the battery capacity is greatly reduced. In addition, the sulfate portion (of the lead
sulfate) is not returned to the electrolyte as sulfuric acid. It is believed that large crystals
physically block the electrolyte from entering the pores of the plates. Sulfation can be avoided if
the battery is fully recharged immediately after a discharge cycle.[32] A white coating on the
plates may be visible (in batteries with clear cases, or after dismantling the battery). Batteries
that are sulfated show a high internal resistance and can deliver only a small fraction of normal
discharge current. Sulfation also affects the charging cycle, resulting in longer charging times,
less efficient and incomplete charging, and higher battery temperatures.
Desulfation is the process of reversing the sulfation of a lead–acid battery. It is believed that
desulfation can be achieved by high current pulses produced between the terminals of the
battery. It is believed[by whom?] that this technique, also called pulse conditioning, breaks down the
sulfate crystals that are formed on the battery plates.[33] Pulses must last longer than the resonant
frequency of the battery. Short pulses simply feed energy wastefully into the resistive
components of this resonant circuit and virtually none into the battery. Electronic circuits are
used to regulate the pulses of different widths and frequency of high current pulses. These can
also be used to automate the process since it takes a long period of time to desulfate a battery
fully. Battery chargers designed for desulfating lead–acid batteries are commercially available. A
battery will be unrecoverable if the active material has been lost from the plates, or if the plates
are bent due to over temperature or over charging.

Batteries which have sat unused for long periods of time can be prime candidates for desulfation.
A long period of self-discharge allows the sulfate crystals to form and become very large. Some
typical cases where lead acid batteries are not used frequently enough are planes, boats
(especially sailboats), old cars, and home power systems with battery banks that are
underutilized.

Some charging techniques can aid in prevention such as equalization charging and cycles
through discharging and charging regularly. It is recommended to follow battery manufacturer
instructions for proper charging.

SLI batteries (starting, lighting, ignition; i.e. car batteries) suffer most deterioration because
vehicles normally stand unused for relatively long periods of time. Deep cycle and motive power
batteries are subjected to regular controlled overcharging, hence eventually succumb to corrosion
of the positive plate grids, not to sulfation.

Extreme weather can also cause sulfation in batteries. Extreme heat in the summer increases the
amount of sulfates that come from batteries. Electronic components putting a constant drain on a
battery also increase the amount of sulfation. Keeping a battery in a cool location and keeping it
charged help prevent this.

Stratification

A typical lead–acid battery contains a mixture with varying concentrations of water and acid.
Sulfuric acid has a higher density than water, which causes the acid formed at the plates during
charging to flow downward and collect at the bottom of the battery. Eventually the mixture will
again reach uniform composition by diffusion, but this is a very slow process. Repeated cycles of
partial charging and discharging will increase stratification of the electrolyte, reducing the
capacity and performance of the battery because the lack of acid on top limits plate activation.
The stratification also promotes corrosion on the upper half of the plates and sulfonation at the
bottom.[34]

Periodic overcharging creates gaseous reaction products at the plate, causing convection currents
which mix the electrolyte and resolve the stratification. Mechanical stirring of the electrolyte
would have the same effect. Batteries in moving vehicles are also subject to sloshing and
splashing in the cells, as the vehicle accelerates, brakes, and turns.

Risk of explosion

Car battery after explosion

Excessive charging causes electrolysis, emitting hydrogen and oxygen. This process is known as
"gassing". Wet cells have open vents to release any gas produced, and VRLA batteries rely on
valves fitted to each cell. Catalytic caps are available for flooded cells to recombine hydrogen
and oxygen. A VRLA cell normally recombines any hydrogen and oxygen produced inside the
cell, but malfunction or overheating may cause gas to build up. If this happens (for example, on
overcharging) the valve vents the gas and normalizes the pressure, producing a characteristic
acid smell. Valves can sometimes fail however, if dirt and debris accumulate, allowing pressure
to build up.

Accumulated hydrogen and oxygen sometimes ignites in an internal explosion. The force can
burst the plastic casing or blow the top off the battery, spraying acid and casing fragments. An
explosion in one cell may ignite the combustible gas mixture in remaining cells. In a poorly
ventilated area, connecting or disconnecting a closed circuit (such as a load or an operating
charger) directly to the battery terminals may cause an explosion as the sparks produced ignite
the gas mixtures vented from the cells.

The cell walls of VRLA batteries typically swell when the internal pressure rises. The
deformation varies from cell to cell, and is greater at the ends where the walls are unsupported by
other cells. Such over-pressurized batteries should be carefully isolated and discarded. Personnel
working near batteries at risk for explosion should protect their eyes and exposed skin from
burns due to spraying acid and fire by wearing a face shield, overalls, and gloves. Using goggles
instead of a face shield sacrifices safety by leaving one's face exposed to acid and heat from a
potential explosion.
Environment
Environmental concerns

According to a 2003 report entitled "Getting the Lead Out", by Environmental Defense and the
Ecology Center of Ann Arbor, Mich., the batteries of vehicles on the road contained an estimated
2,600,000 metric tons (2,600,000 long tons; 2,900,000 short tons) of lead. Some lead compounds
are extremely toxic. Long-term exposure to even tiny amounts of these compounds can cause
brain and kidney damage, hearing impairment, and learning problems in children.[35] The auto
industry uses over 1,000,000 metric tons (980,000 long tons; 1,100,000 short tons) every year,
with 90% going to conventional lead–acid vehicle batteries. While lead recycling is a well-
established industry, more than 40,000 metric tons (39,000 long tons; 44,000 short tons) ends up
in landfills every year. According to the federal Toxic Release Inventory, another 70,000 metric
tons (69,000 long tons; 77,000 short tons) are released in the lead mining and manufacturing
process.[36]

Attempts are being made to develop alternatives (particularly for automotive use) because of
concerns about the environmental consequences of improper disposal and of lead smelting
operations, among other reasons. Alternatives are unlikely to displace them for applications such
as engine starting or backup power systems, since the batteries, although heavy, are low-cost.

Recycling
See also: Automotive battery recycling

A worker recycling molten lead in a battery recycling facility.

Lead–acid battery recycling is one of the most successful recycling programs in the world. In the
United States 99% of all battery lead was recycled between 2009 and 2013.[37] An effective
pollution control system is a necessity to prevent lead emission. Continuous improvement in
battery recycling plants and furnace designs is required to keep pace with emission standards for
lead smelters.

Additives

Chemical additives have been used ever since the lead–acid battery became a commercial item,
to reduce lead sulfate build up on plates and improve battery condition when added to the
electrolyte of a vented lead–acid battery. Such treatments are rarely, if ever, effective.[38]
Two compounds used for such purposes are Epsom salts and EDTA. Epsom salts reduces the
internal resistance in a weak or damaged battery and may allow a small amount of extended life.
EDTA can be used to dissolve the sulfate deposits of heavily discharged plates. However, the
dissolved material is then no longer available to participate in the normal charge/discharge cycle,
so a battery temporarily revived with EDTA will have a reduced life expectancy. Residual
EDTA in the lead–acid cell forms organic acids which will accelerate corrosion of the lead plates
and internal connectors.

The active materials change physical form during charge/discharge, resulting in growth and
distortion of the electrodes, and shedding of electrode into the electrolyte. Once the active
material has fallen out of the plates, it cannot be restored into position by any chemical
treatment. Similarly, internal physical problems such as cracked plates, corroded connectors, or
damaged separators cannot be restored chemically.

Corrosion problems

Corrosion of the external metal parts of the lead–acid battery results from a chemical reaction of
the battery terminals, lugs and connectors.

Corrosion on the positive terminal is caused by electrolysis, due to a mismatch of metal alloys
used in the manufacture of the battery terminal and cable connector. White corrosion is usually
lead or zinc sulfate crystals. Aluminum connectors corrode to aluminum sulfate. Copper
connectors produce blue and white corrosion crystals. Corrosion of a battery's terminals can be
reduced by coating the terminals with petroleum jelly or a commercially available product made
for the purpose.[39]

If the battery is over-filled with water and electrolyte, thermal expansion can force some of the
liquid out of the battery vents onto the top of the battery. This solution can then react with the
lead and other metals in the battery connector and cause corrosion.

The electrolyte can weep from the plastic-to-lead seal where the battery terminals penetrate the
plastic case.

Acid fumes that vaporize through the vent caps, often caused by overcharging, and insufficient
battery box ventilation can allow the sulfuric acid fumes to build up and react with the exposed
metals.

Maintenance precautions

Ammonia can neutralize spilled battery acid. Surplus ammonia and water evaporate, leaving an
ammonium sulfate residue. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is also commonly used for this
purpose.
Sizing nomenclature

With the broad range of possible electrical attributes, a part number nomenclature is used by
many battery manufacturers to convey basic information such as voltage, ampere-hour capacity,
and terminals.[40] The format follows a pattern such as <mfg><voltage><capacity>.

Part number Manufacturer Voltage (V) Capacity (Ah)

LP12-38 Leoch Battery 12 38.0

NB12-18HR National Battery 12 18.0

TB12100 Tenergy 12 10.0

RT632 Ritar 6 3.2

SP12-18HR Sigmas Battery Tek 12 18.0

UB12180 Universal Power Group 12 18.0

Some vendors append a suffix, indicating the terminal types, terminal locations, and battery
dimensions. Batteries for passenger motor vehicles usually use BCI sizing nomenclature.[41]

Nickel–cadmium battery
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
(February 2011)

Nickel–cadmium battery
 From top to bottom: "Gumstick", AA, and AAA Ni–Cd
batteries

Specific energy 40–60 W·h/kg

Energy density 50–150 W·h/L

Specific power 150 W/kg

Charge/discharge efficiency 70–90%[1]

Self-discharge rate 10%/month

Cycle durability 2,000 cycles

Nominal cell voltage 1.2 V

The nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd battery or NiCad battery) is a type of rechargeable

battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. The abbreviation Ni-
Cd is derived from the chemical symbols of nickel (Ni) and cadmium (Cd): the abbreviation
NiCad is a registered trademark of SAFT Corporation, although this brand name is commonly
used to describe all Ni–Cd batteries.

Wet-cell nickel-cadmium batteries were invented in 1898. Among rechargeable battery

technologies, NiCd rapidly lost market share in the 1990s, to NiMH and Li-ion batteries; market
share dropped by 80%.[citation needed] A Ni-Cd battery has a terminal voltage during discharge of
around 1.2 volts which decreases little until nearly the end of discharge. Ni-Cd batteries are
made in a wide range of sizes and capacities, from portable sealed types interchangeable with
carbon-zinc dry cells, to large ventilated cells used for standby power and motive power.
Compared with other types of rechargeable cells they offer good cycle life and performance at
low temperatures with a fair capacity but its significant advantage is the ability to deliver
practically its full rated capacity at high discharge rates (discharging in one hour or less).
However, the materials are more costly than that of the lead acid battery, and the cells have high
self-discharge rates.

