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Lorica Segmentata
Volume I: A Handbook of
Articulated Roman Plate Armour
M.C. Bishop

JRMES Monograph 1

THE ARMATVRA PRESS

 For Peter Connolly,
who cajoled, inspired, and nagged over many years
(I hope he thinks it was worth it)

Argiletanas mavis habitare tabernas,

cum tibi, parve liber, scrinia nostra vacent
Martialis Epigrams I,3
 Lorica Segmentata
Volume I: A Handbook of
Articulated Roman Plate Armour
M.C. Bishop

JRMES Monograph 1

THE ARMATVRA PRESS

First published in 2002 in Great Britain by The Armatura Press

© 2002 M.C. Bishop

ISBN 0 953 9848 42

ISSN 1477-8645

Designed and typeset by M.C. Bishop at The Armatura Press

Printed in Great Britain by the Tyneside Free Press

All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted or used in any form or by any means electronic,
mechanical or by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the written permission
of the publisher and the copyright holder.

The Armatura Press, Braemar, Kirkgate, Chirnside, Duns, Berwickshire TD11 3XL, UK

www.armatura.co.uk

More information about lorica segmentata is available online at www.loricasegmentata.org

Fig.1.2 © National Museums of Scotland

Fig.1.5 © Chester City Council – Grosvenor Museum
Figs.1.4, 1.6, 5.11 © H.R. Robinson courtesy Mrs M. Robinson
Figs.1.7, 2.1-6, 2.10-11 (left), 3.1-2, 9.3 (right), 9.7, Plates 2 & 4 © J.C.N. Coulston
Figs.5.2, 5.9-10, 6.8 © Peter Connolly
Figs.8.3 © Thom Richardson and The Royal Armouries
Figs.8.5, 9.3 (left) © J. Amt courtesy M. Amt
Fig.8.6 © Musée Luxembourgeois
Fig.8.8 © M. Simkins
Plate 1 © West Yorkshire Archaeological Services

All other illustrations are © M.C. Bishop

 Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. The Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3. Early Segmental armour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4. The Kalkriese Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

5. The Corbridge Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

6. The Newstead Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7. The Alba Iulia Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

8. Other Segmental Armour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

9. Technical Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

10. Development and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

11. Reconstructing lorica segmentata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Epilogue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Appendix A: Major published finds of lorica segmentata . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Appendix B: Sources of illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

v
 Preface
This monograph is about Roman segmental armour. I have thought about writing it for a
number of years (the germ of the idea may even have been sown the day I first marvelled at H.
Russell Robinson’s momentous The Armour of Imperial Rome in 1975), but it is only compara-
tively recently that (failing to avoid a pun) all the pieces have begun to fall into place: I have
seen all the major finds and important new discoveries have been made that have started to
cast light into previously shadowy corners.
There will be a second volume, by Dr M.D. Thomas, which will include detailed lists and il-
lustrations of the published archaeological finds of lorica segmentata and it is very much a
companion to the present volume, although each may be used independently of the other. For
this reason, bibliographic references are given for finds mentioned in the text in case the reader
does not have Volume 2 to hand. In drawing artefacts, I have attempted to depict fittings at 1:1
(since they are so rarely shown at full size in older archaeological reports) and larger sections of
plates at 1:2 for the sake of consistency and to allow comparison.
A companion website (www.loricasegmentata.org) provides additional material, including
animations, 3D digital models, and full-size patterns, which is beyond the limited capabilities
of the present cellulose-based medium. Likewise, whilst colour printing is expensive, colour
images on the web are not, so more colour illustrations can be found on the website.
This book is by no means the last word on lorica segmentata: in fact, it could equally be taken as
a statement of how little we know about the subject, as it could how much we have found out.
Thus it is perhaps both an attempt at an overview of how far we have come since the publica-
tion of Robinson’s book more than 25 years ago, and a perspective on how much further we
still have to go.
Lastly, whilst many see writing a book as an end in itself, there is something special (perhaps
even self-indulgent) in writing, illustrating, designing, and publishing a volume on a subject
close to one’s heart. It is perhaps fitting that my interest in publication design was first tweaked
by The Armour of Imperial Rome. Here, then, is a book about lorica segmentata.

M.C. Bishop
Chirnside April 2002

vi
 Acknowledgements
A work of this nature inevitably draws upon the kindnesses of many people in its preparation,
and thinking of – and thanking – these provides a special sort of satisfaction to the writer.
Lindsay Allason-Jones and I spent much time discussing the Corbridge material whilst pre-
paring our monograph on the Hoard and it goes without saying that I am highly appreciative
of her contributions to our joint work. She and Georgina Plowright always allowed me gener-
ous access to the material from the Hoard held in the Museum of Antiquities at Newcastle
upon Tyne and at Corbridge Roman site museum. The late Charles Daniels provided reminis-
cences, photographs, sketches, and even the original cardboard mockups used by him and
Russell Robinson in the reconstruction process.
At the National Museums of Scotland, Fraser Hunter has been most helpful with access to,
and information about, the Newstead cuirass and armguard fragments, whilst the enthusiasm
of Walter Elliot, Donald Gordon, and all the other members of the Trimontium Trust re-
minds me why it is so much fun to delve into the nooks and crannies of the Roman army’s toy
cupboard.
Jenny Hall of the Museum of London allowed me to examine the Bank of England breast-
plate (and has arranged for me to see every piece of military equipment known from Roman
London... but that is another story), whilst the late Martin Howe of Peterborough City Mu-
seum enabled me to study the Longthorpe armour fragments at my leisure. Dan Robinson of
the Grosvenor Museum in Chester helped untangle the history of the Chester legionary
model and Chester City Council Grosvenor Museum were good enough to permit me to re-
produce an image of that same soldier figure.
Mrs Margaret Robinson kindly gave me permission to use some of her late husband’s illus-
trations, and both she and Miriam Daniels were kind enough to allow me to use the
photographs of the early attempt at reconstruction of the Corbridge type cuirass.
Prof Thomas Fischer first told me about, and sent photographs of, the Eining cuirass, whilst
Dr Christof Flügel, and later Dr Bernd Steidl, of the Archäologische Staatssammlung (for-
merly the Prähistorische Staatssammlung) at München permitted me full access to it and
generously provided further photographs. Dr Egon Schallmayer similarly made it possible for
me to study the Zugmantel fragments and this and the München expedition were generously
funded by the Gunning Jubilee Gift of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.
I am particularly grateful to Dr Ernst Künzl and Sebastian Keil of the Römisch-Germa-
nisch Zentralmuseum Mainz for the opportunity to examine the Stillfried cuirass fragments
whilst they were being conserved.
In Osnabrück, Dr Günther Moosbauer was most helpful in arranging for me to see the
Kalkriese segmentata pieces and Dr Wolfgang Schlüter very kindly allowed access to the mate-
rial outside normal museum hours.
Many re-enactors have also helped me during my studies of lorica segmentata. To those – like
Matthew Amt and Sean Richards, Dan Peterson, and the indomitable Chris Haines – who
have provided detailed accounts of their experiences working with and using replica armour,
down to the humble foot soldiers (the PBI) who have patiently (often bemusedly) posed to allow
me to photograph details, I must say a hearty ‘thank you’. Michael Simkins kindly allowed me

vii
to use his photograph of his reconstruction of the Arlon mail cuirass with segmental
shoulderguards and provided details of the evidence and techniques he used for it.
Mike Thomas has been a constant source of inspiration, fascinating facts, and obscure refer-
ences (which I have always tried to counter with my own, equally obscure). Thom Richardson
of the Royal Armouries at Leeds has participated in extremely useful discussions on the recent
Carlisle find and helped me with details relating to this important discovery and provided in-
valuable advice on medieval armour, as well as a deeply instructive tour of the Royal
Armouries in Leeds; he has also been good enough to read through a preliminary draft of the
text. I owe a debt of thanks to Thom and to the Royal Armouries for permission to reproduce
Fig.8.3 from the Royal Armouries Yearbook 6 (2001). I am also grateful to Mike McCarthy, for-
merly of Carlisle Archaeology, for drawing the Carlisle material to my attention and allowing
me to examine it.
My friend and colleague Dr Jon Coulston has invested much time and effort enduring my
interrogations on the subject of the iconographic evidence, especially Trajan’s Column (about
which he has an unparalleled knowledge), contributed generously from his vast photographic
archive, and provided a particularly noteworthy discussion on the origins of segmental armour
whilst driving through northern Germany. He too has, for his sins, read (and commented
widely upon!) a preliminary draft of this book.
A special debt of thanks is owed to Peter Connolly. Not only has he been a persistent driving
force behind this monograph and allowed me to use some of his illustrations, but he has fre-
quently provided invaluable information about his friend Russell Robinson’s involvement in
the understanding and reconstruction of lorica segmentata. Most importantly, he has been an un-
witting inspiration: there is no more eloquent an advocate of the importance of Robinson’s
work.
Finally, my wife Martha Andrews and my children, Oliver and Christabel, have shown great
patience in living, breathing, and tripping over Lorica Segmentata for far too long. For some rea-
son which defies logic, Martha nevertheless also read the final draft of the book for me.
I apologise to any I have overlooked and caution, as I always do, that whilst all of the above
have helped me in the preparation of this volume, I must accept sole responsibility for all hor-
rors, howlers, and ill-conceived notions that may lurk within. You have been warned.

Note
Sites from many countries are discussed in the text and, in order to avoid constant repetition,
information about the country of origin of any given site is given in the index entry as an ISO
3166 abbreviation.

CONVENTIONS USED IN LINE DRAWINGS

copper alloy rivet

leather

iron or steel

copper alloy

tinning or silvering

viii
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 1

Chapter 1: Introduction
NAMING THE PARTS over, Tacitus’ account, whether rightly or wrongly, in-
Few images are more redolent of Roman military evitably brings to mind the images of scale-clad
might than the sight of legionary troops clad in body Sarmatian cavalry depicted on Scenes XXXI and
armour made of strips of mild steel plate. Known XXXVII of Trajan’s Column10. Nevertheless, the seg-
nowadays by the term lorica segmentata,1 the name – mental armour depicted on the pedestal reliefs of
which is not Roman in origin – seems first to have Trajan’s Column might be captured Dacian equip-
been used at the end of the 16th century, when ment, possibly even Sarmatian (see below, Chapter 3),
scholarly interest in Roman arms and equipment be- in which case Tacitus’ account would gain a little more
gan to make its way into print. Since academic works plausibiity.11
at that time tended to be written in Latin, the lingua Inevitably, it has to be conceded that there is insuffi-
franca of European scholars, the term was invented cient evidence to allow any firm conclusion on the
by writers to describe this unusual type of armour. It original Roman name for this type of armour to be
can be seen being used by a native of the Nether- reached. It is not beyond the bounds of possibility that
lands, Just Lips (better known by the Latinised form discoveries of new sub-literary texts, like the writing
of his name, Justus Lipsius) in his 1596 work de Mili- tablets from Vindolanda or Carlisle (England),12 may
tia Romana in a way that implied that the term had eventually provide more information, but until such
been in use for some time (there is no indication that time arrives, we are forced to retain the Renaissance
Lipius actually invented it).2 coinage of lorica segmentata.
The Roman name was for this type of armour is not A final pedantic question concerns the best way to
known. Lorica (‘body armour’ or ‘cuirass’) is obvious, commit the phrase to print. Since lorica hamata and
but the qualifying epithet has not survived.3 A rea- lorica squamata are genuine Latin terms that were in an-
soned guess has been made at lorica lam(m)inata,4 based cient use, it is tempting to mark the early modern
on the use of lamina to describe a sheet of metal. There formulation of ‘lorica segmentata’ thus with quotation
is at least one instance of the use of the word lam(i)nae marks.13 An alternative approach might be to write of
in a military context, in Berlin papyrus inv. 6765 lorica segmentata, marking its difference (and its lack
(which appears to be a report from a legionary fabrica, of ancient authenticity) by not italicising it. In the end,
probably that of legio II Traiana Fortis).5 In that, we find however, too many quotation marks become obtrusive
reference to lam(i)nae levisatares, possibly to be inter- on the printed page and editorial niceties of this nature
preted as ‘light plates’. Unfortunately, there is no seem unimportant beside the bigger questions tackled
reason why this term needs to be associated with the here. So it remains lorica segmentata with the proviso that
segmental cuirass in this particular context. the reader is aware of the problems attached to the
Tacitus, when describing the armour worn by name.
Sarmatian horsemen of the Rhoxolani, invading the
Roman empire along the Danube frontier in AD 68,
talks of them being ‘tegimen ferreis laminis aut praeduro corio WHAT IS LORICA SEGMENTATA?
consertum‘,6 or ‘completely covered with iron plates or The type of armour that has become known as lorica
toughened leather’ (see below, Chapter 3). In a familiar segmentata was an articulated cuirass – in other
rhetorical device, Tacitus sought to contrast their un- words, its component parts moved in relation to
wieldy armour with the much more flexible cuirasses each other to allow greater flexibility than was possi-
of the Romans. Again, when describing the gladiators ble with a rigid form of body armour (such as a
called crupellarii who, completely encased in iron,7 par- muscled cuirass). In fact, most of the body armour
ticipated in the revolt of Florus and Sacrovir in AD 21, used by the Roman army was articulated to some ex-
he says they were equipped with ‘restantibus lamminis tent, insofar as the majority of cuirasses were of mail,
adversum pila et gladios‘.8 In the end, little reliance can be scale, or segmental armour.
placed upon so fickle a writer as Tacitus and there is no Also known in recent times as laminated or
guarantee that, when he talks of laminae, he might not segmental armour, lorica segmentata was modular and
in fact have meant scale armour. Indeed, in his Origines, consisted of four principal elements or units: one for
the 6th century lexicographer, Isidore of Seville, de- each shoulder, and one for each side of the torso. Each
fines scale armour using precisely this word: ‘squama est of these four sections was made of overlapping curved
lorica ferrea ex laminis ferreis aut aeneis concatenata’.9 More- strips of ferrous plate riveted to leather straps (known
2 M.C. Bishop

Amongst this material (excavated 1899, published

1901),15 von Groller was able to recognise 302 frag-
ments of segmental armour and a small amount of
this was duly illustrated in the publication, together
with his thoughts on the likely reconstruction of this
type of armour.16 It is not now possible to know the
condition of the material he found, but it seems likely
that it was not as well-preserved as the later Corbridge
Hoard, since von Groller went on to make some cru-
cial mistakes that would not be put right until the
Corbridge find was analysed.
Interpreting the Carnuntum finds in the light of re-
liefs showing segmental body armour on Trajan’s
Column (see below, Chapter 2),17 von Groller decided
the ar mour must have been articulated on a
short-sleeved leather garment (Fig.1.1). It is therefore
clear that he recognised that the cuirass was articulated
on leather, but mistook the remains of the internal
Fig.1.1 Von Groller’s reconstruction of lorica straps (or ‘leathers’) for fragments of a garment. In do-
segmentata based on Trajan’s Column ing so, it is unlikely that he was influenced by the design
of medieval coats of plates (and lorica segmentata in fact
as ‘leathers’), permitting a considerable amount of more closely resembles later medieval plate armour).18
movement between neighbouring plates (Plate 3). The He also used the Column as a guide for selecting the
same technology, although in a less complex form, was positions of the various fittings that were attached to
used for ancient articulated limb armour and the cuirass. In both cases he was making assumptions
re-invented in the medieval period. about the accuracy of the Column that would not now
find much support, although contemporary scholar-
ship gave him little reason to doubt the interpretation.
PAST WORK Von Groller’s use of Trajan’s Column to interpret
It was not until the end of the 19th/beginning of the the Carnuntum find in this way was to influence Roman
20th century that scholars made any serious attempt armour studies for many years to come, and even H.
to understand segmental armour, fuelled by the new Russell Robinson’s early attempts to understand seg-
archaeological studies of the second half of the 19th mental armour (see below) were to be affected by this
century. A first wave of finds (Carnuntum, Newstead, particular methodology.
Zugmantel, and Eining) did not lead to the immedi- Could the Carnuntum material have allowed von
ate solution of the problem and it took more than Groller to pre-empt Robinson in reconstructing seg-
half a century and the discovery of the Corbridge mental body armour? It seems doubtful: the limited
Hoard (England) for a better understanding of lorica evidence we have suggests the find was not in as good a
segmentata to develop, independent of the somewhat condition as the Corbridge material (see below, Ap-
unsatisfactory iconographic record. As knowledge of pendix A) and, crucially, he was no expert on medieval
this type of armour has improved, so its accepted armour (whilst Robinson was). Moreover, his reliance
earliest use has been pushed ever earlier in the impe- upon the reliefs of Trajan’s Column – a flawed source,
rial period. as we shall see – ensured that he would not succeed.
Thus the misinterpretation of the Waffenmagazin ar-
mour was probably inevitable. Its significance, in terms
Oberst Max von Groller-Mildensee of the transition from the Corbridge to Newstead
Von Groller was one of the leading excavators of the types, went unnoticed.
legionary base of Carnuntum at Bad Deutsch-
Altenburg (Austria). In the summer of 1899, he was
directing the excavation of a building behind the James Curle
west rampart. This structure (Building VI), which Curle was the polymathic excavator of the fort at
became known as the Waffenmagazin, contained a Newstead (Scotland), where work was undertaken
sizeable deposit of weaponry, apparently originally soon after that of von Groller,whose excavations in
stored on shelving, divided by type over several par- the Waffenmagazin were were well known. Curle’s
tially subterranean rooms.14 discovery of the remains of a significant portion of a
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 3

Waffenmagazin. He thought it was a type of scale ar-

mour, noting that the curvature of its plates may have
fitted the shoulders and arms.21

Couissin
In his Les Armes Romaines (published 1926), Paul
Couissin interpreted the segmental cuirass purely
from the monumental evidence22 and went on to
suggest its evolution in exactly the same way.23 Al-
though he was aware of the material excavated at
Carnuntum by von Groller, he merely saw this as con-
firming his views. His approach typified the
uncritical acceptance of metropolitan propaganda
sculpture that is still occasionally found today, de-
spite Robinson’s warnings about its reliability.24

Alfs
Alfs’ paper on the use of articulated cuirasses in the
Roman army (published 1941)25 might arguably be
regarded as a low point in 20th century studies of
lorica segmentata. Dealing with the other forms of ar-
mour used by the army, his section on segmental
armour – like Couissin before him – laid heavy em-
phasis on the iconographic evidence at the expense
Fig.1.2 Curle’s orientation of the largest Newstead of archaeology, even to the extent that he tried to in-
lorica segmentata plates. Photo courtesy NMS terpret the fittings and fastenings used from Trajan’s
Column (Fig.1.3), with little more than passing ref-
segmental cuirass in a well in the headquarters erence to the excavated examples from Carnuntum,
building at Newstead (excavated 1905, published Zugmantel, and Newstead.26 The extent of his prefer-
1911) was certainly important.19 However, his inter- ence for the iconographic evidence is even apparent
pretation was inevitability based on von Groller’s from the crude measure of size: nine-and-a-half pages
flawed reconstruction of the Carnuntum material. on sculpture, compared to just one page on the ar-
So it was that Curle viewed what are now recog- chaeological material.
nised as the back- and breastplates of a cuirass as Rather bizarrely, Alfs had brought the pre-emi-
having fitted at right-angles to their true position. He nence of the Column in segmental armour studies to a
thought the rectangular slots belonged on the lower point where it was virtually possible to discard the hard
edge and served for attaching the girth hoops by means archaeological evidence in favour of what, by any
of straps,20 and he duly published the main pieces in measure, was a very subjective medium.
that orientation (Fig.1.2).
With the benefit of hindsight, it is easy to forget that
nobody was then aware that there might be various Graham Webster
types of segmental armour. It was not until Robinson After a long sterile period, when little new was pub-
had begun to understand the armour in the Corbridge lished on the subject of lorica segmentata after Alfs’
Hoard that he was able to see that a separate Newstead paper, an important article by Graham Webster27
type had existed. about a breastplate in the then Guildhall Museum in
As with von Groller, none of this can be viewed as London, found on the site of the Bank of England
having been the fault of Curle – the evidence available (excavated 1936, published 1960), was the first step
was just too flimsy to allow any interpretation other in remedying the situation.
than that proposed by von Groller. This work inspired a new wave of scholarship that
Curle was also fortunate enough to excavate frag- was ultimately to lead to the solution of the riddle of
ments of a segmental armguard, although he failed to segmental body armour.
understand the significance of the find, or compare it Webster followed von Groller and interpreted the
with the examples von Groller had noted from the London piece as having lain horizontally at the back of
4 M.C. Bishop

Fig.1.3 Couissin’s diagram illustrating the types of fittings shown on Trajan’s Column

the cuirass. However, significantly, he admitted that in conserving this unusual find, but as new details be-
less emphasis needed to be put on Trajan’s Column came clear to Charles Daniels, he shared them with
and more on the archaeological finds. Robinson. The first attempt at reconstructing a cuirass
using the Corbridge discoveries was still heavily influ-
enced by the Grosvenor Museum model (Fig.1.5), but
H. Russell Robinson as the new evidence reached him (in the form of
Robinson is first mentioned in connection with Ro- sketches and cardboard mock-ups supplied by
man segmental armour in an acknowledgement in Daniels), the now-familiar reconstruction began to
Webster’s publication of the Bank of England take shape.32
plate,28 but by then the former had been working on The completeness of the pieces in the Hoard al-
it for a while. His association with Webster led him lowed Robinson to reconstruct three variants on the
on to producing the reconstruction soldier (complete cuirass, the Types A, B, and C. The replica Type A,
with lorica segmentata) for the new Newstead Gallery29 now on display at the Museum of Antiquities in New-
of the Grosvenor Museum in Chester (where Gra- castle upon Tyne (Fig.1.6) in fact re-used many of the
ham Webster was curator from 1949) (Fig.1.5). This components from his first attempt at a reconstruction
was opened in 1953 and the reconstruction utilised of the Corbridge type of armour.33 Many of the super-
the Newstead backplate as a model for the breast- seded original rivet holes can still be seen.
plates (albeit in the correct orientation, unlike Robinson’s successful reconstruction of the
Curle). The shoulderguards were still influenced by Corbridge armour in time for the 1969 Roman Fron-
Trajan’s Column (complete with rivets near their tiers Congress saw an exhibition of his replicas in both
rounded ends) and the girth hoops were fastened by Cardiff and, later, Newcastle. 34 Moreover, his
buckles. A slightly modified version of this recon- new-found understanding of Roman segmental ar-
struction of the cuirass was illustrated in the first mour enabled him to move on to re-examine the
edition of Graham Webster’s seminal Roman Imperial Newstead armour and even attempt a reconstruction
Army30 as a line drawing by Robinson (Fig.1.4). of segmental limb armour from the same site.
There was one important difference between Rob- The significance of his study of the Newstead ar-
inson and the scholars who had preceded him: instead mour was that he realised that it was a different type to
of being a historian or an archaeologist, he was a prac- those found in the Corbridge Hoard. He deduced that,
tising armourer and a specialist in both western and despite missing many diagnostic pieces, the Newstead
oriental traditions, both of which made widespread type may have been simpler in form to its predecessors,
use of articulated defences. He became involved with going so far as to venture the notion that the tripartite
the armour from the Corbridge Hoard (excavated upper shoulderguards were replaced by a single plate
1964, reconstructions published in 1972–5 and the and that the breast-, mid-collar-, and backplates were
artefacts in 1988) in June 1967, some three years after riveted together, rather than joined by lobate hinges as
its discovery.31 Various problems had delayed progress was the case with the Corbridge types.35 Robinson
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 5

Fig.1.4 Illustration by H. Russell Robinson for Graham

Webster’s Roman Imperial Army of a pre-Corbridge
Hoard attempt at reconstructing lorica segmentata.

Fig.1.6 Robinson’s first reconstruction of a Corbridge Type A

cuirass, now in the Museum of Antiquities, Newcastle upon
Tyne. Photos H.R. Robinson

started, but never completed, a replica of this ‘new’

type of armour and his premature death in 1978
meant that it was left to others to attempt, using Peter
Connolly’s reconstruction drawing.
Finally, Robinson looked at the fragments of lami-
nated limb armour which had somewhat baffled
Curle, and produced a reconstruction of the piece as a
cuisse or thigh-guard.36

Andrew Poulter
At the third Roman Military Equipment Seminar,
held in Newcastle upon Tyne in 1987, Andrew
Poulter gave details of a revised reconstruction of
Robinson’s ‘Newstead’ form of the segmental cui-
Fig.1.5 The Chester legionary, equipped by Robinson (cf. rass. A number of significant problems had struck
Fig.1.4). Photo Chester City Council – Grosvenor him and, with the help of Jim Turner (an experi-
Museum enced craftsman), he presented the revised version
6 M.C. Bishop

Fig.1.7 Turner’s revised reconstruction of the Newstead-type cuirass. Photo J.C.N. Coulston

(Fig.1.7). Poulter was unhappy with Robinson’s sug- subject. Only the Corbridge type has been
gested method for fastening the breast- and recovered in sufficient diagnostic amounts to enable
backplates and preferred a simple strap and buckle, any real confidence in its reconstruction.
ironically reverting to the method Robinson had Knowledge of the other main types – the Kalkriese,
used on that early Grosvenor Museum model.37 He the Newstead, and the Alba Iulia – is essentially
also felt that the neck opening would have been derived from composites of fragments from a wide
bound in copper alloy, based on a new interpreta- range of sites or, in the case of the last, exceptionally
tion of the small holes near the top of the breast- and based upon iconographic evidence alone.
backplates. 38 Poulter’s final contribution to the Moreover, there exists the very real possibility of
study of the Newstead cuirass was to note that, other as yet unrecognised variants coming to light in
rather than being Trajanic, as Robinson had the next few years.
thought, that it was more likely to belong to the In all future work, Robinson’s crucial interpretation
Antonine period.39 of the Corbridge Hoard cuirasses will remain pivotal.
However, it must be remembered that he inherited
nearly three-quarters of a century of archaeological
THE FUTURE scholarship of varying quality. Just because much of it
Even now, our understanding of Roman segmental was wrong does not make it any less important to the
armour is far from perfect and new finds, such as process of understanding lorica segmentata, but it does
those from Carlisle (England) 4 0 and Stillfried highlight the importance of interdisciplinary
(Austria) 41 , continue to shed fresh light on the cooperation.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 7

NOTES

1 Literally ‘Body armour (or cuirass) in pieces’.

2 ‘Cum segmenta ferrea, tamquam fasciae aliae aliis superpositae, corpus ambiunt. Nusquam legi, fateor: sed in
columna Traiani assiduum et paene unicum in romano milite hoc genus’ with a marginal heading ‘lorica
segmentata’ – LIPSIUS, 1630, 132 (Liber III Dialog. vi). Interestingly, Lipsius assumed the cuirass was made
of iron. The term is not used in the literary-based account of Roman feats of arms by his contemporary,
Alberico Gentilis (where the subject of military equipment is rather comprehensively ignored: GENTILIS,
1596).
3 Lorica hamata (mail) and lorica squamata (scale) have both come down to us from more than one source (Isidore
Etym., XVIII,13); not so, alas, the term for segmental armour.
4 SIMKINS, 1990.
5 P. Berlin inv.6765: BRUCKNER & MARICHAL, 1979, 409.
6 Hist. I,79.
7 ‘Continuum ferri tegimen‘: Ann. III,43.
8 ‘Plates resistant against pila and swords’: III,46. Picard attempted to identify the crupellarius with a particular
statuette of a gladiator equipped with what appears to be segmental armour (PICARD, 1980). For military
equipment terminology in Tacitus’ writings see COULSTON, forthcoming a.
9 Orig. XVIII,13,2.
10 CICHORIUS, 1896–1900, Tafn. XXII–III and XXVII–VIII. See COULSTON, forthcoming a.
11 It is generally thought that Tacitus was publishing the Histories in the first decade of the 2nd century AD
(WELLESLEY, 1972, 9; MARTIN, 1981, 30), after the conclusion of the Second Dacian War and only a few
years before the dedication of Trajan’s Column (LEPPER & FRERE, 1988, 15). It is thus possible that
Tacitus was describing contemporary captured equipment, rather than armour of the time of which he was
writing (COULSTON, forthcoming a).
12 Cf. BOWMAN & THOMAS, 1983 and 1994 for Vindolanda; TOMLIN, 1998 for Carlisle.
13 And this is an approach that the present author has until now adopted (e.g. BISHOP, 1999b).
14 VON GROLLER, 1901, 39–44.
15 Most of which is unlocated at the time of writing.
16 VON GROLLER, 1901, 95–113.
17 VON GROLLER, 1901, 98.
18 For coats of plates, see THORDEMAN, 1939–40, 210–25, 322–8, 345–92; EDGE & PADDOCK, 1988,
73–4. Von Groller may have been familiar with the concept of coats of plates, although no mention of this
type of armour appears in his text. It is also worth noting that coats of plates had the plates fixed inside the
fabric backing, not outside as with von Groller’s proposed reconstruction.
19 CURLE, 1911, 156–8.
20 Ibid. 158.
21 Ibid. 159, Pl.XXIII.
22 COUISSIN, 1926, 452–6.
23 Ibid., 456–8.
24 ROBINSON, 1975, 182–4.
25 ALFS, 1941.
26 ALFS, 1941, 121–2
27 WEBSTER, 1960.
28 WEBSTER, 1960, 197 n.1.
29 Named after Robert Newstead, the Chester archaeologist (LLOYD-MORGAN, 1987), not the Scottish site.
30 WEBSTER, 1969, Figs.15–16.
31 Daniels in ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 97.
32 These patterns and sketches are now preserved in the archive at Corbridge Roman Site museum.
33 His replicas of the types B and C cuirasses are now on display in the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum
Mainz and the Legionary Museum at Caerleon respectively. Intriguingly, his reconstruction of the C variant
8 M.C. Bishop

features tie rings of the type found at Carnuntum (and now recognised to be part of the Newstead system of
fastening girth hoops – see below, p.51), even though no tie rings were found in the Corbridge Hoard.
34 ANON, 1969. The new reconstruction marks one of the key differences between the 1969 and 1972 editions
of The Sunday Times Roman army wallchart.
35 I am grateful to Dr Coulston for pointing out that Robinson’s interpretation of simplification in Roman seg-
mental cuirass design may owe much to his knowledge of the simplification of Japanese lamellar armour dur-
ing the 15th century AD (cf. ROBINSON, 1967, 190–1).
36 This reconstruction is now held by the National Museums of Scotland in Edinburgh.
37 POULTER 1988, 37.
38 Which, in his scheme, were no longer needed for fastening: ibid. 35–6.
39 Ibid. 39–42.
40 McCARTHY et al. 2001.
41 EIBNER 2000.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 9

Chapter 2: The Evidence

The strands of evidence that allow us to study seg- More or less contemporary with Trajan’s Column,
mental armour are comparatively limited and have and surviving in fragments (often incorporated in later
to be used with great caution. Each has its own prob- monuments), the so-called Great Trajanic Frieze pres-
lems, which will be briefly covered below, but ents a different, but recognisable image of segmental
overall they allow a reasonably comprehensive view armour (Fig.2.2), in the same tradition as the images on
of the form and manner of use of lorica segmentata to the Column. However, the cuirass is typically over-sim-
be built up. plified: no distinction is made between girth hoops and
breastplates, with horizontal bands shown all the way
up to the neckline.5
ICONOGRAPHIC The reliefs on the column of Marcus Aurelius
Representational evidence for lorica segmentata is not (Fig.2.3), erected at some point in the 2nd century AD,
abundant and what does exist is not very reliable, by are heavily influenced by Trajan’s Column and, conse-
and large. Part of the problem lies in the heavy reli- quently, greatly simplified in applied detail and of even
ance that has to be placed upon metropolitan less use in the study of segmental body armour.6 The
propaganda monuments, given the absence of rele- pedestal reliefs of the Column of Antoninus Pius de-
vant provincial funerary reliefs. Indeed, following it pict segmentata rather simplistically (Fig.2.3).7 Panels of
too closely was to prove one of the most common pit- Marcus Aurelius are also preserved on the Arch of
falls in early attempts at reconstruction. Constantine and these show segmental armour, with
Lorica segmentata has become synonymous with Ro- bands running right up to the neck (Fig.2.4), worn with
man legionary troops largely thanks to one particular pteryges.8 A copper-alloy statuette (Fig.2.7) depicting a
iconographic source: Trajan’s Column. Erected as part helmeted soldier wearing lorica segmentata (now in the
of the Forum of Trajan complex in c. AD 106–131 to British Museum9) is stylistically very close to the
commemorate his two Dacian Wars, the spiral relief Marcus Aurelius panels and, once again, of dubious
on the column uses segmental body armour as short- value (other than as a statement of awareness of this
hand to represent citizen troops (both legionaries and type of armour). The same is true of reliefs on the
praetorians). Some 608 figures are represented wear- Arch of Severus in the Forum Romanum (Fig.2.5). 10
ing this type of defence, 42.5% of the armoured The 1st-century AD Rhineland infantry tomb-
Roman soldiers depicted on the relief (Fig.2.1).2 stones are of little help, since the few that do depict
The Column sculptors showed some of the armour some sort of armour show mail (although one small
in considerable detail, notably depicting fittings on the frieze does include a diminutive representation of an
armour. Plates were typically represented with some articulated armguard: Fig.2.8). However, there are
sort of border, the shoulderguards having a circular some pieces of provincial sculpture that provide tanta-
stud at each of their rounded ends (a feature imitated lising glimpses.
on the Chester soldier: Fig.1.5). It is particularly note- The well-known series of reliefs on column pedes-
worthy that they made a distinction between girth tals from Mainz, generally held to be Flavian in date,
hoops and breastplates, something later sculptors include one scene of two legionaries advancing to the
failed to do, and attempted to provide some indication right (Fig.2.9). One is a standard bearer, but his com-
(albeit wildly inconsistent) of the fittings so familiar panion is clearly a legionary infantryman, equipped
from this type of cuirass. These representations were with the typical curved rectangular shield, carrying a
thought sufficiently accurate by Couissin for him to pilum, and with his helmet apparently slung around his
note the variants in his consideration of the armour neck. However, a small portion of his right shoulder is
(Fig.1.3).3 However, the Column is deceptive and its at- visible and this appears to show three shoulderguard
tention to detail should not be mistaken for accuracy: plates above his (short) tunic sleeve. Whether this is in-
mistakes like segmental plates sculpted to resemble the deed what it depicts is open to debate, and the relief
texture of mail should counsel caution against invest- has to be viewed in the context of its companion pieces
ing too much trust in it, and it is probably safest to in the group, one of which has a mail-clad legionary,
interpret the Column reliefs as ‘impressions’, rather whilst another shows a soldier wearing what appears to
than accurate representations, of the sort of segmental be some sort of overgarment but which certainly can-
armour the sculptors would have seen in Rome.4 not be interpreted as segmental armour.11
10 M.C. Bishop

Fig.2.1 Detail of lorica segmentata on Trajan's Column (left) and on one of the Napoléon III casts of the
Column (preserving more detail). Photos © J.C.N. Coulston

Fig.2.2 Details of lorica segmentata on fragments of the Great Trajanic Frieze. Photos © J.C.N. Coulston
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 11

Fig.2.3 Lorica segmentata on (left) the pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius (the heads and weapons are
modern replacements) and (right) the spiral relief of the Column of Marcus Aurelius. Photos © J.C.N. Coulston

Fig.2.4 Lorica segmentata from an unknown monument of Marcus Aurelius, incorporated into the Arch of
Constantine. Photos © J.C.N. Coulston
12 M.C. Bishop

Fig.2.5 Lorica segmentata on the Fig.2.6 Detail of a lorica segmentata-clad defender on the Arch of Severus
Arch of Severus. Photo J.C.N. Coulston Photo J.C.N. Coulston

Fig.2.7 Antonine statuette in the British Museum shown Fig.2.8 Articulated armguard depicted on the tombstone
wearing segmental armour (not to scale). of Sex. Valerius Severus from Mainz.