Sealed Ni-Cd cells were at one time widely used in portable power tools, photography
equipment, flashlights, emergency lighting, hobby R/C, and portable electronic devices. The
superior capacity of the Nickel-metal hydride batteries, and more recently their lower cost, has
largely supplanted their use. Further, the environmental impact of the disposal of the toxic metal
cadmium has contributed considerably to the reduction in their use. Within the European Union,
Ni-Cd batteries can now only be supplied for replacement purposes or for certain types of new
equipment such as medical devices.[2]

Larger ventilated wet cell NiCd batteries are used in emergency lighting, standby power, and
uninterruptible power supplies and other applications.

History

The first Ni–Cd battery was created by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden in 1899. At that time, the
only direct competitor was the lead–acid battery, which was less physically and chemically
robust. With minor improvements to the first prototypes, energy density rapidly increased to
about half of that of primary batteries, and significantly greater than lead–acid batteries. Jungner
experimented with substituting iron for the cadmium in varying quantities, but found the iron
formulations to be wanting. Jungner's work was largely unknown in the United States. Thomas
Edison patented a nickel– or cobalt–cadmium battery in 1902,[3] and adapted the battery design
when he introduced the nickel–iron battery to the US two years after Jungner had built one. In
1906, Jungner established a factory close to Oskarshamn, Sweden to produce flooded design Ni–
Cd batteries.

In 1932 active materials were deposited inside a porous nickel-plated electrode and fifteen years
later began on a sealed nickel-cadmium battery.

The first production in the United States began in 1946. Up to this point, the batteries were
"pocket type," constructed of nickel-plated steel pockets containing nickel and cadmium active
materials. Around the middle of the twentieth century, sintered-plate Ni–Cd batteries became
increasingly popular. Fusing nickel powder at a temperature well below its melting point using
high pressures creates sintered plates. The plates thus formed are highly porous, about 80 percent
by volume. Positive and negative plates are produced by soaking the nickel plates in nickel- and
cadmium-active materials, respectively. Sintered plates are usually much thinner than the pocket
type, resulting in greater surface area per volume and higher currents. In general, the greater
amount of reactive material surface area in a battery, the lower its internal resistance.

Recent developments

Today, all consumer Ni–Cd batteries use the "swiss roll" or "jelly-roll" configuration. This
design incorporates several layers of positive and negative material rolled into a cylindrical
shape. This design reduces internal resistance as there is a greater amount of electrode in contact
with the active material in each cell.

Characteristics

The maximum discharge rate for a Ni–Cd battery varies by size. For a common AA-size cell, the
maximum discharge rate is approximately 1.8 amps; for a D size battery the discharge rate can
be as high as 3.5 amps.[citation needed]
Model-aircraft or -boat builders often take much larger currents of up to a hundred amps or so
from specially constructed Ni–Cd batteries, which are used to drive main motors. 5–6 minutes of
model operation is easily achievable from quite small batteries, so a reasonably high power-to-
weight figure is achieved, comparable to internal combustion motors, though of lesser duration.
In this, however, they have been largely superseded by lithium polymer (Lipo) and lithium iron
phosphate (LiFe) batteries, which can provide even higher energy densities.

Voltage

Ni–Cd cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 volts (V). This is lower than the 1.5 V of
alkaline and zinc–carbon primary cells, and consequently they are not appropriate as a
replacement in all applications. However, the 1.5 V of a primary alkaline cell refers to its initial,
rather than average, voltage. Unlike alkaline and zinc–carbon primary cells, a Ni–Cd cell's
terminal voltage only changes a little as it discharges. Because many electronic devices are
designed to work with primary cells that may discharge to as low as 0.90 to 1.0 V per cell, the
relatively steady 1.2 V of a Ni–Cd cell is enough to allow operation. Some would consider the
near-constant voltage a drawback as it makes it difficult to detect when the battery charge is low.

Ni–Cd batteries used to replace 9 V batteries usually only have six cells, for a terminal voltage of
7.2 volts. While most pocket radios will operate satisfactorily at this voltage, some
manufacturers such as Varta made 8.4 volt batteries with seven cells for more critical
applications.

Charging

Ni–Cd batteries can be charged at several different rates, depending on how the cell was
manufactured. The charge rate is measured based on the percentage of the amp-hour capacity the
battery is fed as a steady current over the duration of the charge. Regardless of the charge speed,
more energy must be supplied to the battery than its actual capacity, to account for energy loss
during charging, with faster charges being more efficient. For example, an "overnight" charge,
might consist of supplying a current equals to one tenth the amperehour rating (C/10) for 14–16
hours; that is, a 100 mAh battery takes 10mA for 14 hours, for a total of 140 mAh to charge at
this rate. At the rapid-charge rate, done at 100% of the rated capacity of the battery in 1 hour
(1C), the battery holds roughly 80% of the charge, so a 100 mAh battery takes 120 mAh to
charge (that is, approximately 1 hour and fifteen minutes). Some specialized batteries can be
charged in as little as 10–15 minutes at a 4C or 6C charge rate, but this is very uncommon. It also
exponentially increases the risk of the cells overheating and venting due to an internal
overpressure condition: the cell's rate of temperature rise is governed by its internal resistance
and the square of the charging rate. At a 4C rate, the amount of heat generated in the cell is
sixteen times higher than the heat at the 1C rate. The downside to faster charging is the higher
risk of overcharging, which can damage the battery.[4] and the increased temperatures the cell has
to endure (which potentially shortens its life).

The safe temperature range when in use is between −20°C and 45°C. During charging, the
battery temperature typically stays low, around the same as the ambient temperature (the
charging reaction absorbs heat), but as the battery nears full charge the temperature will rise to
45–50°C. Some battery chargers detect this temperature increase to cut off charging and prevent
over-charging.

When not under load or charge, a Ni–Cd battery will self-discharge approximately 10% per
month at 20°C, ranging up to 20% per month at higher temperatures. It is possible to perform a
trickle charge at current levels just high enough to offset this discharge rate; to keep a battery
fully charged. However, if the battery is going to be stored unused for a long period of time, it
should be discharged down to at most 40% of capacity (some manufacturers recommend fully
discharging and even short-circuiting once fully discharged[citation needed]), and stored in a cool, dry
environment.

Overcharging

Sealed Ni–Cd cells consist of a pressure vessel that is supposed to contain any generation of
oxygen and hydrogen gases until they can recombine back to water. Such generation typically
occurs during rapid charge and discharge and exceedingly at overcharge condition. If the
pressure exceeds the limit of the safety valve, water in the form of gas is lost. Since the vessel is
designed to contain an exact amount of electrolyte this loss will rapidly affect the capacity of the
cell and its ability to receive and deliver current. To detect all conditions of overcharge demands
great sophistication from the charging circuit and a cheap charger will eventually damage even
the best quality cells.[5]

Electrochemistry

A fully charged Ni-Cd cell contains:

 a nickel(III) oxide-hydroxide positive electrode plate

 a cadmium negative electrode plate
 a separator, and
 an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide).

Ni-Cd batteries usually have a metal case with a sealing plate equipped with a self-sealing safety
valve. The positive and negative electrode plates, isolated from each other by the separator, are
rolled in a spiral shape inside the case. This is known as the jelly-roll design and allows a Ni–Cd
cell to deliver a much higher maximum current than an equivalent size alkaline cell. Alkaline
cells have a bobbin construction where the cell casing is filled with electrolyte and contains a
graphite rod which acts as the positive electrode. As a relatively small area of the electrode is in
contact with the electrolyte (as opposed to the jelly-roll design), the internal resistance for an
equivalent sized alkaline cell is higher which limits the maximum current that can be delivered.

The chemical reactions at the cadmium electrode during discharge are:

The reactions at the nickle oxide electrode are:

The net reaction during discharge is

During recharge, the reactions go from right to left. The alkaline electrolyte (commonly KOH) is
not consumed in this reaction and therefore its specific gravity, unlike in lead–acid batteries, is
not a guide to its state of charge.

When Jungner built the first Ni-Cd batteries, he used nickel oxide in the positive electrode, and
iron and cadmium materials in the negative. It was not until later that pure cadmium metal and
nickel hydroxide were used. Until about 1960, the chemical reaction was not completely
understood. There were several speculations as to the reaction products. The debate was finally
resolved by infrared spectroscopy, which revealed cadmium hydroxide and nickel hydroxide.

Another historically important variation on the basic Ni-Cd cell is the addition of lithium
hydroxide to the potassium hydroxide electrolyte. This was believed[by whom?] to prolong the
service life by making the cell more resistant to electrical abuse. The Ni–Cd battery in its modern
form is extremely resistant to electrical abuse anyway, so this practice has been discontinued.

Vented cell batteries

View of a vented cell aircraft battery from the side

Structure of a cell in a vented cell battery

Vented cell (wet cell, flooded cell) NiCd batteries are used when large capacities and high
discharge rates are required. Traditional NiCd batteries are of the sealed type, which means that
charge gas is normally recombined and they release no gas unless severely overcharged or a fault
develops. Unlike typical NiCd cells, which are sealed, vented cells have a vent or low pressure
release valve that releases any generated oxygen and hydrogen gases when overcharged or
discharged rapidly. Since the battery is not a pressure vessel, it is safer, weighs less, and has a
simpler and more economical structure. This also means the battery is not normally damaged by
excessive rates of overcharge, discharge or even negative charge.

They are used in aviation, rail and mass transit, backup power for telecoms, engine starting for
backup turbines etc. Using vented cell NiCd batteries results in reduction in size, weight and
maintenance requirements over other types of batteries. Vented cell NiCd batteries have long
lives (up to 20 years or more, depending on type) and operate at extreme temperatures (from −40
to 70 °C).

A steel battery box contains the cells connected in series to gain the desired voltage (1.2V per
cell nominal). Cells are usually made of a light and durable polyamide (nylon), with multiple
nickel-cadmium plates welded together for each electrode inside. A separator or liner made of
silicone rubber acts as an insulator and a gas barrier between the electrodes. Cells are flooded
with an electrolyte of 30% aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH). The specific gravity
of the electrolyte does not indicate if the battery is discharged or fully charged but changes
mainly with evaporation of water. The top of the cell contains a space for excess electrolyte and
a pressure release vent. Large nickel plated copper studs and thick interconnecting links assure
minimum effective series resistance for the battery.

The venting of gases means that the battery is either being discharged at a high rate or recharged
at a higher than nominal rate. This also means the electrolyte lost during venting must be
periodically replaced through routine maintenance. Depending on the charge–discharge cycles
and type of battery this can mean a maintenance period of anything from a few months to a year.