In the same vein, a relief from Saintes (France – The best provincial representation of segmental
Fig.2.10) shows legionaries wth similar strips depicted body armour so far found is, without a doubt, the
on their shoulders which might be intended to repre- sculpture from Alba Iulia (Romania – Fig.7.1; Plate 7).
sent segmentata, although the piece is so unusual (the This has its own particular problems (since it seems to
texturing of the soldiers’ helmets being more reminis- depict a variant of lorica segmentata that combines scale
cent of cavalry than infantry equipment) that it does shoulder pieces with breastplates and regular girth
not inspire particular confidence in its accuracy.12 hoops: see below p.62). Dating to the late 2nd or early
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 13

Fig.2.9 Column pedestal relief from Mainz depicting a segmentata-equipped infantryman with a detail of the
exposed shoulder section (inset). Photos M.C. Bishop

3rd century AD (the figure wears his sword scabbard That being said, in common with the iconography
on his left-hand side, so is unlikely to date earlier than of lorica segmentata, the archaeological evidence has its
the Antonine period13), the piece seems more likely to own set of problems and biases that affect the way in
be some kind of devotional statue than a tombstone.14 which it can be used. Many of these are the same as
Whilst Trajan’s Column uses segmental armour as a those for the rest of military equipment,17 but there are
shorthand symbol for citizen troops, the contemporary some that remain peculiar to this type of armour. For
(but provincial) Tropaeum Traiani at Adamclisi example, the proportion of segmentata that comes from
(Romania)15 immediately attracts the attention be- rivers, as opposed to that recovered from excavation on
cause it completely ignores this type of body armour. land, is completely different to the same statistic for
Legionaries are shown wearing mail and scale cui- helmets.18 Is this because armour was not deposited in
rasses (Fig.2.11), but no segmentata. There were rivers, or could it be that it was but is not as likely to
obviously differences between the metropolitan and survive as helmets? Likewise, the proportion of loose
provincial perceptions of what a legionary soldier at fittings from segmental armour for any given period far
the time of the Dacian Wars should look like.16 The outweighs the number of components for either mail
dissimilarity between the legionaries of the Column or scale, for the same length of time. Could this have
and the Tropaeum is further enhanced by the depiction been due to the fact that segmentata was far and away
on the latter of limb armour, for the infantrymen not the most common form of armour, or was it just more
only wear greaves but also articulated armguards on prone to falling apart, thus ending up over-represented
their right (sword) arms. in the archaeological record? If so, by how much? The
answers to such rhetorical questions are, of course,
unknowable.However, it is always salutary to remem-
ARCHAEOLOGICAL ber that, excluding the items in the Hoard, there is only
The key to Robinson’s ultimate success in under- a handful of pieces of segmentata from Corbridge.19
standing and reconstructing segmental armour lay in Given the complex nature of a segmental cuirass, it
his combining his practical knowledge of armour with is not surprising that most of our finds are in the form
archaeological artefacts, eschewing the iconographic of isolated components. It is the nature of this armour
sources as the starting point. Slavish adherence to in- that some types of fitting are used in more than one
terpreting the finds in the light of the representations place and need not always be diagnostic (a lobate hinge
was always going to be doomed to failure, for it over- by itself cannot be identified as having belonged to col-
looked the range of impulses and trends that dictated lar plates or upper shoulderguards, or as left-hand side
and biased metropolitan sculpture. or right-hand side). This inherent difficulty explains
14 M.C. Bishop

Fig.2.10 Legionaries on a relief from Saintes, possibly showing segmental armour. Photos J.C.N. Coulston

why scholars resorted to trying to interpret the archae- upon it (whether rightly or wrongly). Corbridge en-
ological evidence from the representational sources. A abled Robinson to reinterpret Curle’s discoveries from
clear understanding of lorica segmentata can only be Newstead, although he was not to know that vital parts
gained from major finds, however, for these provide the of the picture were missing and that, ironically, the
relationships that are not obvious from isolated com- Newstead type was closer to the Corbridge than he
ponents. Indeed, it might be argued that one core find imagined. Subsequent finds (like the first Carlisle
– the Corbridge Hoard (Fig.5.2) – was necessary not backplate) confirmed this, but it took the discovery of
only to understand the Corbridge type itself, but also to two girth hoop units at Stillfried to provide another
inform interpretation of the other variants that have missing piece to this particular jigsaw puzzle.20
since come to light. We cannot now know whether the An excellent illustration of the qualitative difference
1899 find of large amounts of segmental armour in between loose finds of fittings and a core find has been
the Waffenmagazin at Carnuntum could have provided provided in recent years by the objects excavated at the
that key set of material. The fact that von Groller Varusschlacht site at Kalkriese.21 The publication of a
chose to interpret it using the sculptural evidence sug- breastplate, recognisably belonging to lorica segmentata,
gests it did not. but equipped with fittings unlike those found with the
It must be stressed that the Corbridge Hoard did familiar Corbridge type, elucidated a
not provide easy answers for Daniels and Robinson. previously-unsuspected early life for segmental body
Although complete, the fragility of this thoroughly oxi- armour. Almost instantly, it offered an interpretation of
dised group of disparate objects meant that the a whole class of fittings that had remained poorly
laboratory-excavated fragments had to be recon- understood and allows a partial reconstruction (see
structed, like a vast jigsaw puzzle, before interpretation below, p.23ff) of a whole new type (strictly two
could even begin. sub-types) of segmentata. Without the breastplate, and the
Once the Corbridge material had come to light, all other pieces from Kalkriese, other early fittings had
other segmentata, however different, could be modelled been difficult to understand and had often gone
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 15

Fig.2.11 Scale- and mail-clad legionaries on the Adamclisi metopes. Photos J.C.N. Coulston (left) & M.C. Bishop
(right)

unrecognised. Now it is possible to identify fittings from Roman Frontiers Congress in 1969. The artefacts obvi-
these early cuirasses on numerous sites, some even ously dictated the reconstructions, but it is also apparent
reaching Britain after the invasion of AD 43 (see below, that the reconstructions helped with the interpretation
p.23): the effects of Kalkriese are far-reaching in of the objects. When it is done well, reconstructive ar-
Roman military archaeology. chaeology can be a powerful interpretative tool.
It is possible to take the reconstruction of segmentata
even further beyond merely understanding how com-
EXPERIMENTAL ponents fit together, however. Frequent use, of the sort
Mention experimental archaeology or reconstruc- to which re-enactors subject it, has the potential to pro-
tion to an archaeologist and they will invariably vide additional valuable information (Fig.2.12). How
point out before too long that the technique can only does such a complex artefact perform when its compo-
ever tell you what might have been, not what defi- nent parts move against each other? Are there
nitely was.22 As truisms go, it is hard to gainsay. problems with the components during use? Does it suf-
Nevertheless there is much that it can reveal about a fer from corrosion when exposed to the elements?
complex artefact like segmental armour, particu- These and many other questions (especially those re-
larly in terms of the way the many components lating to attrition) cannot be answered by simply
interact, that would otherwise be difficult (or even constructing a cuirass and placing it in a display cabi-
impossible) to predict, or costly and time-consuming net. Of course, Roman soldiers wore their armour
to model using computers. Digital technology cer- every day – worked, marched, and fought in it – and no
tainly has its place (Plate 9), but there will always be present-day re-enactor is likely ever to impose such a
a need to construct physical replicas. heavy burden upon himself. Moreover, differences in
It is natural to make a replica in order to understand the materials used on the original and the replica could
the archaeological artefact: Daniels and Robinson also introduce complicating factors. Nevertheless, so
started with cardboard patterns, and Robinson then long as we recall that there will always be an order of
moved on to metal reconstructions; he was not afraid to difference between the artefact and the reconstruction,
make mistakes (his first attempt at a Corbridge-type cui- we must concede that the latter can hint at and possibly
rass was – as has already been mentioned – still heavily even mimic the reality of the former.
influenced by earlier efforts) and eventually produced It is less clear to what extent mock combat can con-
replicas of the three types in the Hoard in time for the tribute worthwhile data. This activity, ultimately
16 M.C. Bishop

Fig.2.12 Members of the Ermine Street Guard wearing lorica segmentata. Photo M.C. Bishop

deriving from groups imitating medieval and early the future and this is a field of experimental archaeol-
modern combat (albeit with a specially formulated se- ogy where we may expect advances in due course.
ries of rules and conventions),23 exposes armour and Thus, in conclusion, there would seem to be three
equipment to violent activity more akin to (we assume) degrees of reconstruction of lorica segmentata:
ancient combat. At the very least, it accelerates the sort
of routine attrition described above, but it may also in- 1. construction can inform general questions about
troduce other sources of damage and failure induced assembly and the relationship of components;
by violent movement and impact. By itself, such data
may be thought to be inconclusive and possibly even ir- 2. passive use can provide comparative data about
relevant, but its undeniable value lies in its providing the durability of the components of the cuirass;
hypotheses that can then be tested against the archaeo- and
logical evidence.
Akin to mock combat are technological tests con- 3. active use can suggest how segmentata might have
ducted against plate armour. Assays at penetration performed under the ultimate stress, use in the
using replica catapult bolts or bladed weapons show field.
that it was far from invulnerable.24 The potential for
the combination of the use of authentic materials and There are no absolutes and there is much that is
the availability of instruments for advanced scientific subjective, but experimental archaeology cannot be
analysis may make such tests even more informative in ignored or dismissed.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 17

NOTES

1 LEPPER & FRERE, 1988,15–16.

2 I am grateful to Dr J.C.N. Coulston for supplying this information.
3 COUISSIN, 1926, 456–8, Fig.160–7.
4 COULSTON, 1989.
5 LEANDER TOUATI, 1987, Fig. No. 22, 26.
6 BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 23.
7 ROBINSON, 1975, 184.
8 Ibid., 183–4, Pls.498–9.
9 Ibid., 184, Pl.501.
10 Ibid., Fig.189.
11 Mail-clad legionary: SELTZER, 1988, 239, Nr.259; overgarment: ibid., 243, Nr.266.
12 ROBINSON, 1975, Pl.203.
13 VOGEL, 1973, Pl. 9, 12, 15, 28–9; BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 126.
14 COULSTON, 1995, 16.
15 Throughout the text, the Romanian spelling Adamclisi has been preferred over the Germanised Adamklissi.
16 Although Lepper and Frere (1988, 268) mention the possibility that this reflected the equipment issued to
Moesian units, Simkins (1974, 16) and Robinson (1975, 186) both suggested that it was special issue to make
up for the perceived deficiencies of segmentata on the Dacian front – a view echoed, albeit scarcely wholeheart-
edly, by Lepper and Frere (loc. cit.).
17 BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 19–32.
18 No actual statistics exist, but (at a rough guess) the proportions must be in the region of 1:99 for segmentata
(the only indisputable piece from a river bed must be the shoulderguard from Xanten – SCHALLES &
SCHREITER, 1993, 228, Taf.47, Mil84 – but the Bank of England breastplate (above, p.3) may also have
belonged in this very small group, since the Walbrook flowed through the plot: WILMOTT, 1991, 51–4), but
closer to 50:50 for helmets. On riverine deposition, see BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 37–8 (but see
KÜNZL, 1999–2000 for an alternative view).
19 A catalogue of the military equipment from Corbridge is in preparation by the author and includes two tie
rings (CO23479 and CO23499: see Fig.6.15, 5 & 12) and a vertical fastening hook (CO23612) from Newstead
type cuirasses, but only a fragmentary buckle (BISHOP & DORE, 1989, 177, Fig.84,145) from the Corbridge
type.
20 The Carlisle backplate: CARUANA, 1993; the Stillfried material: EIBNER, 2000.
21 For Kalkriese the literature (although prolific) is, in the main, of an interim nature. The lorica segmentata finds
are briefly covered in FRANZIUS, 1992, 362–4 and 1995, 76, Abbn. 2 and 7, and comparative material
from Switzerland and Austria is discussed in DESCHLER-ERB, 1999, 236–7 and UBL, 1999, 247 respec-
tively. The present writer was able to see the Kalkriese breastplate in the autumn of 2001 through the good
offices of Drs Moosbauer and Schlüter, although the circumstances of its display meant it was not possible to
examine it in any great detail.
22 The basic work on experimental archaeology remains COLES, 1979 and most of its tenets hold true.
23 Such groups by and large derive from the Society for Creative Anachronism (SCA).
24 Catapult bolts: WILKINS & MORGAN, 2000, 93; bladed weapons: SIM, 2000, 40.
18 M.C. Bishop

Chapter 3: Early segmental armour

ORIGINS arms so it is unlikely that a Roman cuirass is intended.
The Roman army notoriously exploited the military This would therefore seem to be evidence for some sort
technology of friends and foes alike. There was little of segmental armour in use by either the Dacians or
about a 1st century AD legionary that was an origi- their allies. It may well make sense to interpret them as
nal Roman invention, virtually all his equipment Sarmatian armour, akin to that known from Scythian
being contributed at some stage by one of the subject graves or mentioned (in use by the Rhoxolani) by
peoples of the empire and beyond.1 In fact, even seg- Tacitus (see above, p.1). In the final analysis, the relief
mental armour had been in use for a considerable is not very informative, but it at least seems to highlight
time before the Romans adopted it. non-Roman use of segmental forms of armour, what-
Although laminated and lamellar armours are dis- ever they were made of.4
tant cousins of the true segmental armour, the earliest
comparable form of articulated plate defence is proba-
bly the Dendra cuirass (Fig.3.1). Dating to the 15th CAVALRY & GLADIATOR LIMB
century BC, this defence consisted of a series of curved PROTECTION
copper-alloy plates which overlapped slightly and Articulated limb defences were certainly known in
which were attached to each other by means of laces the Hellenistic period and, given that
tied through holes near the edge of each plate.2 This trans-Danubian cultural exchange was well estab-
method of attachment of the plates was one of its lished in the classical period,5 it seems likely that
main differences from lorica segmentata, since it thereby steppe influence is largely responsible for this famil-
lacked the flexible skeleton provided by internal leath- iarity. Xenophon6 describes how cavalrymen of his
ers. It was also its greatest weakness: if a plate on lorica day (the 5th to 4th centuries BC) could be equipped
segmentata became detached for some reason, those with an articulated armguard (called the ‘hand’ –
above and below it remained unaffected; with the cheira) on the left arm instead of a shield and that this
Dendra armour, however, a detached plate affected all was supposed to be of a different form to the protec-
those below it. Another principal difference lay in the tion on the right arm (which should resemble a
fact that it overlapped upwards, not downwards as was greave).
the case with the Roman cuirass, so it lacked the ability An example of the sort of flexible armguard de-
to deflect blows downwards and, even worse, ran the scribed by Xenophon was excavated from the
risk of damaging the vulnerable ties that joined the Hellenistic arsenal at Ai Khanum and dated to c.150
components of the armour together. Finally, the torso BC.7 In form it is segmental and very closely resembles
halves of the cuirass were arranged front and back, not Roman military armguards, with a large upper plate
left and right as with lorica segmentata. and a series of around 35 overlapping curved plates
(Fig.3.3).
At some point, this type of defence, supposedly de-
LAMINATED ARMOUR FROM signed for the left arm of cavalrymen, changed to
OTHER CULTURES being a right arm defence for gladiators. Gladiatorial
Finds of laminated or segmental armour from peo- reliefs are uncommon before the imperial period, but
ples of steppe origin such as the Parthians clearly laminated armguards were certainly in use by gladia-
demonstrate that the technology that lay behind tors during the first half of the 1st century AD.
lorica segmentata – overlapping ferrous plates articu- Unfortunately, our evidence is insufficiently conclusive
lated on internal leather straps – was already old by to allow an earlier dating than this, but as we shall see
the time the Romans probably first encountered it. (below, p.68ff), almost certainly in use by gladiators be-
Limb armour of this type, combined with scale, is fore it was introduced for Roman infantry use.8
known from steppe sites from the 4th century BC
onwards.3
An intriguing depiction on the pedestal reliefs of A PROTOTYPE FOR LORICA
Trajan’s Column shows what appears to be a segmen- SEGMENTATA?
tal cuirass which has girth hoops fastened by buckles A find from Pergamon, briefly published during the
(Fig.3.2). All of the material on these pedestal reliefs is early part of the 20th century but only recently iden-
thought to be accurately modelled on captured Dacian tified, may offer a prototype for Roman segmental
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 19

Fig.3.1 The Dendra Bronze Age cuirass. Photo J.C.N. Coulston

Fig.3.2 Segmental cuirasses, probably intended to represent Sarmatian armour, depicted amongst the pedestal reliefs on
Trajan’s Column. Photos J.C.N. Coulston
20 M.C. Bishop

0 10cm

Fig.3.3 Hellenistic armguard from Ai Khanum. Scale 1:4

0 10cm

Fig.3.4 Fragments of iron plate armour from Pergamon.

body armour. It was excavated at Pergamon and hinges, like lorica segmentata, rolled edges to the plates
survives as a series of iron fragments (Fig.3.4).9 It (including a possible cut-out for the neck), but ap-
does not conform to any of the known types of Ro- pears to have used a ring on the breastplate to fasten
man segmental armour and, despite an uncertain it to whatever lay below it. More finds may serve to
provenance, may well be a Hellenistic prototype for shed light on this curious discovery, but there is one
segmental body armour. The fragments include further piece of evidence that may be of significance:
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 21

a fresco in Nero’s Domus Aurea in Rome shows a sol- then there could conceivably be a connection be-
dier with a spear and circular or oval shield. The tween the Pergamon artefacts and the Rome
figure (which is thought to represent Hector) wears painting, but there must always remain the possibil-
greaves on both shins, a crested Italo-Corinthian ity that the figure is nothing more than a palimpsest
helmet, has a paludamentum draped about his midriff, of Hellenistic and contemporary Roman equip-
and a cuirass that, it has been argued, resembles ment.10
lorica segmentata (Fig.3.5). If it is accepted that Roman
wall painting frequently copied Hellenistic models,
22 M.C. Bishop

NOTES

1 BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 204–5.

2 ASTROM, 1977, 28–34, Pls.XII–XX. With pairs of backplates and breastplates, as well as shoulderguards
and girth hoops, it bore a passing resemblance to later Roman segmental armour.
3 Like Staroe and Chirik-Rabat: NEGIN forthcoming. On the use of segmental armour amongst steppe peoples
see VON GALL, 1990, 67–9; MIELCZAREK, 1993, 57–60.
4 The sculpture permits no means of assessing the material used for the cuirass, but leather is often suggested
(POLLEN, 1874, Fig.5; VON GALL, 1990, 69).
5 One need only think of Greek material amongst Thracian treasure finds (VENEDIKOV, 1976, 49–53), or the
use of Scythian archers in classical Athens (e.g. Aristophanes Acharnians 54–9). On Greco-Scythian contact in
general see MINNS, 1913.
6 Art of Horsemanship XII,5: ‘And as a wound in the left hand disables the rider, we also recommend the piece
of armour invented for it called the “hand [cheira].” For it protects the shoulder, the arm, the elbow, and the
fingers that hold the reins; it will also extend and fold up; and in addition it covers the gap left by the breast-
plate under the armpit. But the right hand must be raised when the man intends to fling his javelin or strike
a blow. Consequently that portion of the breastplate that hinders him in doing that should be removed; and
in place of it there should be detachable flaps at the joints, in order that, when the arm is elevated, they may
open correspondingly, and may close when it is lowered. For the fore-arm it seems to us that the piece put
over it separately like a greave is better than one that is bound up together with a piece of armour.’
7 BERNARD, 1980, 452–7 with fig.11.
8 For the relationship between gladiatorial and legionary equipment, see COULSTON, 1998a, 4–7.
9 It was referred to in a note by Paul Post (POST, 1935–6) which was in turn briefly mentioned by Alfs (ALFS,
1941, 121), but the main (if incomplete) publication is CONZE, 1913, 327 Fig.122. I am grateful to Drs
Volker Kästner, Gertrud Platz, and Ilona Trabert of the Berliner Antikensammlung for supplying information
on this intriguing find.
10 I am grateful to Peter Connolly and Thom Richardson for discussing these unusual pieces. The Domus Aurea
figure of Hector in the Hall of Stuccoes (IACOPI, 2001, Fig.75) was kindly first drawn to my attention by
Graham Sumner. For an interpretation of the soldier as Roman, rather than Hellenistic, see SUMNER, 2002,
22.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 23