Vented cell voltage rises rapidly at the end of charge allowing for very simple charger circuitry
to be used. Typically a battery is constant current charged at 1 CA rate until all the cells have
reached at least 1.55 V. Another charge cycle follows at 0.1 CA rate, again until all cells have
reached 1.55 V. The charge is finished with an equalizing or top-up charge, typically for not less
than 4 hours at 0.1 CA rate. The purpose of the over-charge is to expel as much (if not all) of the
gases collected on the electrodes, hydrogen on the negative and oxygen on the positive, and
some of these gases recombine to form water which in turn will raise the electrolyte level to its
highest level after which it is safe to adjust the electrolyte levels. During the over-charge or top-
up charge, the cell voltages will go beyond 1.6V and then slowly start to drop. No cell should
rise above 1.71 V (dry cell) or drop below 1.55 V (gas barrier broken).[citation needed]

In an aircraft installation with a floating battery electrical system the regulator voltage is set to
charge the battery at constant potential charge (typically 14 or 28 V). If this voltage is set too
high it will result in rapid electrolyte loss. A failed charge regulator may allow the charge
voltage to rise well above this value, causing a massive overcharge with boiling over of the
electrolyte.[citation needed]

Applications

Eight Ni-Cd batteries in a battery pack

Sealed Ni–Cd cells may be used individually, or assembled into battery packs containing two or
more cells. Small cells are used for portable electronics and toys (such as solar garden lights),
often using cells manufactured in the same sizes as primary cells. When Ni–Cd batteries are
substituted for primary cells, the lower terminal voltage and smaller ampere-hour capacity may
reduce performance as compared to primary cells. Miniature button cells are sometimes used in
photographic equipment, hand-held lamps (flashlight or torch), computer-memory standby, toys,
and novelties.

Specialty Ni–Cd batteries are used in cordless and wireless telephones, emergency lighting, and
other applications. With a relatively low internal resistance, they can supply high surge currents.
This makes them a favourable choice for remote-controlled electric model airplanes, boats, and
cars, as well as cordless power tools and camera flash units.

Larger flooded cells are used for aircraft starting batteries, electric vehicles, and standby power.

Popularity

Advances in battery-manufacturing technologies throughout the second half of the twentieth

century have made batteries increasingly cheaper to produce. Battery-powered devices in general
have increased in popularity. As of 2000, about 1.5 billion Ni–Cd batteries were produced
annually.[6] Up until the mid-1990s, Ni–Cd batteries had an overwhelming majority of the market
share for rechargeable batteries in consumer electronics.

At one point, Ni–Cd batteries accounted for 8% of all portable secondary (rechargeable) battery
sales in the EU, and in the UK for 9.2% (disposal) and in Switzerland for 1.3% of all portable
battery sales.[7][8][9]

Now, in the EU and under the Battery Directive, sales of Ni–Cd batteries to consumers for
portable use has been greatly restricted.

Availability

Ni–Cd cells are available in the same sizes as alkaline batteries, from AAA through D, as well as
several multi-cell sizes, including the equivalent of a 9 volt battery. A fully charged single Ni–
Cd cell, under no load, carries a potential difference of between 1.25 and 1.35 volts, which stays
relatively constant as the battery is discharged. Since an alkaline battery near fully discharged
may see its voltage drop to as low as 0.9 volts, Ni–Cd cells and alkaline cells are typically
interchangeable for most applications.

In addition to single cells, batteries exist that contain up to 300 cells (nominally 360 volts, actual
voltage under no load between 380 and 420 volts). This many cells are mostly used in
automotive and heavy-duty industrial applications. For portable applications, the number of cells
is normally below 18 cells (24V). Industrial-sized flooded batteries are available with capacities
ranging from 12.5Ah up to several hundred Ah.

Comparison with other batteries

Recently, nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries have become commercially available
and cheaper, the former type now rivaling Ni–Cd batteries in cost. Where energy density is
important, Ni–Cd batteries are now at a disadvantage compared with nickel–metal hydride and
lithium-ion batteries. However, the Ni–Cd battery is still very useful in applications requiring
very high discharge rates because it can endure such discharge with no damage or loss of
capacity.

When compared to other forms of rechargeable battery, the Ni–Cd battery has a number of
distinct advantages:
  The batteries are more difficult to damage than other batteries, tolerating deep discharge for
long periods. In fact, Ni–Cd batteries in long-term storage are typically stored fully discharged.
This is in contrast, for example, to lithium ion batteries, which are less stable and will be
permanently damaged if discharged below a minimum voltage.
 The battery performs very well under rough conditions, perfect for use in the portable tools.
 Ni–Cd batteries typically last longer, in terms of number of charge/discharge cycles, than other
rechargeable batteries such as lead/acid batteries.
 Compared to lead–acid batteries, Ni–Cd batteries have a much higher energy density. A Ni–Cd
battery is smaller and lighter than a comparable lead–acid battery, but not a comparable NiMH
or Li-ion battery. In cases where size and weight are important considerations (for example,
aircraft), Ni–Cd batteries are preferred over the cheaper lead–acid batteries.
 In consumer applications, Ni–Cd batteries compete directly with alkaline batteries. A Ni–Cd cell
has a lower capacity than that of an equivalent alkaline cell, and costs more. However, since the
alkaline battery's chemical reaction is not reversible, a reusable Ni–Cd battery has a significantly
longer total lifetime. There have been attempts to create rechargeable alkaline batteries, or
specialized battery chargers for charging single-use alkaline batteries, but none that has seen
wide usage.
 The terminal voltage of a Ni–Cd battery declines more slowly as it is discharged, compared with
carbon–zinc batteries. Since an alkaline battery's voltage drops significantly as the charge drops,
most consumer applications are well equipped to deal with the slightly lower Ni–Cd cell voltage
with no noticeable loss of performance.
 The capacity of a Ni–Cd battery is not significantly affected by very high discharge currents. Even
with discharge rates as high as 50C, a Ni–Cd battery will provide very nearly its rated capacity.
By contrast, a lead acid battery will only provide approximately half its rated capacity when
discharged at a relatively modest 1.5C.
 The maximum continuous current drain of Ni-Cd battery is commonly around 15C. Compared to
NiMH battery where usable maximum continuous current drain is not more than 5C.
 Nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) batteries are the newest, and most similar, competitor to Ni–Cd
batteries. Compared to Ni–Cd batteries, NiMH batteries have a higher capacity and are less
toxic, and are now more cost effective. However, a Ni–Cd battery has a lower self-discharge rate
(for example, 20% per month for a Ni–Cd battery, versus 30% per month for a traditional NiMH
under identical conditions), although low self-discharge ("LSD") NiMH batteries are now
available, which have substantially lower self-discharge than either Ni–Cd or traditional NiMH
batteries. This results in a preference for Ni–Cd over non-LSD NiMH batteries in applications
where the current draw on the battery is lower than the battery's own self-discharge rate (for
example, television remote controls). In both types of cell, the self-discharge rate is highest for a
full charge state and drops off somewhat for lower charge states. Finally, a similarly sized Ni–Cd
battery has a slightly lower internal resistance, and thus can achieve a higher maximum
discharge rate (which can be important for applications such as power tools).

The primary trade-off with Ni–Cd batteries is their higher cost and the use of cadmium. This
heavy metal is an environmental hazard, and is highly toxic to all higher forms of life. They are
also more costly than lead–acid batteries because nickel and cadmium cost more. One of the
biggest disadvantages is that the battery exhibits a very marked negative temperature coefficient.
This means that as the cell temperature rises, the internal resistance falls. This can pose
considerable charging problems, particularly with the relatively simple charging systems
employed for lead–acid type batteries. Whilst lead–acid batteries can be charged by simply
connecting a dynamo to them, with a simple electromagnetic cut-out system for when the
dynamo is stationary or an over-current occurs, the Ni–Cd battery under a similar charging
scheme would exhibit thermal runaway, where the charging current would continue to rise until
the over-current cut-out operated or the battery destroyed itself. This is the principal factor that
prevents its use as engine-starting batteries. Today with alternator-based charging systems with
solid-state regulators, the construction of a suitable charging system would be relatively simple,
but the car manufacturers are reluctant to abandon tried-and-tested technology.[citation needed]

Memory effect

Ni–Cd batteries may suffer from a "memory effect" if they are discharged and recharged to the
same state of charge hundreds of times. The apparent symptom is that the battery "remembers"
the point in its charge cycle where recharging began and during subsequent use suffers a sudden
drop in voltage at that point, as if the battery had been discharged. The capacity of the battery is
not actually reduced substantially. Some electronics designed to be powered by Ni–Cd batteries
are able to withstand this reduced voltage long enough for the voltage to return to normal.
However, if the device is unable to operate through this period of decreased voltage, it will be
unable to get enough energy out of the battery, and for all practical purposes, the battery appears
"dead" earlier than normal.

There is evidence that the memory effect story originated from orbiting satellites, where they
were typically charging for twelve hours out of 24 for several years.[10] After this time, it was
found that the capacities of the batteries had declined significantly, but were still fit for use. It is
unlikely that this precise repetitive charging (for example, 1,000 charges/discharges with less
than 2% variability) could ever be reproduced by consumers using electrical goods. The original
paper describing the memory effect was written by GE scientists at their Battery Business
Department in Gainesville, Florida, and later retracted by them, but the damage was done. It is
unlikely to be a real phenomenon, but has taken on a life of its own as an urban myth.[citation needed]

The battery survives thousands of charges/discharges cycles. Also it is possible to lower the
memory effect by discharging the battery completely about once a month.[citation needed] This way
apparently the battery does not "remember" the point in its charge cycle.

An effect with similar symptoms to the memory effect is the so-called voltage depression or lazy
battery effect. This results from repeated overcharging; the symptom is that the battery appears to
be fully charged but discharges quickly after only a brief period of operation. In rare cases, much
of the lost capacity can be recovered by a few deep-discharge cycles, a function often provided
by automatic battery chargers. However, this process may reduce the shelf life of the
battery.[citation needed] If treated well, a Ni–Cd battery can last for 1,000 cycles or more before its
capacity drops below half its original capacity. Many consumer chargers claim to be "smart
chargers" which will shut down and not damage the battery, but this seems to be a common
problem.[citation needed]
Environmental impact

Ni–Cd batteries contain between 6% (for industrial batteries) and 18% (for consumer batteries)
cadmium, which is a toxic heavy metal and therefore requires special care during battery
disposal. In the United States, part of the battery price is a fee for its proper disposal at the end of
its service lifetime. Under the so-called "batteries directive" (2006/66/EC), the sale of consumer
Ni–Cd batteries has now been banned within the European Union except for medical use; alarm
systems; emergency lighting; and portable power tools. This last category is to be reviewed after
4 years. Under the same EU directive, used industrial Ni–Cd batteries must be collected by their
producers in order to be recycled in dedicated facilities.

Cadmium, being a heavy metal, can cause substantial pollution when discarded in a landfill or
incinerated. Because of this, many countries now operate recycling programs to capture and
reprocess old batteries.

Lithium-ion battery
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. For disposable primary lithium batteries, see
lithium battery.

"Lithium-ion" redirects here. For the metal element, see Lithium.

"LiON" redirects here. For other uses, see lion (disambiguation).