Chapter 4: The Kalkriese Type

EVIDENCE have even been found in Britain (at Chichester and
In 1994, excavation at the Augustan Varusschlacht Waddon Hill), showing that it continued in use until af-
site of AD 9 at Kalkriese, near Osnabrück (Ger- ter AD 43.
many), produced a dramatic piece of evidence which At the time of writing, no definite examples of girth
conclusively proved that lorica segmentata had been in hoops have been identified in association with the fit-
use in the first decade of the 1st century AD – at least tings discussed above (although there are a number of
40 years earlier than had previously been thought.1 candidates for the role – see p.25) and no site has pro-
When Robinson identified the Corbridge and New- duced examples of tie loops in an unambiguous
stead types of the armour as a result of the discovery context.
of the Corbridge Hoard, there had been little hint
that earlier forms might remain to be found.
This Kalkriese evidence came in the form of a DESCRIPTION
breastplate and a number of loose fittings (Fig. 4.1).
The breastplate shared many characteristics with the Breastplate
Corbridge type – it had vertical and horizontal fasten- _ Turned out at the neck; whole plate bound in
ing straps and a hinge to join it to its mid-collar plate, copper alloy
although the fittings were of a completely different _ Attached to the mid-collar plate with a copper-alloy
form. Its leather fastening straps were riveted directly sub-lobate hinge
to the body of the breastplate with large, disc-headed _ Fastened laterally by a copper-alloy buckle
copper-alloy rivets, whilst the hinge fitting was attached to a leather strap riveted directly to the
sub-lobate (one end having three points) and attached plate on one side and a leather strap riveted directly
with four rivets. The horizontal fastening strap still re- to the plate on its twin
tained its buckle, which was attached directly to it with _ Fastened vertically to the girth hoops by a leather
a pair of rivets. Finally, the whole circumference of the strap riveted directly to the plate
plate was edged with copper-alloy piping, similar to
that used on iron helmets. In common with many lorica
segmentata breastplates, it was slightly convex. Mid-collar plate
Few of the Kalkriese-type fittings are as distinctive _ Turned out at the neck; may have been bound in
as those of the Corbridge type and those that are had copper alloy
never been found in securely-dated stratigraphic con- _ Attached to the back- and breastplate with
texts. It was only after the initial publication of the copper-alloy sub-lobate hinges
Kalkriese breastplate that it became possible to iden-
tify similar items from other sites.2 Moreover, the other
loose fittings from the Kalkriese excavations (Fig. 4.2) Backplates
made it possible to isolate a second variant, and again _ Uncertain, but probably three on either side,
comparison with finds from other sites showed that its arranged vertically and joined by leathers secured
components had been known – but not recognised – by copper-alloy rivets
for some time (Fig.4.3). These two variants are the _ Top plate probably turned out at the neck; possibly
Kalkriese types A and B respectively and neither of bound in copper alloy
these used the lobate hinges or decorated washers that _ Attached to the mid-collar plate with a copper-alloy
would become such a characteristic feature of the sub-lobate hinge
Corbridge types. _ Possibly fastened laterally by a copper-alloy buckle
The earliest pieces so far identified come from attached to a leather strap riveted directly to the
Dangstetten (Germany) and date to around 9 BC3 and plate and a leather strap riveted directly to the plate
these appear to have been exclusively of type A (with on its twin, both attached to the plate with two
double-riveted buckles attached to leather straps). copper-alloy rivets
Other sites with a known Augustan presence – such as _ Probably fastened vertically to the girth hoops by
Vindonissa (Windisch, Switzerland) and Strasbourg the internal leathers
(France) – have produced similar buckles or sub-lobate
hinges, whilst fittings belonging to the type B cuirass
24 M.C. Bishop

0 10cm

Fig.4.1 Breastplate from Kalkriese. Scale 1:2

Upper shoulderguard
_ One in three parts, joined by copper-alloy The description of the Kalkriese type must depend
sub-lobate hinges largely on the few recovered pieces, prime amongst
which is the iron breastplate from Kalkriese itself
(Fig. 4.1). This is one of the finest examples of a
Lesser shoulderguards breastplate of any type to survive and is key to
_ Four: two long, two shorter understanding how this variant worked. Measuring
_ Three leathers (front, top, and back) running to 135mm at its broadest point (just below the neck
breast-, collar-, and backplates, attached to the opening), and tapering to 120mm at its lower edge,
plates with copper-alloy rivets the plate (which varies in thickness from 1mm to
3mm) is slightly convex and 188mm high. Near its
top edge is a sub-lobate hinge (attached by two
Girth hoops rivets) where one would expect to find a lobate hinge
_ Probably eight of them, top and bottom plates on the Corbridge type (see below, p.32), obviously
possibly edged in copper alloy intended to join it to a mid-collar plate. The edge of
_ All the same depth, in the region of 55mm, except the curved neck opening has been turned out and
the topmost which is shaped to fit the arm and the whole plate, which has rounded corners, given
narrowed to about 40–45mm, and rolled or an edging of fine copper-alloy piping. The
thickened on the top edge at that point horizontal fastener consists of a leather strap,
_ Upper five possibly fastened by buckles, lowest two attached directly to the plate by means of two
probably left free to be secured by belt disc-headed copper-alloy rivets, to which a
_ Uppermost hoops fasten to back- and breastplates copper-alloy buckle has in turn been attached with
by means of two internal iron hingeless buckles two small rivets. The vertical fastener consists of
and one external hingeless(?) buckle respectively another leather strap, also attached to the
_ Three leathers running vertically on each half breastplate with two disc-headed rivets, and
(front, side, back) secured to each plate by two presumably designed to fasten to a buckle attached
copper alloy rivets at each of the three points to the uppermost girth hoop of the cuirass. There are
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 25

1 2 3 4

5 6 7
0 5cm

Fig.4.2 Loose segmentata fittings from Kalkriese. 1–2 hingeless buckles, 3–5 hinged strap fittings, 6–7 hinged buckles.
Scale 1:1

two holes near the outer edge of the plate, one of ings of the riveted-strap method of fastening shown on
which must certainly have been used to attach the the breastplate had already been recognised by the
internal leathers which secured the shoulderguards Romans. Although they resemble the hinged strap and
in place.4 buckle fittings of the later Corbridge type, they are
Sub-rectangular, or sub-lobate, hinges are thus the more elaborately decorated (with cut-out edges), and
prototypes for the Corbridge lobate hinge. The form such fittings can be identified from a number of other
with the pointed terminals can be seen not only on the sites such as Vindonissa, Kaiseraugst (Switzerland), and
Kalkriese breastplate, but also on a small fragment of Magdalensberg (Austria; Fig.4.3).7
plate from Waddon Hill (England). There was also ap- No incontrovertible examples of girth hoops of
parently a variation on this basic design, shown by pieces the Kalkriese type have been recognised, so it is not
from Strasbourg and Chichester.5 This variant features known how these were fastened. There is a fragmen-
two semicircular projections as terminals, rather than t a r y p l at e f ro m V i n d o n i s s a ( F i g. 4 . 6 ) – w i t h
the three points of the Kalkriese breastplate (Fig. 4.4). copper-alloy edging and four surviving rivets – that
A 96mm-long fragment of plate from Vindonissa6 can may bear interpretation as such a girth hoop, whilst
be identified as part of an upper shoulderguard of the a plate from Dangstetten (with its putative vertical
Kalkriese type (Fig. 4.5), although it is not clear which edge rolled and a central rivet hole close behind it)
variant is concerned. This plate tapers towards one end may equally be an example of a girth hoop.8 One
and has a sub-lobate hinge of the same type found on thing seems certain – they cannot both have be-
the Kalkriese breastplate attached by two rivets at its longed to lower units, but we must wait for more
broader (108mm) end. A central leathering rivet betrays conclusive finds before we can be sure which (if ei-
the fact that this is part of an upper shoulderguard (all ther) is the genuine item.
the other shoulderguard plates necessarily having their No pre-Claudian sites with examples of the
rivets near the inner edge. This plate, like the Kalkriese Kalkriese armour have as yet produced examples of
breastplate, lacks any decorative bosses. what can be identified as tie loops or decorated bosses
The presence of hinged fasteners amongst the so these were probably only introduced with the
Kalkriese material (Fig. 4.2) shows that the shortcom- Corbridge type of cuirass.
26 M.C. Bishop

1 2 3

4
0 5cm 6

7 8
Fig.4.3 Kalkriese-type fittings from other sites. Sub-lobate hinges (from 1. Iruña, 2. Augst, 3. Oberwinterthur), hingeless
buckles (from 4. Vindonissa, 5. Augsburg-Oberhausen, 6. Augst, 7. Dangstetten), and a hinged strap fitting (8. from
Vindonissa). Scale 1:1

RECONSTRUCTION the Corbridge type) backplates. Internal leathers will

The Kalkriese type is the least completely understood have joined the breastplate, mid-collar plate, and one
of the various lorica segmentata cuirasses, so in order to of the backplates to the shoulderguard assembly. The
reconstruct it (Fig. 4.7; Plate 9), a great deal of sur- upper shoulderguard was evidently in three parts,
mise is required, based mainly on what we know of joined by two more sub-lobate fittings and the whole
the later Corbridge type. Throughout, it has to be as- tripartite assembly had gently curved sides, making it
sumed that the Corbridge variant was, wherever broader in the middle (i.e. at the top) than at the ends.
possible, an improvement over the Kalkriese types. The lesser shoulderguards will presumably (again, by
The fact that the breastplate will have been fastened analogy with the Corbridge type) have been four in
(by means of a sub-rectangular hinge) to a mid-collar number and attached to the three internal leathers
plate seems certain, and it is not unreasonable to de- coming from the upper shoulderguard.
duce that this plate will in turn have been hinged to at The girth hoops were probably seven or eight in
least one, and probably up to three (by analogy with number, but all other detail is – for now – conjectural.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 27

1 2

0 5cm

Fig.4.4 Sub-lobate hinges from Strasbourg and Chichester. Scale 1:1.

0 10cm

Fig.4.5 Upper shoulderguard from Vindonissa. Scale 1:2

The question of how the girth hoops were attached to The first option seems so completely impractical
each other can be tackled by a process of deduction: that it could not have worked for anything more
whatever means was used, it was presumably suffi- than a very short time, as the plates would rapidly
ciently inferior to the tie loops used on the Corbridge cut through whatever was used (presumably leather)
type to justify its replacement (remembering that no tie to tie them. Ironically, given earlier abortive
loops have yet been associated with Kalkriese-type ar- attempts to reconstruct lorica segmentata (see above,
mour). The two most likely methods may well be: p.4), the second of these alternatives has more in
favour of it, not least the fact that it at once seems
a) following the Corbridge analogy of tying plates workable, yet also inferior to the eventual tie-hook
together, holes piercing the ends of the girth solution adopted for the Corbridge type.
hoops being used to tie the ends of the girth Presumably the Type A would simply have used
hoops (Fig. 4.8a); straps riveted to the plates, whilst the Type B may
have improved upon this by using fixed buckles
b) by parallel with the cuirass depicted on the ped- (examples of which are known from Kalkriese and
estal reliefs of Trajan’s Column (see above, contemporary sites: Fig. 4.2). There is one plate9
p.18), fastened down the front and back by that might possibly be appropriate to this
means of buckles on one side, and straps on the interpretation (Fig. 4.6): edged on one side with
other (Fig. 4.8b). copper-alloy binding (and thus perhaps either a top
28 M.C. Bishop

0 10cm

Fig.4.6 Possible Kalkriese-type girth hoop fragment from Vindonissa. Scale 1:2

Fig.4.7 Speculative reconstruction of the Kalkriese type of lorica segmentata showing rear (left), side (centre), and
front (right) views of the type A cuirass

Fig.4.8 Possible girth hoop fastening techniques for the Kalkriese type a) tying the plate ends together b) using buckles. Not to
scale
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 29

or bottom girth hoop), it has four rivet holes, two strap to the plate (the rivets on the Kalkriese
close (18mm) together near the bound edge (which breastplate are 25mm and 20mm apart, centre to
might thus be interpreted as leathering rivets on a centre).
top girth hoop) and two holes further (30mm) apart,
near the centreline of the 66mm-high plate, which
could be seen as the means of attaching a leather

COMPONENT LIST
Type: A B
breastplates 2 2
mid-collar plates 2 2
backplates ?6 ?6
horizontal fastening leathers 2 –
vertical fastening leathers 4 –
hinged buckle fittings – 3
hinged buckle fitting rivets – 12
hinged strap fittings – 3
hinged strap fitting rivets – 12
hingeless buckles 7 –
strap rivets 20 –
buckle rivets 14 –
upper shoulderguard plates ?6 ?6
lesser shoulderguard plates ?8 ?8
upper unit leathering rivets 30 30
upper unit leathering roves 30 30
upper unit leathers 6 6
sub-lobate hinge-halves 16 16
sub-lobate hinge fastening rivets 32 32
lower unit halves 14/16 14/16
lower unit fastening buckles? 20/24 20/24
lower unit leathers 6 6
lower unit leathering rivets 72 72
Totals ?297/303 ?280/286
30 M.C. Bishop

NOTES

1 For the Kalkriese excavations in general, see SCHLÜTER, 1992; 1999; SCHLÜTER & WIEGELS, 1999.
For the breastplate in particular, see FRANZIUS, 1995, Abb.2. There had certainly been earlier hints of Au-
gustan lorica segmentata (cf. FINGERLIN, 1970–1, Abb.11,8; HÜBENER, 1973, Taf.13,7), but nothing conclu-
sive. Date of discovery is recorded on www.geschichte.uni-osnabrueck.de/projekt/12/12f.html (checked
10.7.02).
2 UBL, 1999, 247; DESCHLER-ERB, 1999, 236–7; BISHOP, 1998, 10–11.
3 FINGERLIN, 1986, Abbn.268.1, 285.5, 448.1; 1998, Abb.681.2.
4 It is possible that the plate had been releathered at some point and a second hole pierced to attach the new
leathering. To judge from the Type B fittings from the same site, and the fact that the earliest datable find is
some 18 years older, the plate was not new when deposited.
5 Strasbourg: FORRER, 1927, Taf.LXXVII,25–6; Chichester: DOWN, 1989, Fig.27.5,80.
6 UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.30,615.
7 Vindonissa: UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.32,731; Kaiseraugst: DESCHLER-ERB, 1999, Tafn.13,164,
191–2; 14,234–5, 237–44; Magdalensberg: DEIMEL, 1987, Taf.76,27.
8 Vindonissa: UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.30,619; Dangstetten: FINGERLIN, 1986, 136, Abb.371,10,
Taf.2:371,10.
9 UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.30,619.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 31

Chapter 5: The Corbridge Type

EVIDENCE Mid-collar plate
The Corbridge type of lorica segmentata is the most _ Rolled or thickened at the neck; no binding
completely understood of all the variants, thanks _ Attached to the back- and breastplate with
mainly to the remains of parts of as many as twelve copper-alloy lobate hinges
cuirasses preserved in the Corbridge Hoard, discov-
ered in 1964.1
The first recorded excavated examples of the type Backplates
were found in the Carnuntum Waffenmagazin deposit, where _ Three on either side, arranged vertically and joined
a range of parts from both lower and upper units was dis- by leathers secured by copper-alloy rivets
covered. This was followed by a (distorted) breastplate _ Top plate rolled or thickened at the neck; no
from the Bank of England site (Fig.5.1) in London and a binding
significant deposit of components (both upper and lower) _ Attached to the mid-collar plate with a copper-alloy
from Rißtissen (Germany). However, it was the discovery lobate hinge
of complete sections of armour in the Corbridge Hoard _ Fastened laterally by a hinged copper-alloy buckle
that has defined our understanding of segmental body on one plate and a hinged copper-alloy strap fitting
armour (Fig.5.2), not only in terms of how it and its vari- on its twin, both attached to the plate with two
ous sub-forms worked, but also some indication of how copper-alloy rivets
much maintenance it required. _ Fastened vertically to the girth hoops by the
Subsequent finds have added little to what could be internal leathers
seen in the Corbridge find, British pieces from
Chichester, St Albans, and Longthorpe showing some-
thing of the range of shapes and sizes that were Upper shoulderguard
possible, but only a substantial portion of cuirass from _ One in three parts, joined by copper-alloy lobate
Gamala (Israel) has shown any deviation from the gen- hinges
eral form. Lost during the Flavian assault on the town,
the Gamala cuirass incorporated a unique system of
sliding rivets to join the backplates, rather than the Lesser shoulderguards
more normal internal leathers.2 _ Four: two long, two shorter
It is the Corbridge type that has produced the most _ Three leathers (front, top, and back) running to
by way of loose fittings, although as the timeline shows breast-, mid-collar-, and backplates, attached to the
(Fig.10.1) it was in service for only slightly longer than plates with copper-alloy rivets
the Kalkriese type, and about the same length of time
as the Newstead form. As will be discussed in greater
depth later (below, p.92), this may have had more to do Girth hoops
with the fragility of this particular type than its wide- _ Eight (A) or seven (B/C) of them, usually
spread use. overlapping left over right
_ All the same depth, in the region of 55mm, except
the topmost which is shaped to fit the arm and
DESCRIPTION narrowed to about 40–45mm, and rolled or
thickened on the top edge at that point
Breastplate _ Upper five or six fastened by copper-alloy tie-loops,
_ Rolled or thickened at the neck; no binding lowest two left free
_ Attached to the mid-collar plate with a copper-alloy _ Uppermost hoops fasten to back- and breastplates
lobate hinge by means of two internal iron hingeless buckles (A)
_ Fastened laterally by a hinged copper-alloy buckle or two external hooks (B/C) and one external
on one plate and a hinged copper-alloy strap fitting hinged buckle (A) or one external hook respectively
on its twin, both attached to the plate with two _ Three leathers running vertically on each half
copper-alloy rivets (front, side, back) secured to each plate by two
_ Fastened vertically to the girth hoops by one hinged copper alloy rivets at each of the three points
copper-alloy strap fitting
32 M.C. Bishop