Lithium-ion battery

An example of a Li-ion battery

(used on the Nokia 3310 mobile phone)
 100–265 W·h/kg[1][2]
Specific energy
(0.36–0.95 MJ/kg)

250–676 W·h/L[3]
Energy density
(0.90–2.43 MJ/L)

Specific power ~250-~340 W/kg[1]

Charge/discharge
80–90%[4]
efficiency

Energy/consumer-price 2.5 W·h/US$[5]

8% at 21 °C
15% at 40 °C
Self-discharge rate
31% at 60 °C
(per month)[6]

400–1200 cycles
Cycle durability
[7]

NMC 3.6 / 3.7 V, LiFePO4 3.2

Nominal cell voltage
V

A lithium-ion battery (sometimes Li-ion battery or LIB) is a member of a family of

rechargeable battery types in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive
electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium
compound as one electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used in a non-rechargeable
lithium battery. The electrolyte, which allows for ionic movement, and the two electrodes are the
constituent components of a lithium-ion battery cell.

Lithium-ion batteries are common in consumer electronics. They are one of the most popular
types of rechargeable batteries for portable electronics, with a high energy density, small
memory effect,[8] and only a slow loss of charge when not in use. Beyond consumer electronics,
LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, battery electric vehicle and aerospace
applications.[9] For example, lithium-ion batteries are becoming a common replacement for the
lead acid batteries that have been used historically for golf carts and utility vehicles. Instead of
heavy lead plates and acid electrolyte, the trend is to use lightweight lithium-ion battery packs
that can provide the same voltage as lead-acid batteries, so no modification to the vehicle's drive
system is required.

Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types. Handheld
electronics mostly use LIBs based on lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO
2), which offers high energy density, but presents safety risks, especially when damaged. Lithium
iron phosphate (LiFePO4), lithium manganese oxide (LMO) and lithium nickel manganese
cobalt oxide (NMC) offer lower energy density, but longer lives and inherent safety. Such
batteries are widely used for electric tools, medical equipment and other roles. NMC in particular
is a leading contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA)
and lithium titanate (LTO) are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles. The new lithium
sulphur batteries promise the highest performance to weight ratio.

Lithium-ion batteries can be dangerous under some conditions and can pose a safety hazard since
they contain, unlike other rechargeable batteries, a flammable electrolyte and are also kept
pressurized. Because of this the testing standards for these batteries are more stringent than those
for acid-electrolyte batteries, requiring both a broader range of test conditions and additional
battery-specific tests.[10][11] This is in response to reported accidents and failures, and there have
been battery-related recalls by some companies.

Terminology
See also: Battery pack

Although the word "battery" is a common term to describe an electrochemical storage system,
international industry standards differentiate between a "cell" and a "battery".[11][12] A "cell" is a
basic electrochemical unit that contains the basic components, such as electrodes, separator, and
electrolyte. In the case of lithium-ion cells, this is the single cylindrical, prismatic or pouch unit,
that provides an average potential difference at its terminals of 3.7 V for LiCoO
2 and 3.3 V for LiFePO
4. A "battery" or "battery pack" is a collection of cells or cell assemblies which are ready for use,
as it contains an appropriate housing, electrical interconnections, and possibly electronics to
control and protect the cells from failure.[13][14] In this regard, the simplest "battery" is a single
cell with perhaps a small electronic circuit for protection.

In many cases, distinguishing between "cell" and "battery" is not important. However, this
should be done when dealing with specific applications, for example, battery electric vehicles,[15]
where "battery" may indicate a high voltage system of 400 V, and not a single cell.

The term "module" is often used as an intermediate topology, with the understanding that a
battery pack is made of modules, and modules are composed of individual cells.[14][15]

History
See also: History of the battery
Before commercial introduction

Varta lithium-ion battery, Museum Autovision, Altlussheim, Germany

Lithium batteries were proposed by M. S. Whittingham, now at Binghamton University, while

working for Exxon in the 1970s.[16] Whittingham used titanium(IV) sulfide and lithium metal as
the electrodes. However, this rechargeable lithium battery could never be made practical.
Titanium disulfide was a poor choice, since it has to be synthesized under completely sealed
conditions. This is extremely expensive (~$1000 per kilo for titanium disulfide raw material in
1970s). When exposed to air, titanium disulphide reacts to form hydrogen sulphide compounds,
which have an unpleasant odour. For this, and other reasons, Exxon discontinued development of
Whittingham's lithium-titanium disulfide battery.[17] Batteries with metallic lithium electrodes
presented safety issues, as lithium is a highly reactive element; it burns in normal atmospheric
conditions because of the presence of water and oxygen.[18] As a result, research moved to
develop batteries where, instead of metallic lithium, only lithium compounds are present, being
capable of accepting and releasing lithium ions.

Reversible intercalation in graphite[19][20] and intercalation into cathodic oxides[21][22] was

discovered in the 1970s by J. O. Besenhard at TU Munich. Besenhard proposed its application in
lithium cells.[23][24] Electrolyte decomposition and solvent co-intercalation into graphite were
severe early drawbacks for battery life.

 1973 - Adam Heller Proposes the lithium thionyl chloride battery, still used in implanted medical
devices and in defense systems where greater than a 20-year shelf life, high energy density, or
extreme operating temperatures are encountered.[25]
 1977 – Samar Basu demonstrated electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite at the
University of Pennsylvania.[26][27] This led to the development of a workable lithium intercalated
graphite electrode at Bell Labs (LiC
6)[28] to provide an alternative to the lithium metal electrode battery.
 1979 – At Oxford University, England, John Goodenough and Koichi Mizushima demonstrated a
rechargeable cell with voltage in the 4 V range using lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO
2) as the positive electrode and lithium metal as the negative electrode.[29][30] This innovation
provided the positive electrode material that made batteries possible. LiCoO
2 is a stable positive electrode material which acts as a donor of lithium ions, which means that
it can be used with a negative electrode material other than lithium metal. By enabling the use
of stable and easy-to-handle negative electrode materials, LiCoO
2 opened a whole new range of possibilities for novel rechargeable battery systems.
  1980 – Rachid Yazami demonstrated the reversible electrochemical intercalation of lithium in
graphite.[31][32] The organic electrolytes available at the time would decompose during charging
with a graphite negative electrode, slowing the development of a rechargeable lithium/graphite
battery. Yazami used a solid electrolyte to demonstrate that lithium could be reversibly
intercalated in graphite through an electrochemical mechanism. (As of 2011, the graphite
electrode discovered by Yazami is the most commonly used electrode in commercial lithium ion
batteries).
 1983 – Michael M. Thackeray, Goodenough, and coworkers identified manganese spinel as a
positive electrode material.[33] Spinel showed great promise, given its low-cost, good electronic
and lithium ion conductivity, and three-dimensional structure, which gives it good structural
stability. Although pure manganese spinel fades with cycling, this can be overcome with
chemical modification of the material.[34] As of 2013, manganese spinel was used in commercial
cells.[35]
 1985 – Akira Yoshino assembled a prototype cell using carbonaceous material into which lithium
ions could be inserted as one electrode, and lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO
2), which is stable in air, as the other.[36] By using materials without metallic lithium, safety was
dramatically improved. LiCoO
2 enabled industrial-scale production and represents the birth of the current lithium-ion battery.
 1989 – Goodenough and Arumugam Manthiram of the University of Texas at Austin showed that
positive electrodes containing polyanions, e.g., sulfates, produce higher voltages than oxides
due to the induction effect of the polyanion.[37]

From commercial introduction

The performance and capacity of lithium-ion batteries increases as development progresses.

 1991 – Sony and Asahi Kasei released the first commercial lithium-ion battery.[38]
 1996 – Goodenough, Akshaya Padhi and coworkers proposed lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
4) and other phospho-olivines (lithium metal phosphates with the same structure as mineral
olivine) as positive electrode materials.[39]
 2002 – Yet-Ming Chiang and his group at MIT showed a substantial improvement in the
performance of lithium batteries by boosting the material's conductivity by doping it[40] with
aluminium, niobium and zirconium. The exact mechanism causing the increase became the
subject of widespread debate.[41]
 2004 – Chiang again increased performance by utilizing iron(III) phosphate particles of less than
100 nanometers in diameter. This decreased particle density almost one hundredfold, increased
the positive electrode's surface area and improved capacity and performance.
Commercialization led to a rapid growth in the market for higher capacity LIBs, as well as a
patent infringement battle between Chiang and Goodenough.[41]
 2011 – lithium-ion batteries accounted for 66% of all portable secondary (i.e., rechargeable)
battery sales in Japan.[42]
 2012 – John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for
Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium ion battery.
 2013 – the lithium rechargeable battery had progressed to a lithium vanadium phosphate
battery to increase energy efficiency in the forward and reverse reaction.[citation needed]
 2014 – commercial batteries from Amprius Corp. reached 650 Wh/L (20% higher than before),
using a silicon anode, and were being delivered to smartphone manufacturers.[43] The National
 Academy of Engineering recognized John Goodenough, Yoshio Nishi, Rachid Yazami and Akira
Yoshino for pioneering and leading the groundwork for today’s lithium ion battery.[44]

Construction

Cylindrical 18650 lithium iron phosphate cell before closing

The three primary functional components of a lithium-ion battery are the positive and negative
electrodes and electrolyte. Generally, the negative electrode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is
made from carbon. The positive electrode is a metal oxide, and the electrolyte is a lithium salt in
an organic solvent.[45] The electrochemical roles of the electrodes reverse between anode and
cathode, depending on the direction of current flow through the cell.

The most commercially popular negative electrode is graphite. The positive electrode is
generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide), a polyanion
(such as lithium iron phosphate) or a spinel (such as lithium manganese oxide).[46]

The electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate or diethyl
carbonate containing complexes of lithium ions.[47] These non-aqueous electrolytes generally use
non-coordinating anion salts such as lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF
6), lithium hexafluoroarsenate monohydrate (LiAsF
6), lithium perchlorate (LiClO
4), lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF
4) and lithium triflate (LiCF
3SO
3).

Depending on materials choices, the voltage, energy density, life and safety of a lithium-ion
battery can change dramatically. Recently, novel architectures using nanotechnology have been
employed to improve performance.

Pure lithium is highly reactive. It reacts vigorously with water to form lithium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas. Thus, a non-aqueous electrolyte is typically used, and a sealed container rigidly
excludes moisture from the battery pack.
Lithium ion batteries are more expensive than NiCd batteries but operate over a wider
temperature range with higher energy densities. They require a protective circuit to limit peak
voltage.

For notebooks or laptops, lithium-ion cells are supplied as part of a battery pack with
temperature sensors, voltage converter/regulator circuit, voltage tap, battery charge state monitor
and the main connector. These components monitor the state of charge and current in and out of
each cell, capacities of each individual cell (drastic change can lead to reverse polarities which is
dangerous),[48] temperature of each cell and minimize the risk of short circuits.[49]

Shapes
See also: Lithium polymer battery

Nissan Leaf's lithium-ion battery pack.

Li-ion cells (as distinct from entire batteries) are available in various shapes, which can generally
be divided into four groups:[50][full citation needed]

 Small cylindrical (solid body without terminals, such as those used in laptop batteries)
 Large cylindrical (solid body with large threaded terminals)
 Pouch (soft, flat body, such as those used in cell phones)
 Prismatic (semi-hard plastic case with large threaded terminals, such as vehicles' traction packs)

Cells with a cylindrical shape are made in a characteristic "swiss roll" manner (known as a "jelly
roll" in the US), which means it is a single long sandwich of positive electrode, separator,
negative electrode and separator rolled into a single spool. The main disadvantage of this method
of construction is that the cell will have a higher series inductance.