The Corbridge type has five plates comprising each

collar section: a breastplate, mid-collar plate, and
three backplates. The first two of these, together with
the upper backplate, have a carefully-finished neck
opening, usually either upset or rolled. Lateral
fastening was accomplished by means of hinged
buckles and hinged strap fittings (on the breastplates
and upper backplates: Fig.5.3a), whilst the vertical
fasteners differed between the various sub-types
identified by Robinson. Type A used a hinged strap
on the breastplate, which was paired with a hinged
buckle on the front of the upper girth hoop (Fig.5.3b),
and used the internal leathers on the backplates to
attach to two hingeless buckles inside the rear of each
upper girth hoop (Fig.5.3c). Types B and C used
loops (copper-alloy in the case of B, iron for C) to 0 10cm
receive hooks attached to the upper girth hoop
(Fig.5.3d). The reason for the change from leather to Fig.5.1 The Bank of England breastplate. Scale 1:2
copper alloy for the vertical fasteners may be because
stretching of the leather suspending the girth hoops preferred side for attachment of the hinged buckle for
from the shoulder units (a technique that had also either the breast- or backplates.
been used on the Kalkriese type) was perceived as a Both the breast- and backplates were attached to
problem and that the metal hooks presented the best, the mid-collar plate by means of copper-alloy lobate
if not an ideal, solution.3 Modern reconstructions hinges (Fig.5.3f). Although this was theoretically a
have shown that it is possible for the hooks to become flexible joint, in practice it did not strictly need to be
disengaged whilst in use.4 (see below, p.85) and a number of the Corbridge
The breast- and backplates show some degree of in- plates show signs of repairs whereby neighbouring
dividualisation in the placing of leathering rivets, the plates were riveted directly together (Fig.5.5). The
addition of decorative bosses (Fig.5.3e), and the ar- mid-collar plate was fixed to a lateral internal leather
rangement (and especially sharing) of rivets for the with a single copper-alloy rivet (without a decorative
various fittings, as well as in sizing (Figs.5.4). There is boss).
also some inconsistency in the arrangement of lateral Each set of collar plates was attached by means of
fasteners (Table 5.1), suggesting that there was no one three leathers to the upper shoulderguard, which sat
above the collar assembly. The upper shoulderguard

Site Surviving Buckled Side Buckled Side Reference

Half (Breastplate) (Backplate)
Corbridge 1 right right left ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP,
1988, 23, Fig.26
Corbridge 2 right left left ibid., 29 Fig.31
Corbridge 3 left left left ibid., 29, Fig.34
Corbridge 4 left left ? ibid., 34, Fig.39
Corbridge 5 left left ? ibid., 39, Fig.43
Corbridge 6 right ? right ibid., 43, Fig.49
Vindonissa right right – UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997,
Taf.31,636
Bank of England right right – WEBSTER, 1960, Pl.LIV
Longthorpe right – left? FRERE & ST JOSEPH, 1974, 46,
Fig.25,16

Table 5.1 Corbridge type breast- and backplate lateral fastening

 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 33

Fig.5.2 Reconstruction of the Corbridge Hoard (illustration Peter Connolly)

consisted of three large plates, again joined to each Type B/C plates, on the other hand, had a more dis-
other by means of lobate hinges, and with their cen- tinctive shape. The front and back plates tapered
trally-placed leathering rivets usually adorned with slightly (from 76mm to 66mm on Cuirass 5), but the
decorative bosses. They differed in form between the central plate broadened to a point (up to 94mm wide)
various sub-types, although understanding of these which, to judge from the evidence of the same Hoard
differences is complicated by the fact that there had ev- cuirass, faced inwards.6
idently been some switching of shoulderguards Sets of four lesser shoulderguards were attached by
amongst the Corbridge Hoard cuirasses.5 The Type A the three leathers to the upper shoulderguard and
upper shoulderguard was quite narrow (between ranged between 50mm and 56mm in width (sets tend-
72mm and 84mm) with slightly curving sides, the cen- ing to be of the same width). These were riveted to the
tral plate being broader than those to the front or rear leathers along their inner edges, with one rivet for each
(which tapered from 72mm to 60mm on Cuirass 2). leather and each set of rivets was protected from above
34 M.C. Bishop

a b

c
d

e f

Fig.5.3 Details of Corbridge Hoard armour showing a) a lateral fastening, b) an external vertical fastening buckle, c) internal
hingeless buckles, d) vertical fastening loops from the Type C backplate, e) a decorative leathering rosette washer, f) a lobate
hinge. Photos M.C. Bishop
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 35

Corbridge 1 Corbridge 6 London

Corbridge 2
0 10cm

Corbridge 3 Vindonissa
Corbridge 4 Corbridge 5

Kalkriese Newstead
Fig.5.4 Corbridge-type breastplates (with Kalkriese and Newstead examples for the purposes of comparison). Scale 1:3
36 M.C. Bishop

0 10cm

1 2

3
Fig.5.5 Riveted repairs between collar plates and backplates from the Corbridge Hoard: 1. Cuirass 4, 2. Cuirass 2,
3. Cuirass 1. Scale 1:2

by the neighbouring plate. Most of the sets of lesser had pairs of tie loops, one at either end of each plate.
shoulderguards in the Hoard were very fragmentary, These tie loops were of copper alloy (orichalcum when-
but it seems that the inner two plates were longer than ever they have been analysed: Plate 1), attached to the
the outer two, rather than there being a gradual reduc- girth hoop by means of two rivets, and were set back
tion of length over the four of them.7 from the edge of the plate, near its lower edge. They
The few examples of plates belonging to upper were usually mounted horizontally, although some
units that can successfully be measured generally have were set at a slight angle for no obvious reason. They
a thickness of at least 1mm.8 In at least one case, extra were secured by means of a leather lace tied across two
thickness was given to a mid-collar plate by doubling neighbouring loops. Robinson pointed out that a single
it.9 Girth hoops, on the hand, seem to have been thin- lace (as proposed by von Groller) run through all adja-
ner (those from Vindonissa being 0.7mm10), which will cent loops would permit too much movement in a
have had implications for the overall weight of the cui- cuirass; a further argument against von Groller’s sug-
rass if this were generally applied. gested method is obviously that one cut would loosen
It is probably worth emphasising that what are per- all girth hoops in one go.12
ceived as differences between sub-types may in fact, The upper girth hoops were slightly scalloped along
like some supposed helmet types,11 be due to differ- the top edge, corresponding with the armpit area, and
ences between armourers. This is especially true of the the upper edges were thickened by upsetting or rolling.
difference between subtype B (with copper-alloy verti- The same was done to the lower edge of the bottom
cal fasteners) and C (where the same items were plate of each set of girth hoops and Robinson (almost
positioned slightly differently and made of iron). certainly correctly) deduced that this was for the com-
The cuirasses in the Corbridge Hoard had either fort of the wearer, helping prevent exposed sharp
seven or eight girth hoops (so 14 or 16 plates), the low- edges digging in.13 Type A cuirasses had their upper
est two of which did not have fasteners. The others all and lower units joined by means of buckles and straps,
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 37

a 1 b

a 2 b

a 3 b

0 5cm

a 4 b

Fig.5.6 Decorated shapes of fittings, rarer (a) and more common (b). Scale 1:1

lobate hinges, tie loops, embossed washers, and

B/C using hook and eye vertical fasteners. For the type
vertical fastening hooks. These were not only
A, the front fasteners (one on either top girth hoop)
were of copper alloy and usually hinged, whilst the found in a range of forms, but also were decorated
in a variety of ways. They are also the most com-
rear fittings were internal (and the hingeless buckle fit-
tings entirely of iron).14 mon archaeological manifestation of this type of
armour and it is certainly tempting to see them as
the major weakness of the cuirass (see below,
THE FITTINGS p.84). Each element of the body of the hinged fit-
The copper-alloy fittings that adorned the cuirass tings (the hinged strap and buckles, from the
consisted of hinged buckles, hinged strap fittings, breast- and backplates, and lobate hinges) was
38 M.C. Bishop

2 4
1

3 5

0 5cm

Fig.5.7 A stamp for embossing decorative washers (1), half finished washers (2–3), and the finished product (4–5). Scale 1:1

1
2

4 5
0 5cm

Fig.5.8 Types of decoration applied to Corbridge-type fittings, stamped (1–2), embossed (3), and scored (4–5).
Scale 1:1

usually made from a doubled-over sheet of copper loop for a hinge). Tie loops and vertical fastening
alloy (folded longitudinally about the hinge). Oc- hooks, on the other hand, were made either from
casionally, single-thickness sheet is found or, more rod flattened out at one end, or sheet rolled up at
commonly, partially doubled-over fittings (with, the other. 15
perhaps, just an essential doubling, such as the
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 39

Fig.5.9 Reconstruction of the Corbridge type A cuirass (Peter Connolly)

Decoration took a variety of forms. First there was gional and his suggestion that those hinges with
elaboration of the basic shape. Here we might in- triangular apertures were the earliest form would ap-
c l u d e p a r t i c u l a rl y w e l l - p ro p o r t i o n e d o r pear to be countered by the fact that this trait was
triangular-pierced lobate hinges, ‘coke bottle’-shaped later continued in the larger hinges of the Newstead
tie loops, or even hinged fittings with fixed lobate type (see below, p.50). Thus, without clear dating evi-
components (Fig. 5.6). Robinson felt that some sort of dence, statements about the likely evolution of the
typological evolution was visible in lobate hinges,16 forms of fittings on purely subjective or aesthetic
but many of the supposed differences could be re- grounds tend to be a waste of time.
40 M.C. Bishop

Fig.5.10 Reconstruction of the Corbridge type B and C cuirasses (Peter Connolly)

The second type of decoration was moulded (or, Finally there are a range of decorative marks ap-
strictly speaking, beaten) during fabrication, and this plied after construction but (presumably) before the
mainly concerns the rosette patterns on decorated items were attached to the cuirass for which they were
washers (Fig.5.7). Most examples of these decorative intended. This last group includes stamped concentric
bosses consisted of a slightly domed disc with embossed rings around rivet holes and parallel scored lines on
petal relief, usually with a small raised (often beaded) hinged strap and buckle fittings (Fig.5.8).
border, but the bosses on the type B/C cuirasses in the The rivets of the copper-alloy fittings seem usually
Corbridge Hoard had broad flat borders.17 to have had small domed heads when new, but could be
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 41

Fig.5.11 Robinson's early attempt at reconstructing the Corbridge Hoard finds

0 10cm

Fig.5.12 Upper shoulderguard (with unusual paired riveting) from Chichester. Scale 1:2.

Corbridge type of cuirass, arguably best known from

replaced by a variety of forms (see below, p.85). Like-
wise spindles for buckles and hinges were neatly Peter Connolly’s reconstruction drawings 1 9
finished with small domed terminals when new. Roves
(Figs.5.9–10). Even so, Robinson’s early efforts were
were very rarely used on the Corbridge Hoard sets (in
overly influenced by the mistaken attempts of ear-
the few instances where they were found they werelier, less fortunate reconstructors (Fig.5.11). The
square): the normal practice seems to have been to
painstaking reconstruction of the artefacts from the
peen the rivet to a broad flat head once it had passed
Corbridge Hoard was by no means an easy task, and
through the internal leather, but examples of it is clear from the correspondence between Daniels
Corbridge type armour from Chichester show the use
and Robinson that the process of discovery and un-
of ovoid roves.18 derstanding was a gradual one.20 Nevertheless, at
the end of it, there was little about the cuirass units in
the chest that was not clear or at least permit of an
RECONSTRUCTION educated guess.
The Corbridge Hoard provided all the information However, it is easy to lose sight of the fact that the
Daniels and Robinson needed to reconstruct the Corbridge finds were not the result of a pattern that
42 M.C. Bishop

Fig.5.13 Wrongly overlapping backplates on a) the Corbridge Hoard (Cuirass 5) and b) a modern reconstruction. Photos ©
M.C. Bishop

Fig.5.14 Reconstruction of the Corbridge type A cuirass, with details of B (top left), and C (top right) variants

was distributed to army units across the empire for such, was in fact quite a broad category. An upper
slavish copying, with even the pieces in the Hoard shoulderguard from Chichester, for example, shows a
showing marked variety amongst them. Once other curious use of double riveting to secure the leathers,21
finds are studied, it is clear that the Corbridge type, as and this is quite clearly a manufactured feature, not a
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 43

botched repair (Fig.5.12). Likewise pieces from without any support on the naturally-sloping shoulders
Chichester show a penchant for oval or lenticular in- will force its breastplates to meet at an angle. This
ternal leathering washers, whilst at Corbridge (where would impose a strain on the copper-alloy hinged
used) they are exclusively square or rectangular. buckle and hinged strap lateral fasteners if they were
One of the weaknesses of the Corbridge type of ar- mounted perpendicular to the vertical edges of their
mour was the use of three overlapping backplates. The plates. That is not evidenced by the artefacts recovered
Corbridge Hoard showed how at least one cuirass had from the archaeological record. Therefore we must
the central plate overlapping the top of not only the conclude that the cuirass was not permitted to repose
plate below it, but also the one above, a rather hazard- at this angle and that padding of some kind must have
ous flaw. Modern reconstructions of the Corbridge been worn beneath the shoulders in order to raise the
armour are also prone to this same problem (Fig.5.13). shoulderguards and, in so doing, correct the angle be-
This was far from the only complicating factor with the tween the breastplates (see below, p.79).
cuirass and more detailed discussion of the problems The major innovations of the Corbridge type over
particular to the Corbridge type can be found below that of its predecessor, the Kalkriese form, are now ob-
(p.81ff). vious, but have not always been so. Decorated bosses
The positioning of tie loops on the girth hoops – fre- have long been known on both Imperial-Gallic hel-
quently some distance from the vertical edge of a plate, mets and Corbridge-type armour, but it was not clear
implies that some overlap of girth hoops was intended if both adopted these at the same time, or if one did so
(up to 48mm in some cases) and thus suggesting that a before the other. The absence of decorated bosses on
degree of rigidity in the girth hoops was being sought. examples of Kalkriese armour suggests that this
Many modern reconstructions are worn fairly loosely particular feature was borrowed for body armour from
(even allowing some gape between neighbouring helmets.23 Lobate hinges were not used before the
halves of a hoop), but our archaeological evidence sug- Corbridge type of armour, the forms of hinges on
gests that this was not the case in the Roman army.22 Kalkriese armour being discussed above (p.23). Finally,
From Robinson onwards, modern reconstructions hinged buckle and strap fittings were much less elabo-
have encountered difficulty with the unsatisfactory rate on the Corbridge type of cuirass. No examples of
manner in which the armour sits on the shoulders of tie loops are known from Kalkriese type armour and it
the wearer. The natural shape of the human neck and is conceivable that these were another innovation of
shoulders, with the trapezium muscles forming an an- the Corbridge type (see above, p.27).
gle between the two, means that lorica segmentata worn

COMPONENT LIST
Type: A B/C
breastplates 2 2
mid-collar plates 2 2
backplates 6 6
upper shoulderguard plates 6 6
lesser shoulderguard plates 8 8
upper unit leathering rivets 36 36
upper unit leathering washers 36 36
upper unit leathering roves 36 36
upper unit leathers 6 6
lobate hinge-halves 16 16
lobate hinge fastening rivets 80 80
hinged buckle fittings (A) 4 –
hinged buckle fittings rivets (A) 16 –
hinged buckle fittings (B/C) – 2
hinged buckle fittings rivets (B/C) – 8
hinged strap fittings (A) 4 –
hinged strap fittings rivets (A) 16 –
hinged strap fittings (B/C) – 2
hinged strap fittings rivets (B/C) – 8
hingeless buckles (A) 4 –
44 M.C. Bishop

hingeless buckle rivets (A) 4 –

vertical fasteners female (B/C) – 6
rivets to secure vertical fasteners (B/C) – 6
girth hoop halves (A) 16 –
lower unit tie loops (A) 24 –
girth hoop halves (B/C) – 14
lower unit tie loops (B/C) – 20
lower unit leathers 6 6
lower unit leathering rivets (A) 96 –
lower unit leathering rivets (B/C) – 84
vertical fastening hooks male (B/C) – 6
rivets to secure vertical fastening hooks (B/C) – 12
Totals 424 408
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 45

NOTES

1 But see p.88 below, where the whole question of half-matching is discussed.
2 Chichester: DOWN, 1978, 299, Fig.10.36; 1981, 163, Fig.28,2–4; St Albans: NIBLETT, forthcoming;
Longthorpe: FRERE & ST JOSEPH, 1974, 46–7, Fig.25,16; Gamala: Guy Stiebel pers. comm.
3 S. Richards, pers. comm. This is a good example of how the construction and testing of replicas can suggest
simple solutions to design changes.
4 C. Haines, pers. comm.
5 ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 100.
6 Contra ROBINSON, 1975, Pls.491-3 and Fig.180. Cf. ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 39, Fig.45. The
upper shoulderguard of Cuirass 6 appears to have been transplanted to Cuirass 1.
7 Contra ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 100.
8 The Bank of England plate, for example, is 1mm thick (pers. obs.).
9 The plate comes from Chichester (DOWN, 1978, Fig.10.36) and there is another double-thickness plate pub-
lished from the same site (DOWN, 1989, Fig.29.3,23).
10 I am grateful to E. Deschler-Erb for checking this information for me.
11 See BISHOP 1987, 112–14.
12 Corbridge leather tie: ROBINSON, 1975, 181; ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 51. Single tie: VON
GROLLER, 1901, Textfig.24; arguments against: ROBINSON, 1974, 11.
13 ROBINSON, 1975, 177.
14 The most obvious examples of internal hingeless iron buckle fittings are to be found on Cuirasses i–iv of the
Corbridge Hoard (ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 43–8), together with an example from Rißtissen
(ULBERT, 1970, Taf.4,77).
15 Single thickness hinged components: UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.33,746 (Vindonissa); VON
GROLLER, 1901, Taf.XVIII,40–1, 44; (Carnuntum); HOFFILLER, 1912, Sl.11,2 (Sisak). Tie loop from rod
(unfinished): SCHÖNBERGER, 1978, Taf.21,B117 (Oberstimm); from sheet: ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP,
1988, Fig.94,232 (Corbridge).
16 ROBINSON, 1975, 177, Fig.182.
17 Other examples of bosses with broad borders include one from Vindonissa (UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997,
Taf.31,656).
18 Corbridge Hoard: ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, Fig.49; Chichester: DOWN, 1978, Fig.10.36,iii–iv.
There are some roves amongst the Carnuntum Waffenmagazin material, but none that are on indisputably
Corbridge type armour. Roves are best viewed with the benefit of 20/20 hindsight: they were seldom spotted
during the preparation of the Corbridge Hoard report, largely because the underlying leather (which is, of
course, mineral-replaced, and thus looks like iron) tends to mimic the shape of an overlying rove. Connolly’s
drawings of Robinson’s reconstructions (this volume, Figs.5.8–9) suggests they were universally employed, but
the Corbridge Hoard clearly shows them to be exceptional, not the norm. Again, their use was possibly down
to the whim of the individual armourer.
19 Reproduced here in the slightly modified form as incorporated in the Corbridge Hoard report
(ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, Figs.23–4).
20 ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 97–100.
21 Although see below, p.72 for Michael Simkins’ ingenious alternative explanation for this piece.
22 ROBINSON (1975, 177) comments on this overlap. It varies between 26mm and 48mm (measured from the
vertical edge to the back of the loop) on the lower units of the Corbridge Hoard on Cuirasses i, ii, & v, all
of which are right-hand side sets: this implies that all of the lower units in the Hoard indicate that the left
side overlapped (i.e. sat on top of) the right (not right over left, as Robinson thought: loc. cit.). However, a
plate from Carnuntum (VON GROLLER, 1901, Taf.XVIII,35 is from a left-hand set and its loop is set in
16mm implying a right-over-left overlap in this case. It is difficult to divine hard-and-fast rules with so little
data from which to work: there may be no greater significance than that the preference of the armourers at
Corbridge was different to their counterparts at Carnuntum.
23 External leather riveting washers appear to be purely decorative in purpose and absent on all Kalkriese, some
Corbridge, and most Newstead examples where such rivets are identifiable.
46 M.C. Bishop

Chapter 6: The Newstead Type

EVIDENCE reconstructed as having been 230mm high and at least
The Newstead form of segmental body armour was 146mm wide (probably nearer 180mm originally). The
first recognised (and, indeed, named) by Robinson,1 breastplate is more problematic, but it was at least
as a result of his work on the Corbridge Hoard.2 Un- 160mm high and probably close to that in width. Both
til then, it had always been assumed by scholars that the backplate and breastplate were about 1mm thick
there was just one type and every effort went into re- and rather crudely manufactured (few genuinely
construction using components from all the possible straight edges were evident). So far as it was possible to
variants unwittingly. However, detailed study of the tell, the lesser shoulderguards were 75mm, 65mm,
Corbridge find, feasible thanks to the comparatively 55mm, and 50mm wide respectively, and equally
well-preserved nature of the armour in the chest, roughly made.
made it obvous that the pieces found at Newstead at Soon after this, various fragments (including girth
the beginning of the 20th century did not belong to hoops and pieces of what was probably a backplate)
the same type, hence Robinson’s coinage of a new were found during excavation of a burnt deposit near
name for this form. the praetorium at Zugmantel (Germany) in 1906
It is now known that the first fragments of New- (Fig.6.3).8 This material was known to Robinson and
stead-type armour were found as far back as 1899, provided his evidence for the deepening of the lowest
when the Waffenmagazin was excavated in the legionary girth hoop, since this is the only find so far to include
base at Carnuntum (Fig.6.1).3 Although there has been indisputable remains of this type of plate. The broad-
much debate about the nature and date of that assem- est of these, 110mm high, has a rolled edge and thus
blage, it has many characteristics of the Antonine almost certainly represents a lowermost plate. The de-
period, not least the presence of both Corbridge- and posit – which it is assumed dates to the abandonment
Newstead-type cuirasses (although the identification of the site in AD 259/60 – included not only portions
of the Newstead components was unclear until the first of overlapping girth hoops, but also part of what was
Carlisle plate was found more than 90 years later – Ap- probably a backplate. Instead of the more usual cop-
pendix A). Convincing arguments as to the date of the per-alloy-lined rectangular aperture, this had a
find must depend upon a) the assumption that the in- hexagonal (or, more correctly, sub-rectangular) mount
tegrity of the deposit was largely intact and b) external near one edge, secured by four rivets and with a hole
reference to comparable well-dated objects. Neverthe- punched through both the fitting and the underlying
less, the 2001 Carlisle find of Corbridge and iron plate, as well as a large (35mm diameter)
Newstead-type material in contemporary contexts flat-headed copper alloy stud, apparently a decorated
does little to detract from an Antonine date.4 At leathering rivet. A length of the rolled edge of the
Carnuntum, the Newstead-type cuirasses were repre- neck-opening survives at the top of the backplate.
sented by large (up to 74mm wide) lobate hinges and Parts of another upper unit were found in 1917 on
girth hoops fastened by cast copper-alloy rings. A large the Weinberg at Eining (Germany) (Fig.6.4).9 Con-
floral boss, 28mm in diameter and mounted on an iron sisting of a backplate (245mm high and 170mm wide),
plate, may also represent the decorative head of a mid-collar plate, and lesser shoulderguards (as well as a
leathering washer.5 few possible fragments of armguard), the find was in
The type-find itself was discovered in 1905 when good condition when recovered, in many ways compa-
James Curle was excavating in the well within the rable to that of the Newstead armour. Apart from
headquarters building at Newstead.6 Amongst mate- slight differences in size, the two sets of armour are re-
rial that included fragments of helmets and armguard markably similar, not only in form but also in
(see below, Chapter 8) were the components of one up- content.10 Significantly, this find does not appear to
per (right-hand) unit of a segmental cuirass (Fig.6.2). have been known to Robinson (or Curle or Poulter).
Once again, there was every indication of an Antonine This is the latest of the Newstead-type finds of lorica
date for the deposit, which seems to have occurred segmentata, coming from a temple site with an inscrip-
upon the abandonment of the base.7 Although now in- tion that provides a terminus post quem of AD 229.
complete (the upper shoulderguard and portions of No further noteworthy finds occurred until 1989 at
the lower shoulderguards are missing), most if not all Carlisle, when a fragmentary backplate was identified
of this unit appears to have been present when depos- (Fig.6.5). Found in a 4th-century (and thus probably re-
ited. Although fragmentary, the backplate can be sidual) context near Tullie House Museum, this plate
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 47

1 2

4 5 6

0 5cm

3 7
Fig.6.1 Finds of Newstead-type components (1–3 lobate hinges, 4–6 girth hoop tie rings, and 7 a boss) from
Carnuntum. Scale 1:1

occasioned some interest when it was first published, not complete articulated armguards (see below, Chapter
least because it bore a large lobate hinge of the same 8), the military equipment from the area around the
type found in the Waffenmagazin at Carnuntum. Iden- headquarters building of the castra included a more
tifying the object as a backplate, Caruana suggested that complete backplate and what appeared to be part of
it had originally been riveted and then subsequently fit- an upper shoulderguard. Once again, the find dated to
ted with the lobate hinge it still retains.11 the first half of the 2nd century AD and contained
During the second half of the 20th century, finds of pieces of both Corbridge and Newstead types.
segmental armour began to be made north of the The years 2000–1 also saw important finds of New-
Danube, in contexts deriving from the mid-2nd-cen- stead-type armour from Stillfried,14 in the form of two
tury Marcomannic Wars, most notably from Iz̀´a non-matching half-sets of girth hoops, and León
(Slovak Republic).12 Although limited in number, they (Spain),15 including fragments of girth hoop and at
contained recognisable fragments of Newstead-type least one lobate hinge.
armour. Finally, a single unattached lobate hinge of the kind
In 2001 a further discovery was made at Carlisle. found at Carnuntum was recovered during one of the
Although to some extent overshadowed by the more various excavations at Great Chesters (England) be-
spectacular finds13 of sections of scale armour and tween 1894 and 1952.16
48 M.C. Bishop

0 10cm

Fig.6.2 The Newstead breast- and backplates (cf. Fig.1.2). Scale 1:2
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 49

0 10cm

Fig.6.3 Part of a breastplate from Newstead-type armour from Zugmantel, with rolled edge to neck opening (top), octagonal
male lateral fastener (centre left), and disc-headed leathering rivet (bottom right). Scale 1:2

The finds of Newstead-type armour so far known Backplate

are almost exclusively 2nd- or 3rd-century in date, with _ Rolled or turned out at the neck; pierced once, but
the Eining find appearing to date after 22917 and the no binding
Zugmantel pieces before AD 259/60. The Carlisle and _ Attached to the mid-collar plate with a large lobate
Carnuntum assemblages, since they contain both forms, hinge
indicate an indeterminate period of overlap in use of _ Fastened laterally by two turning pins attached to
the Corbridge and Newstead types during the first half one plate passing through rectangular openings on
of the 2nd century. its twin
_ Fastened vertically to the girth hoops by two holes
enclosed within decorative copper alloy fittings
DESCRIPTION (similar to those found on the Corbridge B/C
cuirass)

Breastplate
_ Rolled or turned out at the neck; pierced once, but Upper shoulderguard
no binding _ One in three parts, joined by lobate hinges
_ Attached to the mid-collar plate with a large lobate
hinge
_ Fastened laterally by a turning pin attached to one Lesser shoulderguards
plate passing through a rectangular opening on its _ Four: two long, two shorter
twin _ Three leathers (front, top, and back) running to
_ Fastened vertically to the girth hoops by one hole breast-, collar-, and backplates
enclosed within a decorative copper alloy fitting
(similar to that found on the Corbridge B/C
cuirass) Girth hoops
_ Seven or eight of them, overlapping right over left
_ Ranging from 50-65mm
Mid-collar plate _ Upper six or seven fastened by cast copper-alloy tie
_ Rolled or turned out at the neck; not pierced, no rings on one side passing through slots on the other,
binding lowest two left free to be secured by belt
_ Attached to the back- and breastplate with large _ Uppermost hoops fasten to back- and breastplates
lobate hinges by means of two and one hooks respectively
50 M.C. Bishop

0 10cm

Fig.6.4 Backplate with out-turned neck opening and replacement vertical fastenings from Eining. Scale 1:2

_ Three leathers running vertically on each half ets) in the centre of the edge facing its neighbour, whilst
(front, side, back) its twin had a subrectangular copper-alloy plate (also
held in place by four rivets) around a turning-pin.19 At
Absolute certainty over the form of the Newstead the base of each breastplate was an elongated cop-
type cuirass is not currently possible. Unlike the per-alloy fitting with a rounded top riveted in place and
Corbridge type, no one find has been made that its bottom wrapped under the lower edge of the iron
provides all the answers. However, enough is now plate. Both this and the underlying iron plate were
known to offer a reasonably coherent attempt to pierced once by punching (see below, p.95) to receive the
understand the armour (Figs.6.6) and this can be front girth hoop attachment hook. A leathering rivet,
seen as superseding the present author’s previous possibly in the form of a large flat-headed stud, was
work on the subject.18 present near the centre of each breastplate and a large
The collar unit consisted of three plates on either lobate hinge near the top, next to the neck opening. The
side of the neck: the breastplate, the mid-collar plate, neck opening was pierced on one plate near the front,
and the backplate. The first two fulfilled much the above the rectangular aperture.
same function as their predecessors on the Corbridge The inner edge of the mid-collar plate was shaped
type, but the single backplate replaced the earlier three to the neck, whilst the outer was, to all intents and pur-
backplates articulated on leathers (see above, Chapter poses, straight. The plate was thus broader at the ends
5). All three collar plates had an out-turned or, occa- than in the middle. A single leathering rivet was lo-
sionally, a rolled edge at the neck opening. cated near the centre of the plate, towards the outer
One breastplate had a single rectangular aperture edge. At either end were the lobate hinges that joined
(surrounded by copper-alloy edging secured by four riv- the plate to the breast- and backplates.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 51

0 10cm

Fig.6.5 Simplified drawing of the first Carlisle backplate showing large lobate hinge in situ. Scale 1:2

The backplate was higher than the breastplate and corresponding plates on the other half had a horizon-
had two rectangular apertures with copper-alloy edg- tal rectangular aperture, through which the cast ring
ing near the side facing its neighbour. Its twin had two fitted. The rectangular aperture was protected by a
subrectangular copper-alloy plates, each around a copper-alloy plate attached to the outside (although,
turning-pin. At the base of each backplate were two unlike the breast- and back-plates, this fitting did not
elongated copper-alloy fittings, each with a rounded pass inside the plate) and the Iz̀´a girth hoop shows that
top riveted in place and its bottom once again wrapped this plate could in fact cover the whole of the end of
under the lower edge of the iron plate, pierced to re- the hoop.21 The girth hoops were carried on three in-
ceive two rear girth hoop attachment hooks. A ternal leathers (at least 28mm wide to judge from the
leathering rivet was present near the centre of each Carnuntum finds), attached to them by pairs of rivets
backplate and a large lobate hinge near the top, next to near the top of each plate. One of the Stillfried
the neck opening. The neck opening was pierced on half-sets had rectangular roves that secured both
one plate near the rear edge, above the rectangular ap- leathering rivets once they had passsed through the
erture. leather. The topmost girth hoop had an upset (thick-
There were four lesser shoulderguards in each ened) edge which, in at least one case, was bound in
shoulder assembly, two inner larger ones, and two copper alloy in the same region that used to be upset
outer smaller ones, each with three leathering rivets and reduced in height on the Corbridge armour. The
near its inner edge (again in imitation of the Corbridge upper girth hoops were attached to the breastplate by
B/C). The upper shoulderguard was probably formed one fastening hook, and to the backplate by two. These
from three plates, resembling the Corbridge examples vertical fasteners were attached to the inside of the
in that the central plate expanded towards a point.20 girth hoop and just the hook passed through a hole in
These three plates were almost certainly joined by the plate, the front fastener being located at the front
lobate hinges, with leathering rivets in the middle of leathering point. The lowest two plates in each case
each. Both shoulder assemblies were attached to three lacked tie rings, following the precedent set by the
internal leathers at least 20mm wide (suggested by the Corbridge varieties of the cuirass (presumably being
width of surviving washers on the Newstead find). held in place by the wearer’s waist belt), and were upset
The lower assembly consisted of between seven and with copper-alloy binding along its lower edge (a fea-
eight girth hoops, in two halves. Each of the girth ture also noted on a fragmentary over-compressed set
hoops (except the lowest) on one side had a cast cop- from Iz̀´ a: 22 Fig.6.7). One unusual aspect of the
per-alloy ring at the front and the back; the Stillfried half-sets was their use of an inverted vertical
Plate 1: Corbridge-type hinged fitting and tie loop of
orichalcum from Castleford, found uncorroded in a midden
deposit. Note the golden finish and slightly more coppery rivet, as
well as the junction visible on the loop where the sheet has been
rolled. Scale 1:1. Photo West Yorkshire Archaeological Services

Plate 2: Trajan’s Column (Scene XXVI) showing a

legionary wading a river with his armour, sword, and
tunic on his shield. Photo J.C.N. Coulston

Plate 3: Underside of the left upper unit of a re-enactors’ Corbridge type

B cuirass showing replacement leathers. Note how one large sheet of
leather has been used for the three backplates, in imitation of Corbridge
Hoard Cuirass 5. Photo M.C. Bishop

Plate 4: The cut-down Corbridge-type A breastplate found at the Bank of

England, London, in 1936. The waterlogged conditions have preserved
the original colour of the orichalcum fittings. Note the replacement hinge
spindle on the lateral hinged buckle, the dishing around the punched rivet Plate 5: Detail of re-enactor’s Corbridge
holes, and the rather crude lobate hinge. Scale 1:1. Photo J.C.N. Coulston type A cuirass. Photo M.C. Bishop
Plate 6: Detail of lobate hinges and decorative boss on the upper
shoulderguard of a Corbridge type B re-enactors’ cuirass. Photo
M.C. Bishop

Plate 7: The Alba Iulia figure showing a

legionary with a curved rectangular shield,
laminated armguard, and composite Alba
Iulia-type cuirass. The body armour is
depicted with four girth hoops, scale
Plate 8: Overcompressed set of seven (of an original eight) girth hoops from the shoulders, and a pair of breastplates. Photo
type A Cuirass iv in the Corbridge Hoard. The topmost plate has a flexed M.C. Bishop
vertical fastening buckle just to the right of the tie loop. Scale 1:2. Photo
M.C. Bishop

Plate 9: Digital reconstruction of the Newstead type of lorica segmentata incorporating information from the finds at
Carnuntum, Newstead, Eining, Zugmantel, Iz̀´a, and Stillfried
54 M.C. Bishop

Fig.6.6 Speculative reconstruction of the Newstead type cuirass

1a

1b

0 10cm
2a 2b
Fig.6.7 Girth hoop fragments from 1) Iz̀´a and 2) Carnuntum. 1a) Slot intact with copper-alloy covering plate; 1b)
over-compressed with copper-alloy binding on the lowest plate; 2) Plates with tie rings in situ. Scale 1:2

fastener in the middle of one of the upper girth hoops, RECONSTRUCTION

on the wearer’s side.23 They also overlapped right over There have been three main attempts to reconstruct
left, unlike the Corbridge Hoard sets (see above p.45). the Newstead-type cuirass: those of Curle, Robin-
The set of girth hoops from Zugmantel may repre- son, and Poulter.24 Of these, Curle's was hardly a
sent a variant on the Newstead type with fewer plates, serious analysis of the problem, whilst Poulter's of-
getting progressively broader towards the bottom, or fered some adjustments to what remains the
they may have belonged to an Alba Iulia type cuirass definitive reconstruction until recently, that of Rob-
(see below p.64) – insufficient survives for any certainty inson. The present writer has attempted a review of
on this matter. the available evidence and proposed a revised recon-
struction that incorporates the material now
available.25
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 55

Fig.6.8 Peter Connolly’s line drawing of Robinson’s first proposed reconstruction of the Newstead type (from ROBINSON
1975, Fig.181)

James Curle, for all his archaeological virtues, did hardly surprising. Although Curle was aware of von
not possess an innate understanding of Roman mili- Groller's discoveries in the Waffenmagazin at Carnuntum,
tary equipment. He misinterpreted the orientation of as published26 the fragments did not provide sufficient
the main Newstead fragments, thinking the backplate information to allow a more accurate reconstruction.
was a breastplate and that it sat with the two rectangu- Robinson’s working reconstruction of the Newstead
lar slits on the lower edge. Given the contemporary cuirass, together with Peter Connolly’s line drawing
understanding of segmental body armour, this is (see Fig.6.8),27 have become familiar as the first
56 M.C. Bishop

Fig.6.9 Robinson’s proposed method (loop and pin) of Fig.6.10 Poulter’s proposed method (strap and buckle). Not
securing the Newstead-type breast- and backplates compared to scale
with Poulter’s (strap and buckle). Not to scale

a c

b d
0 5cm

0 10cm

Fig.6.11 ‘Sports’ breastplate with turning pins from Manching together with examples of turning pins (a, b) and
split pins (c, d) from Alba Iulia (Porolissum). Scale 1:2 (inset 1:1)

systematic attempt to reconstruct the Newstead find in The Breast- and Backplate Fastenings
its own right (although an earlier drawing did appear in Robinson's solution to the fastening of the breast-
Robinson’s 1972 paper),28 eschewing the usual practice and backplates – using a tube attached to one plate
of amalgamating it with inappropriate Corbridge passing through the rectangular opening on its twin,
elements. Nevertheless, Robinson seemed only too secured with a locking pin (Fig.6.9) – was not univer-
aware of the shortcomings of his reconstruction, albeit sally accepted. In 1988, Andrew Poulter reverted to
fairly certain of a general trend towards simplification in Robinson's original method of fastening, using buck-
the overall design (see above, p.4). les and straps (Fig.6.10).29 His reasoning was based
There are a number of problems with this that re- on the observation that it would not have been prac-
quire addressing. Some have attempted to approach tical for a soldier to fasten his own cuirass using
these before, but it is fair to say that no completely satis- Robinson's preferred system. He also suggested that
factory solution to all the problems has yet been the small hole near the top in each of the back- and
produced. breastplate were used for fastening a copper-alloy
edging strip around the neck opening.
There are problems with Poulter's reconstruction,
however, the greatest of which is the complete absence
of any signs of wear around the apertures on both the
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 57