The absence of a case gives pouch cells the highest gravimetric energy density; however, for
many practical applications they still require an external means of containment to prevent
expansion when their state-of-charge (SOC) level is high,[51] and for general structural stability
of the battery pack of which they are part.

Since 2011, several research groups have announced demonstrations of lithium-ion flow batteries
that suspend the cathode or anode material in an aqueous or organic solution.[52]

In 2014, Panasonic created the smallest li-ion battery. It is pin shaped. It has a diameter of
3.5mm and a weight of 0.6g.[53]
Electrochemistry

The participants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion battery are the negative and
positive electrodes with the electrolyte providing a conductive medium for Lithium-ions to move
between the electrodes.

Both electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out of their interiors. During insertion (or
intercalation) ions move into the electrode. During the reverse process, extraction (or
deintercalation), ions move back out. When a lithium-ion based cell is discharging, the positive
Lithium ion moves from the negative electrode (usually graphite = " " below) and enters the
positive electrode (lithium containing compound). When the cell is charging, the reverse occurs.

Useful work is performed when electrons flow through a closed external circuit. The following
equations show one example of the chemistry, in units of moles, making it possible to use
coefficient .

The cathode (marked +) half-reaction is:[54]

The anode (marked -) half reaction is:

The overall reaction has its limits. Overdischarge supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide, leading to
the production of lithium oxide,[55] possibly by the following irreversible reaction:

Overcharge up to 5.2 volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt(IV) oxide, as evidenced by x-ray
diffraction:[56]

In a lithium-ion battery the lithium ions are transported to and from the positive or negative
electrodes by oxidizing the transition metal, cobalt (Co), in Li
1-xCoO
2 from Co3+
to Co4+
during charge, and reduced from Co4+
to Co3+
during discharge. The cobalt electrode reaction is only reversible for x < 0.5, limiting the depth
of discharge allowable. This chemistry was used in the Li-ion cells developed by Sony in 1990.
The cell's energy is equal to the voltage times the charge. Each gram of lithium represents
Faraday's constant/6.941 or 13,901 coulombs. At 3 V, this gives 41.7 kJ per gram of lithium, or
11.6 kWh per kg. This is a bit more than the heat of combustion of gasoline, but does not
consider the other materials that go into a lithium battery and that make lithium batteries many
times heavier per unit of energy.

Electrolytes

The cell voltages given in the Electrochemistry section are larger than the potential at which
aqueous solutions will electrolyze.

Liquid electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries consist of lithium salts, such as LiPF

6, LiBF
4 or LiClO
4 in an organic solvent, such as ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and diethyl carbonate. A
liquid electrolyte acts as a conductive pathway for the movement of cations passing from the
positive to the negative electrodes during discharge. Typical conductivities of liquid electrolyte
at room temperature (20 °C (68 °F)) are in the range of 10 mS/cm, increasing by approximately
30–40% at 40 °C (104 °F) and decreasing slightly at 0 °C (32 °F).[57]

The combination of linear and cyclic carbonates (e.g., ethylene carbonate (EC) and dimethyl
carbonate (DMC)) offers high conductivity and SEI-forming ability. A mixture of a high ionic
conductivity and low viscosity carbonate solvents is needed, because the two properties are
mutually exclusive in a single material.[58]

Organic solvents easily decompose on the negative electrodes during charge. When appropriate
organic solvents are used as the electrolyte, the solvent decomposes on initial charging and forms
a solid layer called the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI),[59] which is electrically insulating yet
provides significant ionic conductivity. The interphase prevents further decomposition of the
electrolyte after the second charge. For example, ethylene carbonate is decomposed at a
relatively high voltage, 0.7 V vs. lithium, and forms a dense and stable interface.[60]

Composite electrolytes based on POE (poly(oxyethylene)) provide a relatively stable

interface.[61][62] It can be either solid (high molecular weight) and be applied in dry Li-polymer
cells, or liquid (low molecular weight) and be applied in regular Li-ion cells.

Room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) are another approach to limiting the flammability and
volatility of organic electrolytes.[63]

Charge and discharge

During discharge, lithium ions Li+

carry the current from the negative to the positive electrode, through the non-aqueous electrolyte
and separator diaphragm.[64]
During charging, an external electrical power source (the charging circuit) applies an over-
voltage (a higher voltage than the battery produces, of the same polarity), forcing the current to
pass in the reverse direction. The lithium ions then migrate from the positive to the negative
electrode, where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process known as
intercalation.

Procedure

The charging procedures for single Li-ion cells, and complete Li-ion batteries, are slightly
different.

 A single Li-ion cell is charged in two stages:[48]

1. Constant current (CC)

2. Voltage source (CV)

 A Li-ion battery (a set of Li-ion cells in series) is charged in three stages:

1. Constant current
2. Balance (not required once a battery is balanced)
3. Voltage source

During the constant current phase, the charger applies a constant current to the battery at a
steadily increasing voltage, until the voltage limit per cell is reached.

During the balance phase, the charger reduces the charging current (or cycle the charging on and
off to reduce the average current) while the state of charge of individual cells is brought to the
same level by a balancing circuit, until the battery is balanced. Some fast chargers skip this stage.
Some chargers accomplish the balance by charging each cell independently.

During the constant voltage phase, the charger applies a voltage equal to the maximum cell
voltage times the number of cells in series to the battery, as the current gradually declines
towards 0, until the current is below a set threshold of about 3% of initial constant charge
current.

Periodic topping charge about once per 500 hours. Top charging is recommended to be initiated
when voltage goes below 4.05 V/cell.

Failure to follow current and voltage limitations can result in an explosion.[65]

Extreme temperatures

Charging temperature limits for Li-ion are stricter than the operating limits. Lithium-ion
chemistry performs well at elevated temperatures but prolonged exposure to heat reduces battery
life.
Li-ion batteries offer good charging performance at cooler temperatures and may even allow
'fast-charging' within a temperature range of 5 to 45 °C (41 to 113 °F).[66][better source needed]
Charging should be performed within this temperature range. At temperatures from 0 to 5 °C
charging is possible, but the charge current should be reduced. During a low-temperature charge
the slight temperature rise above ambient due to the internal cell resistance is beneficial. High
temperatures during charging may lead to battery degradation and charging at temperatures
above 45 °C will degrade battery performance, whereas at lower temperatures the internal
resistance of the battery may increase, resulting in slower charging and thus longer charging
times.[66][better source needed]

Consumer-grade lithium-ion batteries should not be charged at temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).
Although a battery pack may appear to be charging normally, electroplating of metallic lithium
can occur at the negative electrode during a subfreezing charge, and may not be removable even
by repeated cycling. Most devices equipped with Li-ion batteries do not allow charging outside
of 0–45 °C for safety reasons, except for mobile phones that may allow some degree of charging
when they detect an emergency call in progress.[67]

Production

Industry produced about 660 million cylindrical lithium-ion cells in 2012; the 18650 size is by
far the most popular for cylindrical cells. If Tesla meets its goal of shipping 40,000 Model S
electric cars in 2014 and if the 85-kWh battery, which uses 7,104 of these cells, proves as
popular overseas as it was in the U.S., in 2014 the Model S alone would use almost 40 percent of
global cylindrical battery production.[68] Production is gradually shifting to higher-capacity
3,000+ mAh cells. Annual flat polymer cell demand was expected to exceed 700 million in
2013.[69]

Performance

 Specific energy density: 100 to 250 W·h/kg (360 to 900 kJ/kg)[70]

 Volumetric energy density: 250 to 620 W·h/L (900 to 2230 J/cm³)[2]
 Specific power density: 300 to 1500 W/kg (at 20 seconds and 285 W·h/L)[1][not in citation given]

Because lithium-ion batteries can have a variety of positive and negative electrode materials, the
energy density and voltage vary accordingly. On average, it has a high capacity of 1200 mAh, a
battery voltage of 7.2 V and 8.6 Wh per cycle of use.[71]

The open circuit voltage is higher than aqueous batteries (such as lead acid, nickel-metal hydride
and nickel-cadmium).[72] Internal resistance increases with both cycling and age.[72][73] Rising
internal resistance causes the voltage at the terminals to drop under load, which reduces the
maximum current draw. Eventually increasing resistance means that the battery can no longer
operate for an adequate period.

Batteries with a lithium iron phosphate positive and graphite negative electrodes have a nominal
open-circuit voltage of 3.2 V and a typical charging voltage of 3.6 V. Lithium nickel manganese
cobalt (NMC) oxide positives with graphite negatives have a 3.7 V nominal voltage with a 4.2 V
maximum while charging. The charging procedure is performed at constant voltage with current-
limiting circuitry (i.e., charging with constant current until a voltage of 4.2 V is reached in the
cell and continuing with a constant voltage applied until the current drops close to zero).
Typically, the charge is terminated at 3% of the initial charge current. In the past, lithium-ion
batteries could not be fast-charged and needed at least two hours to fully charge. Current-
generation cells can be fully charged in 45 minutes or less.

Performance of manufactured batteries has improved over time. For example, from 1991 to 2005
the energy capacity per price of lithium ion batteries improved more than ten-fold, from 0.3Wh
per dollar to over 3Wh per dollar.[74]

Materials of commercial cells

The increasing demand for batteries has led vendors and academics to focus on improving the
energy density, operating temperature, safety, durability, charging time, output power, and cost
of lithium ion battery solutions. The following materials have been used in commercially
available cells. Research into other materials continues.