Newstead and Eining cuirasses. A more plausible girth hoop, and it is quite clear that the main deposit
means of fastening the plates was already known in a of armour is a shoulder element consisting of back-,
different context, for turning pins survive on ‘sports’ collar-, and breastplates, together with lesser
and combat armour breastplates (Fig.6.11).30 shoulderguards. Moreover, Robinson’s preference
With the small holes below the neck opening once for the tubular fitting was without published archaeo-
again unexplained, it can be seen that the turning pin logical parallel.
method of fastening is not only better supported by the Finds from the Waffenmagazin at Carnuntum (Appen-
evidence, but also more logical. The final piece of evi- dix A) had included an alternative method of
dence may be provided by one of the Zugmantel fastening girth hoops (Fig.6.1), using cast copper-alloy
fragments. Identifiable as part of a backplate, it pos- rings (which are comparatively common finds),36 al-
sesses what looks like the companion fitting to the though doubt has been cast upon the efficacy of these
rectangular aperture found on the Newstead, Eining, objects for such a role.37 Since it seems unlikely that
and Carlisle plates. This consisted of a rectangular (al- Robinson was correct in identifying the tubular fitting
beit with clipped corners, making it almost hexagonal) as a girth hoop fastening, the cast rings must have
copper-alloy plate with a central hole for another, pos- been part of the system used. There is at least one ex-
sibly rotating, fitting. ample of such a ring from Newstead. Stratified
This does not mean that Robinson’s proposed examples from Caerleon mostly came from Phase IV
method of joining the breastplates of scale or mail shirts (c. AD 160–c. 275) at the Roman Gates site, although
can be adopted for fastening the breast- and backplates some finds come from the earlier Phase III (c. AD
of lorica segmentata without further question. The system 100–60).38
he suggests for securing the turning pins – a long pin In her discussion of the Caerleon finds, Janet Web-
that passes through both and is attached to the collar by ster has identified four categories of such rings, and
a thong31 – would certainly work for the backplate with noted that they either have short or long shanks. She
two horizontal fastenings, but for the breastplate with suggested that those with a longer shank may be ex-
only one it would prove more cumbersome. Moreover, plained by the girth hoop leathering having been
no such pins are readily identifiable in the archaeologi- rearranged to be located closer to the ends, so that it
cal record. It might therefore make more sense to see could be pierced and secured by these items. This was
each turning pin (one on the front and two to the rear) clearly not the case on the published Carnuntum plates,
held in place with its own split pin (examples of which as pairs of leathering rivets were still in place on plates
are known from Roman military sites32), still attached to fastened with cast rings, nor is ittrue of the Stillfried
the collar by means of a thong. Without being secured plates; moreover, lorica segmentata requires internal
by something like a split pin, experiment has shown that leathers to be attached near the upper edge of its girth
turning pins would gradually rotate and slip out of hoops in order for it to function, and the loops are at-
place.33 tached half way up the plate. Nevertheless, Webster
One final alternative means of fastening should be would appear to be correct in her assertion that the fit-
considered, and that is by means of a tie ring like tings with the longer shanks had been used and
those used on girth hoops. The form of the copper-al- subsequently distorted by extraction, as the fragmen-
loy plates around the slots on the girth hoops of the tary piece discussed above would appear to provide
Stillfried armour, being virtually identical to the New- evidence for this (Fig.6.12).39
stead breast- and backplate slots, might be thought to The solution to this problem lies in the fact that the
imply a similar type of fitting used with both slots: a tubular fitting is a temporary repair inserted through a
tie ring. hole intended for one of these cast loops.40 Similar tu-
Contrary to what Poulter thought, no examples of bular fittings are also used on the Eining backplate -
the Newstead type of armour have revealed indisput- almost certainly as a makeshift repair – to receive the
able traces of copper-alloy binding of the neck vertical fastening hooks.
opening, although ironically this is a feature of the Au- The true means of fastening girth hoops did not be-
gustan Kalkriese type of lorica segmentata.34 come apparent until the discovery of a complete set of
girth hoops from Stillfried.41 This find demonstrated
quite clearly that one half set of girth hoops was
The Girth Fastenings equipped with cast loops (which were tinned), but the
Robinson used the fragment of plate that he thought other had small horizontal rectangular slots through
represented a girth hoop to provide his proposed which these loops fitted, the slot being surrounded with
method of fastening the lower halves of the cuirass.35 a rectangular copper-alloy plate (with a rivet in each
There is no guarantee that the plate concerned – corner) similar to the slot guards on the breast- and
which has a tubular fitting protruding – is actually a backplates.42 At least one other girth plate of this kind
58 M.C. Bishop

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12

0 5cm

Fig.6.12 Range of tie rings from various sites. 1–4 Caerleon, 5 & 12 Corbridge, 6 Carlisle, 7 Dalton Parlours, 8 South
Shields, 9 Chester, 10 Manchester, 11 Aldborough. Scale 1:1

was known – but not recognised – before the Stillfried The Stillfried find also shows how (in contrast with
find, and that came from Iz̀´a to the north of the Dan- the Corbridge type B/C cuirass) vertical fasteners were
ube (Fig.6.7). This plate has a larger pierced attached to the inside of the upper girth hoop and the
copper-alloy sheet completely obscuring the end of the hook element passed through a hole in the plate to the
iron plate, but the principle is the same. The use of tie outside, the single hook at the front coinciding with a
rings on the Stillfried cuirass, secured to their girth pair of leathering rivets. Copper-alloy binding was
hoops using square roves, passing through slots, pre- used for the bottom edge of the lower hoop and (on
sumably meant girth hoops were, like the upper one of the half-sets) the top edge of the top hoop, both
elements of the cuirass, fastened with the aid of split areas usually thickened on the Corbridge type (and, in-
pins, although once again no examples have yet been deed, on the Zugmantel set of hoops), whilst the upper
found in situ. hoop was not narrowed beneath the armpit, but was
This method of fastening the girth hoops – overlap- the same height for its entire length. Fragments of cop-
ping their ends – would have lent the cuirass a degree per-alloy bound Newstead-type girth hoops are also
of rigidity in the region of the torso that has not been known from León.43
apparent in many reconstructions of the Corbridge
type of armour. It could well be that other types of cui-
rass were designed to fasten as securely as the Riveted Plates?
Newstead type, or it might be that this is one of the in- As part of the trend toward simplification that Rob-
novations of this particular form of the cuirass. inson thought he could detect, he believed the
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 59

Newstead cuirass employed single-plate, not hinged, open to interpretation as the rivet holes for a lobate
upper shoulderguards, and that the breast-, collar-, hinge or as the riveting together of mid-collar- and
and backplate were riveted together and not articu- breastplate. Thus it adds little to the debate. Similar
lated. He felt that this was understandable, given the damage to this area is also present on the Eining cui-
number of repairs to such hinges evident in the rass and only the pieces from the Carlisle armour
Corbridge Hoard armour (including the riveting to- preserve this region. The discovery of what is proba-
gether of plates) and because these hinges were not bly an upper shoulderguard at Carlisle in 2001
strictly necessary to the successful functioning of the showed that Robinson's suggestion for a single-piece
armour.44 Careful inspection of the Newstead ar- plate was wrong, in the case of the Newstead type.
mour itself cannot support his interpretation, as all Many details concerning the Newstead type of ar-
of the key areas that would carry evidence of such mour remain to be refined and our knowledge of the
riveting have been damaged, although there is one form will doubtless continue to improve with new finds
possible exception (on the breastplate). Here, a plate like that from Stillfried. Nevertheless, understanding
of appropriate thickness can be restored as belong- of this cuirass has already improved significantly since
ing to the upper part of the object, but it is equally its original identification by Robinson.

COMPONENT LIST
breastplates 2
mid-collar plates 2
backplates 2
upper shoulderguard plates ?6
lesser shoulderguard plates 8
shoulder leathering rivets 18
shoulder leathering washers 18
shoulder leathers 6
lobate hinge-halves 16
lobate hinge fastening rivets 80/120
rectangular female fasteners 3
rectangular female fastener rivets 12
rectangular male fasteners 3
rectangular male fastener rivets 12
turning pins 3
split pins 3
thong to secure split pins 2
leathering rivet boss ?4
vertical fasteners female 6
rivets to secure vertical fasteners 6
girth hoop halves 12
girth hoop fastening loops 20
girth hoops leathers 6
girth hoop leathering rivets 72
vertical fastening hooks male 6
rivets to secure vertical fastening hooks 12
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 60

NOTES

1 ROBINSON 1972, 33–5; 1974, 11; 1975, 180–1, Fig.181.

2 See above, Chapter 5.
3 VON GROLLER, 1901, 39–45.
4 At the time of writing, the dating for the deposit is still not finalised and will be subject to review (McCAR-
THY et al., 2001).
5 Lobate hinges: VON GROLLER, 1901, Taf.XIX,57–9. Girth hoops: ibid. Taf. XVIII, 27–8. Boss: ibid.
Taf.XIX,66.
6 CURLE, 1911, 104–39.
7 Thus probably some time between the 160s and 190s (see HARTLEY, 1972, 40–1), and possibly even as late
as 208–10 (ibid. 42).
8 Inv. Nr. ZM1425. Cf. Saalburg Jahresbericht 1906, 7; ORL B8, Taf. XIV,50. The pieces were found together with
fragments of a tinned copper-alloy greave and a complete mail shirt, Inv. Nr. ZM 1424. A more detailed pub-
lication of the Zugmantel lorica segmentata will appear in due course (BISHOP, in preparation a).
9 REINECKE, 1927, 161.
10 I am grateful to Prof Dr Thomas Fischer for making photographs of this cuirass available and for discussion
on the subject, and to Dr Christof Flügel for his help during my visit to München to examine the armour.
11 CARUANA 1993.
12 This may also be the case with the Stillfried find, although this is not apparent from the brief published ac-
count of the material (EIBNER, 2000, 33), where a Trajanic or Hadrianic date is suggested. Like Mus̀´ov
(TEJRAL, 1994, 299–300), Stillfried was one of the Roman advance bases during the Marcomannic Wars
(FRIESINGER & KRINZINGER, 1997, 295) and the coincidence between the form of the armour and this
role for the site is, perhaps, significant.
13 McCARTHY et al 2001; RICHARDSON, 2001.
14 EIBNER 2000.
15 Pers. comm. J. Aurrecoechea.
16 ALLASON-JONES 1996, Fig.12,50.
17 T. Fischer, pers. comm.; cf. REINECKE 1927, 160.
18 BISHOP, 1999b.
19 It is tempting to use the method of closure of the Stillfried girth hoops – a fixed tie ring passed through the
aperture – but on balance the similarities between the Newstead type breast- and backplates and the mail and
scale breastplates with surviving turning pins are too convincing to overlook.
20 This detail appears to be confirmed by the recent find from Carlisle but no certainty will be possible until
further work has been carried out on the material.
21 RAJTAR, 1994, Abb.7,1. There is a possible example of a girth hoop fragment with a similar rectangular ap-
erture from Chichester (DOWN, 1981, Fig.8.28,3).
22 RAJTAR, 1994, Abb.7,2.
23 I am grateful to Dr Ernst Künzl and Sebastian Keil for allowing me to examine the Stillfried fragments, and
to Martin Wieland and Sebastian Keil for the opportunity to see KEIL, 2001. The interpretation of this fit-
ting depends upon the position of the plate bearing it (the fitting is on a fastened girth hoop, so not from the
lowest two). If low down, it could have been designed to hold the belt in place, but since, as reconstructed, it
is from higher up (third or fourth girth hoop) this would be unlikely.
24 See above, Chapter 1. Curle: CURLE, 1911, 157–8, Pl.XXII; Robinson: ROBINSON, 1975, 180, Pls.I and
Fig.181; Poulter: POULTER, 1988.
25 BISHOP, 1999b.
26 VON GROLLER, 1901.
27 First published in Robinson’s The Armour of Imperial Rome and based on an unpublished reconstruction of the
shoulder sections built by Robinson (I am grateful to Peter Connolly for this information).
28 ROBINSON, 1972, Fig.5.
29 POULTER, 1988, 37.
30 ROBINSON, 1975, Pls.454–5; GARBSCH, 1978, Taf.8,1; JUNKELMANN, 1996, Abb.134.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 61

31 ROBINSON, 1975, 161. Objections to this method of securing turning pins are, of course, equally applicable
to scale (and mail) breastplates, although it has generally been accepted for these by scholars without further
question (cf. GARBSCH, 1978, Abb.2; JUNKELMANN, 1996, 140).
32 E.g. GUDEA, 1989, Pl.CCXL,39–52.
33 Matthew Amt, pers. comm.
34 BISHOP, 1998, 10. The Eining backplate does have a piece of copper-alloy sheet riveted to the corner of the
neck flange, but this appears to be part of a repair to the upper rectangular aperture, which is located unusu-
ally high on this particular plate (BISHOP, forthcoming).
35 ROBINSON, 1975, 181.
36 VON GROLLER, 1901, Taf.XVIII,27–8.
37 In a well-argued paper presented by Peter Price to the Second Roman Military Equipment Seminar at Shef-
field in 1984, which was not, unfortunately, subsequently published.
38 Newstead: FR3453 cited in ALLASON-JONES & MIKET, 1984, 208; Caerleon: EVANS & METCALF,
1992, 118 Figure (Nos.45–68).
39 Webster in EVANS & METCALF, 1992, 116–19. Stillfried plates: pers. obs. October 2001.
40 Cf. a tubular fastening on a breastplate in the Guttmann Collection (JUNKELMANN, 2000, Abb.109).
41 EIBNER, 2000.
42 Pers. obs. October 2001.
43 Pers. comm. J. Aurrecoechea.
44 ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 102.
62 M.C. Bishop

Chapter 7: The Alba Iulia type

EVIDENCE RECONSTRUCTION (FIG.7.2)
This form of the cuirass is known only from the Since scale armour was used for the upper portions
high-relief sculpture (Fig.7.1) found at the legionary of the cuirass, the first detail that needs to be clari-
base of Alba Iulia in Romania (see above, Chapter fied in order to attempt a reconstruction is the type
2).1 No known archaeological examples have been of scale used. Before the 2nd century AD, lorica
identified. However, it appears to have been con- squamata is normally found in its flexible form,
structed from components that may indeed already whereby each scale overlaps and is fastened to its
have been found, but just not recognised as having neighbour on the row by means of a twist of wire,
belonged to segmental body armour. Given the and then sewn with textile cord to a flexible backing
shortcomings of most (but by all means not all) rep- of fabric or leather. The 2nd century saw the intro-
resentational evidence, 2 the description and duction of a semi-rigid form, and in this not only is
reconstruction offered here must be viewed as tenta- each scale wired to its neighbour horizontally, but
tive and will inevitably (it is to be hoped) be subject also vertically. This latter form seems to have been
to review and revision as a result of any further evi- used with breastplates, so it must represent a good
dence that comes to light. candidate for the form of scale used.4
As for the material, iron tended to be used for larger
scales, copper alloy for smaller, but the sculptural evi-
DESCRIPTION dence cannot be of any help to us here and any
This account necessarily has to depend entirely decision has to be made on arbitrary grounds. Sur-
upon the Alba Iulia sculpture and, as such, leaves viving scale sizes range between 11mm wide and
much to be desired. The same shortcomings that ap- 29mm high to 34mm wide and 70mm high for
ply with any iconographic evidence mean that the semi-rigid scale.5 For a man with a chest measurement
accuracy of the representation is, at best, question- of 1400mm, and allowing for a fairly arbitrary 10%
able. However, the accuracy of details on similar overlap vertically and 25% horizontally,6 some 1100 of
sculptural works likely to have been produced by the smallest, or 150 of the largest, scales would proba-
members of the frontier armies (such as tombstones, bly be necessary for the top part of the cuirass. A wide
the Mainz pedestal reliefs, or the Adamclisi met- range of scales were found in the Waffenmagazin at
opes) mean that this is at least worthy of Carnuntum (Fig.7.3) and many of these were iron. Simi-
consideration. larly, a fan-shaped set of semi-rigid scale recently
As with the other forms of segmental armour, there found at Carlisle would be appropriate for one of the
are four principal components to this cuirass: two up- shoulders of such a cuirass.7
per and two lower units. The two upper units seem to Breastplates have long been associated with sports
have been made of scale armour fastened together by armour,8 although there is good reason to suggest that
means of a pair of breastplates. There appear to have they were used with combat equipment too.9 A num-
been no true shoulderguards, although the sculpture is ber are known with legionary attributions, suggesting
damaged in this region. The torso sections are shown that they were not just used by cavalry, as was once
as being made up of four girth hoops each, although thought. All seem to have been decorated in some way,
the manner in which these were fastened together is usually with a combination of mythological and mar-
not depicted on the relief, so some stylisation is evident tial themes. Such breastplates would usually be
here and may be repeated elsewhere. The cuirass is de- attached to mail or their scales by means of flat-headed
picted worn over a tunic and with a laminated rivets (up to four of them) decorated with incised con-
armguard,3 but without pteryges. centric rings. They were fastened by turning-pins,
This much is evident from the one piece of examples of which survive in situ, which were in turn
icongraphic evidence to survive. To attempt a recon- secured by one or more split pins (Fig.6.11). By analogy
struction, we need to employ logic (there are certain with segmental cuirasses, it is possible that these breast-
things that we can arguably take for granted, such as plates were used in combination with backplates: two
the articulation of the girth hoops on three internal principal forms of ‘breastplate’ are generally recog-
leathers each) and informed guesswork (necessary nised, symmetrical (Fig.7.4,1) and asymmetrical
when we try to reconstruct the method of attaching the (Fig.7.4,2–3).10 The purpose of pairs of breast- and
shoulderguards to the girth hoops). backplates may have been to enlarge the neck opening
Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 63

Fig.7.1 The Alba Iulia sculpture.

Fig.7.2 Speculative reconstruction of an Alba Iulia type cuirass.