Cathode materials are generally constructed out of two general materials: LiCoO¬2 and
LiMn2O4. The cobalt-based material develops a pseudo tetrahedral structure that allows for two-
dimensional Lithium ion diffusion.[75] The cobalt-based cathodes are ideal due to their high
theoretical specific heat capacity, high volumetric capacity, low self-discharge, high discharge
voltage, and good cycling performance. Limitations include the high cost of the material, slight
toxicity, and low thermal stability.[76] The manganese-based materials adopt a cubic crystal
lattice system, which allows for three-dimensional Lithium ion diffusion.[77] Manganese cathodes
are attractive because manganese is cheaper and less toxic than other materials used. Limitations
include the tendency for manganese to dissolve into the electrolyte during cycling leading to
poor cycling stability for the cathode.[78] Cobalt-based cathodes are the most common however
other materials are beginning to be developed to make cheaper and less toxic cathodes.[79]

Positive electrode
Positive electrode

Technology Company Target application Date Benefit

Lithium Nickel
Manganese Cobalt Imara Corporation, Nissan density, output,
2008
Oxide ("NMC", Motor,[80][81] Microvast Inc. safety
LiNixMnyCozO2)

Lithium Manganese LG Chem,[82] NEC, Samsung,[35]

Hybrid electric vehicle,
Oxide ("LMO", Hitachi,[83] Nissan/AESC,[84] 1996 durability, cost
cell phone, laptop
LiMn2O4) EnerDel[85]
 Segway Personal
moderate density (2
University of Texas/Hydro- Transporter, power
Lithium Iron A·h outputs 70
Québec,[86] Phostech Lithium tools, aviation
Phosphate ("LFP", 1996 amperes) operating
Inc., Valence Technology, products, automotive
LiFePO4) temperature >60 °C
A123Systems/MIT[87][88] hybrid systems, PHEV
(140 °F)
conversions

Negative electrode

Anode materials are generally constructed from graphite and other carbon materials. These
materials are used because they are abundant and are electrically conducting and can swell
modestly to accommodate the lithium ions associated with building charge. Silicon is beginning
to be looked at as an anode material because it can swell much more than graphite, storing up to
10 times more lithium ions, however this swelling can break the electrical contacts in the anode
causing catastrophic failure for the battery.[89]

Negative electrode

Technology Density Durability Company Target application Date Comments

Low cost and good energy

density. Graphite anodes
can accommodate one
lithium atom for every six
carbon atoms. Charging
rate is governed by the
shape of the long, thin
The dominant
graphene sheets. While
negative electrode
charging, the lithium ions
Graphite material used in 1991
must travel to the outer
lithium ion
edges of the graphene
batteries.
sheet before coming to
rest (intercalating)
between the sheets. The
circuitous route takes so
long that they encounter
congestion around those
edges.[90]

automotive output, charging time,

Lithium (Phoenix durability (safety,
Titanate Toshiba, Motorcars),
9,000 2008 operating temperature
("LTO", Altairnano electrical grid (PJM
−50–70 °C (−58–
Li4Ti5O12) Interconnection 158 °F))[93]
Regional
 Transmission
Organization
control area,[91]
United States
Department of
Defense[92]), bus
(Proterra)

Consumer
Hard Carbon Energ2[94] 2013 greater storage capacity
electronics

Consumer Larger capacity than a cell

Tin/Cobalt
Sony electronics (Sony 2005 with graphite (3.5Ah
Alloy
Nexelion battery) 18650-type battery)[95]

Smartphones, Uses silicon and other

Volumetric: [96]
Silicon/Carbon Amprius providing 1850 2013 electrochemicals. Energy
580 W·h/l
mA·h capacity density

Diffusion

The ions in the electrolyte diffuse because there are small changes in the electrolyte
concentration. Linear diffusion is only considered here. The change in concentration, c, as a
function of time t and distance x, is

The negative sign indicates the ions are flowing from high concentration to low concentration. In
this equation, D is the diffusion coefficient for the lithium ion. It has a value of 7.5 × 10−10 m2/s
in the LiPF6 electrolyte. The value for ε, the porosity of the electrolyte, is 0.724.[97]

Uses

Li-ion batteries provide lightweight, high energy density power sources for a variety of devices.
To power larger devices, such as electric cars, connecting many small batteries in a parallel
circuit is more effective[98] and more efficient than connecting a single large battery.[citation needed]
Such devices include:

 Portable devices: these include mobile phones and smartphones, laptops and tablets, digital
cameras and camcorders, electronic cigarettes, handheld game consoles and torches
(flashlights).
 Power tools: Li-ion batteries are used in tools such as cordless drills, sanders, saws and a variety
of garden equipment including whipper-snippers and hedge trimmers.
 Electric vehicles: Because of their light weight Li-ion batteries are used for propelling a wide
range of electric vehicles such as aircraft,[99][100][101] electric cars,[102] Pedelecs, hybrid vehicles,
 advanced electric wheelchairs, radio-controlled models, model aircraft and the Mars Curiosity
rover.

Li-ion batteries are used in telecommunications applications. Secondary non-aqueous lithium

batteries provide reliable backup power to load equipment located in a network environment of a
typical telecommunications service provider. Li-ion batteries compliant with specific technical
criteria are recommended for deployment in the Outside Plant (OSP) at locations such as
Controlled Environmental Vaults (CEVs), Electronic Equipment Enclosures (EEEs), and huts,
and in uncontrolled structures such as cabinets. In such applications, li-ion battery users require
detailed, battery-specific hazardous material information, plus appropriate fire-fighting
procedures, to meet regulatory requirements and to protect employees and surrounding
equipment.[103]

Self-discharge

A lithium-ion battery from a laptop computer (176 kJ)

Batteries gradually self-discharge even if not connected and delivering current. Li+ rechargeable
batteries have a self-discharge rate typically stated by manufacturers to be 1.5-2% per
month.[104][105] The rate increases with temperature and state of charge. A 2004 study found that
for most cycling conditions self-discharge was primarily time-dependent; however, after several
months of stand on open circuit or float charge, state-of-charge dependent losses became
significant. The self-discharge rate did not increase monotonically with state-of-charge, but
dropped somewhat at intermediate states of charge.[106] Self-discharge rates may increase as
batteries age.[107]

For comparison, the self-discharge rate is over 30% per month for common nickel metal hydride
(NiMH) batteries,[108] dropping to about 1.25% per month for low self-discharge NiMH batteries,
and 10% per month in nickel-cadmium batteries.

Battery life

Rechargeable battery life is typically defined as the number of full charge-discharge cycles
before significant capacity loss. Storage also reduces capacity.

Manufacturers' information typically specify lifespan in terms of the number of cycles (e.g.,
capacity dropping linearly to 80% over 500 cycles), with no mention of chronological age.[109]
Research rejects this common industry practice.[citation needed] On average, lifetimes consist of 1000
cycles,[110] although battery performance is rarely specified for more than 500 cycles. This means
that batteries of mobile phones, or other hand-held devices in daily use, are not expected to last
longer than three years. Some batteries based on carbon anodes offer more than 10,000
cycles.[111]

As a battery self-discharges, its voltage gradually diminishes. When depleted below the
protection circuit's low-voltage threshold (2.4 to 2.9 V/cell, depending on chemistry) the circuit
disconnects and stops discharging until recharged. As discharge progresses, metallic cell
contents plate onto its internal structure, creating an unwanted discharge path.[citation needed]

Variability

A 2015 study by Andreas Gutsch of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology found that lithium-ion
storage battery lifetime could vary by a factor of five, with some Li-ion cells losing 30% of their
capacity after 1,000 cycles, and others having better capacity after 5,000 cycles. Specific
manufacturers were not named, but in general the performance of cells from Japan and Germany
was best, followed by South Korea and the US, with cells from China performing worst.[112] The
study also found that safety standards for some batteries were not met. For stationary energy
storage it was estimated that batteries with lifespans of at least 3,000 cycles were needed for
profitable operation.

Degradation

Over their lifespan batteries degrade progressively, with reduced capacity, cycle life, and safety,
due to chemical changes to the electrodes. Capacity loss/fade is expressed as a percentage of
initial capacity after a number of cycles (e.g., 30% loss after 1,000 cycles). Fade can be separated
into calendar loss and cycling loss. Calendar loss results from the passage of time and is
measured from the maximum state of charge. Cycling loss is due to usage and depends on both
the maximum state of charge and the depth of discharge.[58][113]

Degradation is strongly temperature-dependent; increasing if stored or used at higher

temperatures. High charge levels and elevated temperatures (whether from charging or ambient
air) hasten capacity loss.[72] Carbon anodes generate heat when in use. Batteries may be
refrigerated to reduce temperature effects.[114]

Pouch and cylindrical cell temperatures depend linearly on the discharge current.[115] Poor
internal ventilation may increase temperatures. Loss rates vary by temperature: 6% loss at 0 °C
(32 °F), 20% at 25 °C (77 °F), and 35% at 40 °C (104 °F). In contrast, the calendar life of
LiFePO
4 cells is not affected by high charge states.[116][117]

The advent of the SEI layer improved performance, but increased vulnerability to thermal
degradation. The layer is composed of electrolyte—carbonate reduction products that serve both
as an ionic conductor and electronic insulator. It forms on both the anode and cathode and
determines many performance parameters. Under typical conditions, such as room temperature
and the absence of charge effects and contaminants, after the first charge the layer reaches a
fixed thickness, allowing the device can operate for years. However, operation outside such
parameters can degrade the device via several reactions.[58]

Reactions

Five common exothermic degradation reactions can occur:[58]

 Chemical reduction of the electrolyte by the anode.

 Thermal decomposition of the electrolyte.
 Chemical oxidation of the electrolyte by the cathode.
 Thermal decomposition by the cathode and anode.
 Internal short circuit by charge effects.

Anode

The SEI layer that forms on the anode is a mixture of lithium oxide, lithium fluoride and
semicarbonates (e.g., lithium alkyl carbonates).

At elevated temperatures, alkyl carbonates on the electrolyte decompose into insoluble

Li2CO3 that can increase film thickness, clogging carbon surface pores and limiting ion anode
access. This increases impedance and reduces capacity. Gases formed by electrolyte
decomposition increase the cell's internal pressure and are a potential safety issue in demanding
environments such as mobile devices.[58]

Extended storage can trigger an incremental increase in film thickness and capacity fade.[58]

Charging at greater than 4.2 V can initiate Li+ plating on the anode, producing irreversible
capacity fade. The randomness of the metallic lithium embedded in the anode during
intercalation results in dendrites formation. Over time the dendrites can accumulate and pierce
the separator, causing a short circuit leading to heat, fire and/or explosion. This process is
referred to as thermal runaway.[58]

Discharging beyond 2 V can also result in capacity fade. The (copper) anode current collector
can dissolve into the electrolyte. When charged, copper ions can reduce on the anode as metallic
copper. Over time, copper dendrites can form and cause a short in the same manner as lithium.[58]

High cycling rates and state of charge induces mechanical strain on the anode's graphite lattice.
Mechanical strain caused by intercalation and de-intercalation creates fissures and splits of the
graphite particles, changing their orientation. This orientation change results in capacity fade.[58]

There is a historical note about the terminology of Anode when referring to Lithium cells, which
started as Primary (single discharge) as exampled with Lithium Thionyl Chloride cells. The
Anode is classically the electrode where Oxidation is taking place in electrochemistry. This is
true on discharge but with a rechargeable system the electrode switches back and forth from
anode to cathode with cycling. The less ambiguous term for secondary cells electrodes are
Positive ( anode on charge, not discharge) and Negative. This is the polarity measured on any
cell with a volt meter.[58]
Electrolytes

Electrolyte degradation mechanisms include hydrolysis and thermal decomposition.[58]

At concentrations as low as 10 ppm, water begins catalyzing a host of degradation products that
can affect the electrolyte, anode and cathode.[58] LiPF6 participates in an equilibrium reaction
with LiF and PF5. Under typical conditions, the equilibrium lies far to the left. However the
presence of water generates substantial LiF, an insoluble, electronically insulating product. LiF
binds to the anode surface, increasing film thickness.[58]

LiPF6 hydrolysis yields PF5, a strong Lewis acid that reacts with electron-rich species, such as
water. PF5 reacts with water to form hydrofluoric acid (HF) and phosphorus oxyfluoride.
Phosphorus oxyfluoride in turn reacts to form additional HF and difluorohydroxy phosphoric
acid. HF converts the rigid SEI film into a fragile one. On the cathode, the carbonate solvent can
then diffuse onto the cathode oxide over time, releasing heat and thermal runaway.[58]

Decomposition of electrolyte salts and interactions between the salts and solvent start at as low
as 70 C. Significant decomposition occurs at higher temperatures. At 85 C transesterification
products, such as dimethyl-2,5-dioxahexane carboxylate (DMDOHC) are formed from EC
reacting with DMC.[58]

Cathode

Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) is the most widely used cathode material. Lithium manganese
oxide (LiMnO4) is a potential alternative because of its low cost and ease of preparation, but its
relatively poor cycling and storage capabilities has prevented it from commercial acceptance.[58]

Cathode degradation mechanisms include manganese dissolution, electrolyte oxidation and

structural disorder.[58]

In LiMnO4 hydrofluoric acid catalyzes the loss of metallic manganese through

disproportionation of trivalent manganese:[58]

2Mn3+ → Mn2++ Mn4+

Material loss of the spinel results in capacity fade. Temperatures as low as 50 C initiate Mn2+
deposition on the anode as metallic manganese with the same effects as lithium and copper
plating. Cycling over the theoretical max and min voltage plateaus destroys the crystal lattice via
Jahn-Teller distortion, which occurs when Mn4+ is reduced to Mn3+ during discharge.[58]

Storage of a battery charged to greater than 3.6 V initiates electrolyte oxidation by the cathode
and induces SEI layer formation on the cathode. As with the anode, excessive SEI formation
forms an insulator resulting in capacity fade and uneven current distribution.[58]

Storage at less than 2 V results in the slow degradation of LiCoO2 and LiMn2O4 cathodes, the
release of oxygen and irreversible capacity loss.[58]
Conditioning

The need to "condition" NiCd and NiMH batteries has leaked into folklore surrounding Li-ion
batteries. The recommendation for the older technologies is to leave the device plugged in for
seven or eight hours, even if fully charged.[118] This may be a confusion of battery software
calibration instructions with the "conditioning" instructions for NiCd and NiMH batteries.[119]

Multicell devices

Li-ion batteries require a battery management system to prevent operation outside each cell's safe
operating area (max-charge, min-charge, safe temperature range) and to balance cells to
eliminate state of charge mismatches. This significantly improves battery efficiency and
increases capacity. As the number of cells and load currents increase, the potential for mismatch
increases. The two kinds of mismatch are state-of-charge (SOC) and capacity/energy ("C/E").
Though SOC is more common, each problem limits pack charge capacity (mA·h) to that of the
weakest cell.

Safety
See also: Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents and Boeing 787 Dreamliner battery problems

If overheated or overcharged, Li-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell
rupture.[120][121] In extreme cases this can lead to combustion. To reduce these risks, lithium-ion
battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that disconnects the battery when its voltage is outside
the safe range of 3–4.2 V per cell.[54][108] Lithium-ion cells are very susceptible to damage
outside the allowed voltage range that is typically within (2.5 to 3.65) V for most LFP cells.
Exceeding this voltage range results in premature aging of the cells and, furthermore, results in
safety risks due to the reactive components in the cells.[71] When stored for long periods the
small current draw of the protection circuitry may drain the battery below its shutoff voltage;
normal chargers may then be useless. Many types of lithium-ion cells cannot be charged safely
below 0 °C.[122]

Other safety features are required in each cell:[54]

 Shut-down separator (for overheating)

 Tear-away tab (for internal pressure)
 Vent (pressure relief)
 Thermal interrupt (overcurrent/overcharging)

These devices occupy useful space inside the cells, add additional points of failure and
irreversibly disable the cell when activated. They are required because the negative electrode
produces heat during use, while the positive electrode may produce oxygen. These devices and
improved electrode designs reduce/eliminate the risk of fire or explosion. Further, these features
increase costs compared to nickel metal hydride batteries, which require only a hydrogen/oxygen
recombination device (preventing damage due to mild overcharging) and a back-up pressure
valve.[123] Contaminants inside the cells can defeat these safety devices.[clarification needed]
Short-circuiting a battery will cause the cell to overheat and possibly to catch fire. Adjacent cells
may then overheat and fail, possibly causing the entire battery to ignite or rupture. In the event of
a fire, the device may emit dense irritating smoke.[124] The fire energy content (electrical +
chemical) of cobalt-oxide cells is about 100 to 150 kJ/(A·h), most of it chemical.[48][125]

Replacing the lithium cobalt oxide positive electrode material in lithium-ion batteries with a
lithium metal phosphate such as lithium iron phosphate improves cycle counts, shelf life and
safety, but lowers capacity. As of 2006 these 'safer' lithium-ion batteries were mainly used in
electric cars and other large-capacity battery applications, where safety is critical.[126]

Lithium-ion batteries, unlike other rechargeable batteries, have a potentially hazardous

pressurised flammable electrolyte, and require strict quality control during manufacture.[127] A
faulty battery can cause a serious fire. Faulty chargers can affect the safety of the battery because
they can destroy the battery's protection circuit. While charging at temperatures below 0 °C, the
negative electrode of the cells gets plated with pure lithium, which can compromise the safety of
the whole pack. Battery packs which are not branded by a reputable manufacturer may not be
built to the same safety standard as branded ones.

While fire is often serious, it may be catastrophically so. In about 2010 large lithium-ion
batteries were introduced in place of other chemistries to power systems on some aircraft; as of
January 2014 there had been at least four serious lithium-ion battery fires, or smoke, on the
Boeing 787 passenger aircraft, introduced in 2011, which did not cause crashes but had the
potential to do so.[128][129]

Environmental concerns and recycling

Since Li-ion batteries contain less toxic metals than other types of batteries which may contain
lead or cadmium[54] they are generally categorized as non-hazardous waste. Li-ion battery
elements including iron, copper, nickel and cobalt are considered safe for incinerators and
landfills. These metals can be recycled.,[130][131] but mining generally remains cheaper than
recycling.[132] At present, not much is invested into recycling Li-ion batteries due to costs,
complexities and low yield. The most expensive metal involved in the construction of the cell is
cobalt. Lithium iron phosphate is cheaper but has other drawbacks. Lithium is less expensive
than other metals used, but recycling could prevent a future shortage.[130] The manufacturing
processes of nickel and cobalt for the positive electrode and also the solvent, present potential
environmental and health hazards.[133][134]

Recalls

In October 2004 Kyocera Wireless recalled approximately 1 million mobile phone batteries to
identify counterfeits.[135]

In December 2005 Dell recalled approximately 22,000 laptop computer batteries, and 4.1 million
in August 2006.[136] Approximately 10 million Sony batteries used in Dell, Sony, Apple, Lenovo,
Panasonic, Toshiba, Hitachi, Fujitsu and Sharp laptops were recalled in 2006. The batteries were
found to be susceptible to internal contamination by metal particles during manufacture. Under
some circumstances, these particles could pierce the separator, causing a dangerous short-
circuit.[137]

In March 2007 computer manufacturer Lenovo recalled approximately 205,000 batteries at risk
of explosion. In August 2007 mobile phone manufacturer Nokia recalled over 46 million
batteries at risk of overheating and exploding.[138] One such incident occurred in the Philippines
involving a Nokia N91, which used the BL-5C battery.[139]

Transport restrictions

Japan Airlines Boeing 787 lithium cobalt oxide battery that caught fire in 2013

IATA estimates that over a billion lithium cells are flown each year.[125]

The maximum size of each battery (whether installed in a device or as spare batteries) that can be
carried is one that has an equivalent lithium content (ELC) not exceeding 8 grammes per battery.
Except, that if only one or two batteries are carried, each may have an ELC of not more than 25
grammes each.[140] The ELC for any battery is found by multiplying the ampere-hour capacity of
each cell by 0.3 and then multiplying the result by the number of cells in the battery.[140] The
resultant calculated lithium content is not the actual lithium content but a theoretical figure solely
for transportation purposes. When shipping lithium ion batteries however, if the total lithium
content in the cell exceeds 1.5 g, the package must be marked as “Class 9 miscellaneous
hazardous material”.

Although devices containing lithium-ion batteries may be transported in checked baggage, spare
batteries may be only transported in carry-on baggage.[140] They must be protected against short
circuiting, and example tips are provided in the transport regulations on safe packaging and
carriage; e.g., such batteries should be in their original protective packaging or, "by taping over
the exposed terminals or placing each battery in a separate plastic bag or protective
pouch".[140][141] These restriction do not apply to a lithium-ion battery that is a part of a
wheelchair or mobility aid (including any spare batteries) to which a separate set of rules and
regulations apply.[140]

Some postal administrations restrict air shipping (including EMS) of lithium and lithium-ion
batteries, either separately or installed in equipment. Such restrictions apply in Hong Kong,[142]
Australia and Japan.[143]
On 16 May 2012, the United States Postal Service (USPS) banned shipping anything containing
a lithium battery to an overseas address, after fires from transport of batteries.[144] This restriction
made it difficult to send anything containing lithium batteries to military personnel overseas, as
the USPS was the only method of shipment to these addresses; the ban was lifted on 15
November 2012.[145] United Airlines and Delta Air Lines excluded lithium-ion batteries in 2015
after an FAA report on chain reactions.[146][147][148]

The Boeing 787 Dreamliner uses large lithium cobalt oxide[149] batteries, which are more reactive
than newer types of batteries such as LiFePO
4.[150]

Research
Main article: Research in lithium-ion batteries

Researchers are working to improve the research methods, power density, safety, cycle
durability, recharge time, cost, flexibility, and other characteristics of these batteries. Researchers
at IBM India have come up with an experimental power supply using lithium-ion cells from
discarded laptop battery packs for use in unelectrified regions in developing nations.[151]

Lithium polymer battery

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Li-Po" and "LiPo" redirect here. For other uses, see Li Po (disambiguation).

See also: lithium-ion battery

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
(December 2010)

Lithium polymer battery

 A lithium-ion polymer battery used to power a mobile
phone

Specific energy 100–265 W·h/kg(0.36–0.95 MJ/kg)

Energy density 250–730 W·h/L(0.90–2.63 MJ/L)

3.3 V, 3.7 V, depending on

Nominal cell voltage
chemistry

A lithium polymer battery, or more correctly lithium-ion polymer battery (abbreviated

variously as LiPo, LIP, Li-poly and others), is a rechargeable battery of lithium-ion technology
in a pouch format. Unlike cylindrical and prismatic cells, LiPos come in a soft package or pouch,
which makes them lighter but also less rigid.

The denomination "lithium polymer" has caused confusion among battery users. It may be
interpreted in two ways. Originally, "lithium polymer" stood for a developing technology using a
polymer electrolyte instead of the more common liquid electrolyte. The result is a "plastic" cell,
which theoretically could be thin, flexible, and manufactured in different shapes, without risk of
electrolyte leakage. These batteries are available[1] although the technology has not been fully
developed and commercialized,[2][3][needs update] and research is ongoing.[4][5][6]

The second meaning appeared when some manufacturers started applying the "polymer"
denomination to lithium-ion cells in pouch format. This is the most extended use nowadays,
where "polymer" went from indicating a "polymer electrolyte" to mean a "polymer casing", that
is, the soft, external pouch. While the design is usually flat, and lightweight, it is not a true
polymer cell, as the electrolyte is still in liquid form, albeit it may be "plasticized" or "gelled"
through a polymer additive.[7] These cells are sometimes known as "LiPo", however, from the
technological point of view, they are the same as the ones marketed simply as "Li-ion", as the
underlying electrochemistry is the same.[7]

This article concerns the second, more extended meaning (among the general public), while the
first meaning (understood in research and academia) is discussed only in the last section.
The name "lithium polymer" (LiPo) is more widespread among users of radio-controlled models,
where it may indicate a single cell or a battery pack with cells connected in series or parallel. The
more general term "lithium-ion" (Li-ion) is used almost everywhere else, including consumer
electronics such as mobile phones and notebook computers, and battery-powered electric
vehicles.

History
Main article: Lithium-ion battery § History

LiPo cells follow the history of lithium-ion and lithium-metal cells which underwent significant
research during the 1980s, reaching a significant milestone with Sony's first commercial
cylindrical Li-ion cell in 1991. After that, other packaging techniques evolved, including the
pouch format now also called "LiPo".

Design origin and terminology

The original kind of cell named "lithium polymer" has technologically evolved from lithium-ion
and lithium-metal batteries. The primary difference is that instead of using a lithium-salt
electrolyte (such as LiPF6) held in an organic solvent (such as EC/DMC/DEC), the battery uses a
solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) such as poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN),
poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) or poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF).[3]

The solid electrolyte can be typically classified as one of three types: dry SPE, gelled SPE and
porous SPE. The dry SPE was the first used in prototype batteries, around 1978 by Michel
Armand, Domain University,[8][9] and 1985 by ANVAR and Elf V Acquitaine of France, and
Hydro Quebec of Canada.[2] From 1990 several organisations like Mead and Valence in the
United States and GS Yuasa in Japan developed batteries using gelled SPEs.[2] In 1996, Bellcore
in the United States announced a rechargeable lithium polymer cell using porous SPE, but
without success in commercialization.[2]

In parallel to the development of these "polymer electrolyte" batteries, the term "lithium
polymer" started being used for liquid electrolyte Li-ion cells in pouch format. These cells
started appearing in consumer electronics around 1995,[citation needed] eventually becoming known
as "LiPo" for some applications.

The confusion in the names may stem from the construction of the basic lithium-ion cell. A
typical cell has four main components: positive electrode, negative electrode, separator and
electrolyte. The separator itself may be a polymer, such as a microporous film of polyethylene
(PE) or polypropylene (PP); thus, even when the cell has a liquid electrolyte, it will still contain a
"polymer" component. In addition to this, the positive electrode can be further decomposed in
three parts: the lithium-transition-metal-oxide (such as LiCoO2 or LiMn2O4), a conductive
additive, and a polymer binder of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF).[10][11] The negative electrode
material may have the same three parts, only with carbon replacing the lithium-metal-
oxide.[10][11]
Therefore, even if a bare, unfinished cell lacks a polymer separator, or any liquid or solid
electrolyte, it may still have a "polymer" component in the active materials of the electrodes.
This polymer, however, is just a small fraction, typically less than 5% by weight, and does not
participate in the electrochemical reactions, being only useful for binding the active particles
together to maintain good conductivity, and help make the slurry mix adhere well to the copper
and aluminium foils that compose the current collectors of the battery cell.[11]

Working principle
Main article: Lithium-ion battery § Electrochemistry

Just as with other lithium-ion cells, LiPos work on the principle of intercalation and de-
intercalation of lithium ions from a positive electrode material and a negative electrode material,
with the liquid electrolyte providing a conductive medium. To prevent the electrodes from
touching each other directly, a microporous separator is in between which allows only the ions
and not the electrode particles to migrate from one side to the other.

Charging
Main article: Lithium-ion battery § Charge and discharge

Just as with other kinds of lithium-ion cells, the voltage of a LiPo cell depends on its chemistry
and varies from about 2.7-3.0 V (discharged) to about 4.20-4.35 V (fully charged), for cells
based on lithium-metal-oxides (such as LiCoO2), and around 1.8-2.0 V (discharged) to 3.6-3.8 V
(charged) for those based on lithium-iron-phosphate (LiFePO4).

The exact voltage ratings should be specified in product data sheets, with the understanding that
the cells should be protected by an electronic circuit that won't allow them to overcharge nor
over-discharge under use.

For LiPo battery packs with cells connected in series, a specialised charger may monitor the
charge on a per-cell basis so that all cells are brought to the same state of charge (SOC).

Applying pressure on LiPo cells

An experimental lithium-ion polymer battery made by Lockheed-Martin for NASA

Unlike lithium-ion cylindrical and prismatic cells, which have a rigid metal case, LiPo cells have
a flexible, foil-type (polymer laminate) case, so they are relatively unconstrained. By themselves
the cells are over 20% lighter than equivalent cylindrical cells of the same capacity.[citation needed]

Being lightweight is an advantage when the application requires minimum weight, such as in the
case of radio controlled models. However, it has been investigated that moderate pressure on the
stack of layers that compose the cell results in increased capacity retention, because the contact
between the components is maximised and delamination and deformation is prevented, which is
associated with increase of cell impedance and degradation. [12][13]

Applications
Main article: Lithium-ion battery § Uses

Six edge shaped Lithium-Polymer-Battery for Underwater Vehicles made by Custom Cells Itzehoe GmbH

LiPo cells provide manufacturers with compelling advantages. They can easily produce batteries
of almost any desired shape. For example, the space and weight requirements of mobile phones
and notebook computers can be completely satisfied. Also, they have low-self discharge rate,
which is about 1%.[14]

Radio controlled equipment and Airsoft

3-Cell LiPo battery for RC-models

LiPo batteries have just about taken over in the world of radio-controlled aircraft, radio-
controlled cars and large scale model trains, where the advantages of lower weight and increased
capacity and power delivery justify the price.

As of the beginning of 2013, LiPo packs of 1.3 Ah exist, providing 45C continuous discharge,
and short-time 90C bursts.[15] Bigger packs of 4.5 Ah may feature discharge rates of 70C, with
140C bursts.[16]

LiPo packs also see widespread use in airsoft, where their higher discharge currents and better
energy density compared to more traditional NiMH batteries has very noticeable performance
gain (higher rate of fire). The high discharge currents do damage the switch contacts due to
arcing (causing the contacts to oxidize and often deposit carbon), so it is advised to either use a
solid-state MOSFET switch or clean the trigger contacts regularly.
Personal electronics

LiPo batteries are pervasive in mobile phones, tablet computers, very thin laptop computers,
portable media players, wireless controllers for video game consoles, electronic cigarettes, and
other applications where small form factors are sought and the high energy density outweighs
cost considerations.

Electric vehicles

Lithium-ion cells in pouch format are being investigated to power battery electric vehicles.
While it is possible to use a large number of cells of small capacity to obtain required levels of
power and energy to drive a vehicle, some manufacturers and research centres are looking into
large-format lithium-ion cells of capacities exceeding 50 Ah for this purpose.[citation needed] With
higher energy content per cell, the number of cells and electrical connections in a battery pack
would certainly decrease but the danger associated with individual cells of such high capacity
might be greater.

Hyundai Motor Company uses this type of battery in some of their hybrid vehicles,[17] as well as
Kia Motors in their battery electric Kia Soul.[18] The Bolloré Bluecar, which is used in car
sharing schemes in several cities, also uses this type of battery.

Light aircraft and self-launching gliders are being produced such as the Alisport Silent 2
Electro[19] and the Pipistrel WATTsUP.[20] Some larger gliders such as Schempp-Hirth Ventus-2
use the technology for self-sustaining motors[21]

Safety
Main article: Lithium-ion battery § Safety

Apple iPhone 3GS's Lithium-ion polymer battery, which has expanded due to a short circuit failure.

LiPo cells are affected by the same problems as other lithium-ion cells. This means that
overcharge, over-discharge, over-temperature, short circuit, crush and nail penetration may all
result in a catastrophic failure, including the pouch rupturing, the electrolyte leaking, and fire.[22]

All Li-ion cells expand at high levels of state of charge (SOC) or over-charge, due to slight
vaporisation of the electrolyte. This may result in delamination, and thus bad contact of the
internal layers of the cell, which in turn brings diminished reliability and overall cycle life of the
cell.[12] This is very noticeable for LiPos, which can visibly inflate due to lack of a hard case to
contain their expansion.
Compared to cylindrical Li-ion cells, LiPos lack integrated safety devices such as a current
interrupting device (CID) or a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) material that is able to
protect against an over-current or an over-temperature.

Lithium cells with true polymer electrolyte

Although the name "lithium polymer" (LiPo) is mostly applied to lithium-ion cells in pouch
format, which still contain a liquid electrolyte, there are electrochemical cells with actual
polymer electrolytes, which however have not reached full commercialization and are still a
topic of research. Prototype cells of this type could be considered to be between a traditional
lithium-ion battery (with liquid electrolyte) and a completely plastic, solid-state lithium-ion
battery.[23]

The simplest approach is to use a polymer matrix, such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVdF) or
poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), gelled with conventional salts and solvents, such as LiPF6 in
EC/DMC/DEC. Nishi mentions that Sony started research on lithium-ion cells with gelled
polymer electrolytes (GPE) in 1988, before the commercialisation of the liquid-electrolyte
lithium-ion cell in 1991.[24] At that time polymer batteries were promising and it seemed polymer
electrolytes would become indispensable.[25] Eventually, this type of cell went into the market in
1998.[24] However, Scrosati argues that, in the strictest sense, gelled membranes cannot be
classified as "true" polymer electrolytes, but rather as hybrid systems where the liquid phases are
contained within the polymer matrix.[23] Although these polymer electrolytes may be dry to the
touch, they can still contain 30% to 50% liquid solvent.[7] In this regard, an open question
remains on how to really define what a "polymer battery" is.

Other terms used in the literature for this system include hybrid polymer electrolyte (HPE),
where "hybrid" denotes the combination of the polymer matrix, the liquid solvent and the salt.[26]
It was a system like this that Bellcore used to develop an early lithium-polymer cell in 1996,[27]
which was called "plastic" lithium-ion cell (PLiON), and subsequently commercialised in
1999.[26]

A solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) may be, for example, a compound of lithium
bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI) and high molecular weight poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO),[4] or a
high molecular weight poly(trimethylene carbonate) (PTMC).[5]

The performance of these proposed electrolytes is usually measured in a half-cell configuration

against an electrode of metallic lithium, making the system a "lithium-metal" cell, but it has also
been tested with a common lithium-ion cathode material such as lithium-iron-phosphate
(LiFePO4).

Other attempts to design a polymer electrolyte cell include the use of inorganic ionic liquids such
as 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([BMIM]BF4) as a plasticizer in a
microporous polymer matrix like poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene)/poly(methyl
methacrylate) (PVDF-HFP/PMMA).[6]