64 M.C. Bishop

2
1

0 10cm 3

Fig.7.3 A range of scales from the Waffenmagazin at Carnuntum. Scale 1:2

1 2

0 10cm
3

Fig.7.4 Possible back- (1) and breastplates (2 & 3) used with mail and scale cuirasses, and hence also for the Alba Iulia type
of segmental body armour. Scale 1:2

to allow the cuirass to be put on and taken off and then A major puzzle that remains to be solved is the ques-
reduce and fasten it by closure. Given the diminished tion of the manner in which the upper elements were
amount of movement within semi-rigid scale, this attached to the lower. A large lobate hinge mounted
would have been a necessary measure. vertically on what appears to be a girth hoop was found
The plate girth hoops need not have looked very dif- at Carnuntum (Fig.7.6)13 and this could plausibly be in-
ferent to those of the Newstead type of cuirass (see ter preted as indicating a method of vertical
above, Chapter 6). Although the sculpture depicts only attachment using external straps and buckles, similar
four hoops, a minimum of six seems more likely.11 As to that used on the Corbridge type A cuirass. This
with the Newstead cuirass, they will probably have seems unlikely, given the preference for hook-and-eye
been fastened laterally by means of cast tie rings. It is vertical fasteners found on the Corbridge B and C and
possible that the Zugmantel girth hoops (Fig.7.5), Newstead types of segmental cuirass which may have
which differ somewhat from the Stillfried examples,12 been devised precisely to avoid the problems inherent
insofar as they broaden towards the bottom, may be- in a strap system.14
long to this type of cuirass (although it is equally likely Instead of using a detachable fastening, it is possible
that they are just another variant of the Newstead that the scale upper portions were permanently at-
type). tached to the upper girth hoop in some way. Again, this
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 65

0 10cm

Fig.7.5 Over-compressed girth hoops from Zugmantel (viewed from the inside). Scale 1:2

0 10cm

Fig.7.6 Lobate hinge (possibly mounted vertically) on a girth hoop. Scale 1:2

does not seem very likely, as it would hamper the ability mounted on leather is known from Vindonissa15 and
to break a cuirass into its four constituent units (always even semi-rigid scale armour must have been used with
one of the strong points of segmental armour, both some sort of undergarment, similar to that to which
from the point of view of serviceability and of stor- normal scales were sewn. It is therefore possible that
age). the scales of the Alba Iulia type of cuirass were at-
An alternative solution might have been to have tached to a fabric or leather backing to which straps
used internal straps and buckles, like those found at the were sewn, enabling the top and bottom parts to be
back of the Corbridge type A armour. Little or nothing joined.
would be visible externally, as is indeed the case with Ultimately, the means by which the upper elements
the Alba Iulia relief, although such a deduction would were attached to the lower can only be speculated
almost certainly be placing too much reliance on about and further finds will be necessary before any
iconographic evidence. At least one example of scales more detailed conclusions can be reached.
66 M.C. Bishop

TABLE OF LIKELY COMPONENTS

scales
wire ties for scales
tie rings
breastplates 2
backplates 2
turning pins 3
split pins 3
thong to secure split pins 2
leathering rivet boss ?4
vertical fasteners female 6
rivets to secure vertical fasteners 6
girth hoop halves 12
girth hoop fastening loops 8
girth hoop fastening socket surrounds 8
girth hoop fastening socket surround rivets 36
girth hoops leathers 6
girth hoop leathering rivets 36/72
vertical fastening hooks male 6
rivets to secure vertical fastening hooks 12
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 67

NOTES

1 COULSTON 1995.
2 BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 19–32.
3 See below, p.68.
4 For semi-rigid scale, see BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 117.
5 Small scale size: GARBSCH, 1978, 79; large scale size: VON GROLLER, 1901, Taf.XVI,6.
6 The Hrusic̀´a scales have something in the region of (very roughly) 13% overlap vertically and 28% horizon-
tally (GARBSCH, 1978, Taf.35,2).
7 McCARTHY et al., 2001, Fig.3; RICHARDSON, 2001, 188–9, Figs.2–3. Some 60 scales survive in this sec-
tion, where each of the three rows is composed of different-sized scales, showing the difficulty of such
rough-and-ready calculations. Nevertheless, the principle of ‘the smaller the scale, the more you need’ holds
true.
8 GARBSCH, 1978, 7–8.
9 BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 117.
10 Not all symmetrical plates were fastened, some just being in one piece and riveted down their two vertical
edges (cf. JUNKELMANN, 1996, Abb.145). The suggestion of these having been attached to fabric corselets
(ibid. Abb.150) is unsupported by the evidence (particularly since they apparently employ the same type of riv-
ets used to attach them to mail or scale) and not wholly convincing.
11 Seven is the least definite number of girth hoops amongst the Corbridge Hoard (Cuirasses v and vi, the type
B/Cs) and the find from Stillfried, whilst Zugmantel has a minimum of five.
12 Zugmantel: BISHOP, in preparation a; Stillfried: pers. obs. 2001.
13 VON GROLLER, 1901, Taf..XIX,57.
14 See above, p.32.
15 Pers. obs. Vindonissa-Museum, October 2001. Most scale seems to have had a fabric backing (BISHOP &
COULSTON, 1993, 141).
68 M.C. Bishop

Chapter 8: Other segmental armour

ARMGUARDS the reliefs on the Adamclisi metopes. Although it can
In military use in the Roman period, the armguard scarcely be claimed that these are intended to be accu-
(manica1) was most commonly found protecting the rate depictions of armguards, there is no doubting that
sword arm of an infantryman. In this, they to some they are meant to represent manicae.
extent mimicked the use of limb protection in the The last example amongst the sculptural sources is
arena, although it is clear that gladiators wore artic- the 2nd- or 3rd-century relief from Alba Iulia
ulated metal defences on either (or even both2) arms, (Fig.7.1), already discussed (above, p.62ff) under the
according to their style of fighting, and that they context of the cuirass shown on the figure. The sol-
could be of scale or mail, as well as plate. Before their dier (again thought to be a legionary by dint of his
adoption by the Romans, such arm defences had curved rectangular shield8) is shown wearing a seg-
been associated with protecting the arms of ar- mental armguard on his sword arm, some six plates
moured cavalrymen and this is a use which would being visible on the figure.
continue with the spread of armoured cavalry in the Finally, copies of illustrations associated with manu-
later imperial period. scripts of the Notitia Dignitatum show segmental limb
defences on the seals of the magistri officiorum.9
Military depictions of segmental armguards are,
Evidence therefore, comparatively rare. These can arguably be
Our evidence for the manica in a military context is supplemented by the many gladiatorial reliefs which
both iconographic and archaeological. No Roman show armguards. Although a proportion of these may
written accounts survive which describe the use or be intended to show padded organic defences,10 it is
form of this item of equipment, although it is not im- clear – particularly from coloured mosaics – that many
possible that new sub-literary evidence will come to do indeed show metallic manicae.11
light at some point in the future. The archaeological evidence is, thankfully, both
The armguard is most famously shown in use more abundant and more informative than the icono-
amongst legionary troops on the metopes from the graphic. The excavation of the Waffenmagazin at
Tropaeum Traiani at Adamclisi.3 Here most of the citi- Carnuntum was the first time that fragments of arm-
zen troops4 enganged in combat are wearing such a guard were identified as such by its excavator, Max von
defence on the sword arm (Fig.2.11). Indeed, this fa- Groller. In his publication of the find,12 von Groller
mously led Richmond to deduce that the armguard noted that as many as ten fragments of arm defence
had been introduced specifically for these campaigns, were found in the building.13 The pieces illustrated by
in order to counter the Dacian falx. Some commenta- him (only a small proportion of the original discovery,
tors think it curious that the picture of Roman it seems: Fig.8.1) provide enough information for com-
soldiers presented by the Adamclisi metopes differs so parison with other subsequent finds.
radically from that of Trajan’s Column, but it has The next major find, although for a long time its
been pointed out that this may be due to stylisation on true nature was not recognised, came from one of the
the metropolitan propaganda monument.5 On the rooms of the principia at Newstead (Fig.8.2).14 Robin-
metopes, armguards are shown with up to 16 plates son interpreted the curved copper-alloy plates as
(or ‘lames’). having belonged to a cuisse or thigh-guard, even re-
Other sculptural representations of military arm- constructing it as such.15 Nevertheless, it is clear that
guards occur on the tombstones of Sex. Valerius the plates belonged to an armguard. This find was sup-
Severus and G. Annius Salutus, both from Mainz plemented by pieces belonging to an iron manica, found
(Fig.2.8).6 Legionaries of the legio XXII Primigenia, their in the same deposit (the well in the headquarters build-
tombstones probably date to the middle of the 1st cen- ing) as the Newstead lorica segmentata.16
tury AD (c.43–70), XXII Primigenia being based in Since the identification of first the Carnuntum and
Mainz during this period.7 Both reliefs form part of then the Newstead finds it has been possible to identify
decorative borders of weaponry that surrounds the other examples of plates, notably from Richborough,17
main text of their tombstones, a style of monument Corbridge,18 Eining,19 and León.20 Discoveries at
that is found elsewhere. The armguard of Severus is Carlisle have revealed possible complete examples
shown with eleven plates and a hand-shaped section (Fig.8.3) and an almost complete armguard has been
(with four more) that does not appear to be matched by reported from Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa (Romania).21
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 69

c b a

e
1 f
d 2
g

4 5

0 10cm

Fig.8.1 Finds of armguard (manica) from the Waffenmagazin at Carnuntum (scale 1:2).

Description an appropriate number of flat-headed copper-alloy

First it is notable that (unlike segmental body ar- rivets on its lower edge and a hole punched at either
mour) armguards could be made in either iron or end. The most complete examples (Sarmizegetusa and
copper alloy, although both types share the same Carlisle) have more than 25, and as many as 30, lames
form and their rivets were always made of copper al- below the upper plate.
loy. Each complete or near-complete example of an At the wrist, in at least two cases (Eining and León23)
armguard displays a number of distinctive features the terminal plates were riveted together and not artic-
which renders it comparatively easy to identify com- ulated (Fig.8.4). Von Groller noted the presence of
ponents of this type of defence. A large upper plate is some sort of organic component which included
bordered on three sides by a series of holes punched leather and coarse linen, perhaps the remains of a pad-
through near its periphery. In the case of the New- ded sleeve or lining to which the plates were attached,
stead example, the most completely understood at while the copper-alloy Newstead example had frag-
the time of writing, the edge of this plate appears to ments of the internal leathers surviving.24
be bound with narrow U-sectioned guttering and
there are indications that at least one of the Carlisle
defences shares this characteristic. Reconstructions
Near the lower edge of this plate are rivets which se- Armguards probably had around 35 iron/steel or
cure internal leathers and these serve to articulate the copper-alloy plates below the main upper plate (the
whole defence. The rivet heads stand proud of the in- number probably varied according to the length of
ner face of the upper plate since this is the side to the arm and the size of the lames). The fact that they
which the leathers are attached (armguards overlap were articulated on internal leathers fastened to
upwards, unlike body armour which does so down- them with copper-alloy rivets is well known, but the
wards – see below). leathers, rivets, and metal plates were only three of
The main plates (or lames) of the defence varied in the four major functional components of a manica.
height between 25mm and 30mm and were of varying The fourth, missing, element was attached to the
length, being longer nearer the top and shortening as holes around the periphery of the plates. It is proba-
they progressed down the arm. The copper-alloy New- bly safe to assume that the missing component was
stead plates range in thickness between 0.35mm and organic and functioned as some sort of the lining for
0.5mm, by comparison with the fragments from the defence. This was certainly the conclusion
Corbridge, which are 0.5mm.22 Those on the New- reached by Robinson.25 Moreover, this would al-
stead armguard (which do not appear to be complete) most certainly have been a padded lining that
range in length between 120mm and 170mm. Because worked in the same manner as the arming doublet
the defence tapered towards the hand, the Newstead worn beneath body armour, absorbing and dissipat-
armguard reduced its internal leathers from four to ing the force of any blows delivered to the armour
three closer to the wrist. Each of the main plates had (see below, p.79). What is not immediately obvious is
70 M.C. Bishop

0 10cm

Fig.8.2 Finds of copper-alloy segmental armguard from Newstead. The plates follow Curle’s arrangement but with
the top plate uppermost. Note that although most plates are displayed with the inner face showing, some show the
outer face. Scale 1:2

the form taken by this padding: did it only extend is possible that, rather than being stitched to its
over the inside of the plates, or did it completely en- backing, the armguard was laced around it.
close the arm, like a sleeve? There are many The form of the armguard is only one aspect of its
objections to fixing a lining to an articulated de- reconstruction, for the way in which it is worn affects
fence, not least the likelihood of tearing. Therefore it its usefulness to its wearer. An armguard worn on the
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 71

Fig.8.3 Tracings from X-rays of armguard components from Carlisle (from RICHARDSON, 2001, Fig.3). Scale 1:4

sword in the manner usually depicted, the upper arm

was vertical and parallel to the torso, whilst the fore-
arm was held at right-angles and to the front. The most
natural and comfortable angle of repose is with the
thumb uppermost and this explains why the terminal
plates of the armguard were so small. They were never
designed to protect the back of the hand but were in-
0 5cm tended to lie along the narrower, more vulnerable,
upper edge of the arm (Fig.8.5).
Fig.8.4 Riveted armguard wrist plates from Eining. The way in which the armguard was worn is also re-
Scale 1:2 flected in another important aspect of its construction:
its plates overlapped upwards (whereas those of seg-
back of the arm, covering the elbow, has to be able to mental body ar mour overlapped outwards or
allow its plates to expand over that joint. In medieval downwards). Any horizontal or glancing blows that
armour, this was accomplished by means of couter were not stopped by the handguard of the sword
plates and moving joints. However, a defence worn on would then be deflected up the arm towards the inside
the front of the arm, over the inside of the elbow joint, of the elbow joint, where the compression of the over-
only has to be able to compress and this is precisely lapping plates would mean that it was the most heavily
what the Roman manica can do. More importantly, this protected part of the armguard.
method of wearing it offers the greatest protection to
the most vulnerable part of the arm. When holding a

List of likely components

shoulder plates 1
lames c. 35
leathering rivets 90–120
internal leathers 3 or 4
padded fabric and leather lining 1
72 M.C. Bishop

Fig.8.5 Incorrect (left) and correct (right) way of using the segmental armguard. Photos courtesy M. Amt.

SHOULDERGUARDS usual mail shoulder doubling, edged (possibly in

It has been suggested that a relief showing cavalry- leather or fabric), and with the tunic showing be-
men, from the Belgium/Luxemburg border region, neath the outer edging (Fig.8.7b). The Arlon relief
depicted laminated shoulderguards being worn with itself is not of sufficient quality to allow one interpre-
a cuirass made of some other type of material.26 tation to be preferred over the other, but the
comparable reliefs suggest that it is shoulder dou-
bling, not segmental shoulderguards, that were
Evidence intended.
The evidence for this type of defence is arguably
purely iconographic (but see below). The relief in
question (Fig.8.6), found at Arlon, shows cavalry- Reconstructions
men with what have been interpreted as laminated The principal difficulty in accomplishing the mar-
shoulderguards attached to mail cuirasses. This is riage of segmental shoulderguards with a mail shirt
one of a series of cavalry reliefs, interpreted by some lies in the manner in which they are joined. With
as battle cenotaphs or funerary monuments, and normal segmentata, the whole defence depends (quite
needs to be seen in the context of other such works. literally) on its internal network of leathers which,
In particular, comparison with a second relief from for the upper units, join the shoulderguards to the
Arlon, another from Lüttich (Germany), and collar plates. No collar plates seem to be indicated
Reitertyp tombstones from the Rhineland27 could eas- on the Arlon relief so it would be necessary to as-
ily be used to suggest that some confusion may easily sume that the leathers of the shoulderguards were in
have arisen on the part of the sculptors attempting to some way attached to the mail of the shirt.
portray mail shoulder doubling. A speculative reconstruction of this type of shoul-
der defence has indeed been produced by Michael
Simkins (Fig.8.8) which shows that it is at least techni-
Description cally feasible. He used the unusual shoulderguard from
Since no actual example of this form of defence has Chichester (Fig.5.12) with its pairs of rivets (which
been recognised (if, indeed, it ever existed), any de- b re a k s f ro m t h e u s u a l p at t e r n o f u p p e r
scription will necessarily be sketchy and owe much shoulderguards, which have single central leathering
to attempts at physical reconstruction (for which see rivets). Simkins riveted the four central bosses through
below). A literal interpretation of the Arlon relief the mail and two of the four leathers, whilst the outer
(Fig.8.7a) would identify an upper shoulderguard two leathers were only attached to the plates.28 How-
with four lesser shoulderguards but, apparently, no ever, in the meantime, for conclusive proof of its use,
breast- or backplates associated. An alternative view we must wait for a suitably unambiguous archaeologi-
might be that the sculptor intended to depict the cal discovery.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 73

Fig.8.6 Relief from Arlon suggested as depicting segmental shoulderguards on mail shirts. © Musée Luxembourgeois

mail
edging
plates
Fig.8.7 Interpretation of the relief from Arlon showing it with a) segmental shoulderguards and b) shoulder doubling
on the mail.

List of likely components

upper shoulderguard plates 6
lesser shoulderguard plates 8
shoulder leathering rivets 18
?shoulder leathering washers 18
shoulder leathers 6
lobate hinge-halves 8
lobate hinge fastening rivets 80

CUISSES AND OTHER SEGMENTAL exposing the upper leg to a downward blow from the
ARMOUR sword of a passing foe, especially infantry. No exam-
The cuisse was an important defence for an ar- ples of segmental metal cuisses are known from
moured horseman, as it protected the thigh. This Roman contexts, although they were clearly being
was vulnerable because of the rider’s sitting position, used by the enemies of Rome.
74 M.C. Bishop

Fig.8.8 Reconstruction by Michael Simkins of the Arlon Fig.8.9 Graffito of armoured cavalryman from
type of cuirass. Photo M. Simkins Dura-Europos

210mm), with 14 and 12 rows of scales respec-

tively,31 and were thus probably intended to reach
Evidence from the waist to the knee, and wrap around the
Iconographic evidence is the main source for the ex- sides of the thigh, tapering towards the knee. As with
istence of segmental cuisses and, as such, of limited the armguard, it might be anticipated that some
help in understanding technical details. The famous means of stopping a deflected sword blade moving
graffito of an armoured cavalryman from up the leg would be required and continuing the de-
Dura-Europos appears to depict segmental armour on fence above the leg may well be one way in which
the arms and lower legs of the cavalryman, but not this particular danger was countered. Similarly, it
on the upper legs, where a convention that may have can be anticipated that a cuisse will not wrap around
been intended to represent mail or scale is shown the entire leg since this would be both too compli-
(Fig.8.9). They are also shown (together with lami- cated to realise and, more importantly, unnecessary,
nated arm defences) on Sassanid reliefs from Tang-e since it is only the front (or top, when seated) and
Sarvak and Naqs-e Rostam which date to the 3rd outer side of the thigh that requires protection.
and 4th centuries AD.29

Reconstructions
Description Robinson’s reconstruction of a segmental cuisse was
Since no actual examples exist (or, at least, have based on a misinterpretation of the Newstead cop-
been recognised as such), it is not possible to de- per-alloy armguard remains, and appears not to
scribe an actual cuisse. Two examples from make any provision for the defence reaching as far as
Dura-Europos, made of lacquered rawhide scales,30 the waist. Nevertheless, in its basics, it is probably as
may make useful comparisons with the likely form of close as it is possible to get with the current limited
a segmental metal defence (Fig.8.9). They measure state of our knowledge.
770mm long by 600mm wide (tapering to 270mm)
and 610mm long by 480mm wide (tapering to
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 75

List of likely components

lames c. 30
leathering rivets 90–120
internal leathers 3 or 4
padded fabric and leather lining 1
76 M.C. Bishop

NOTES

1 Occasionally nowadays anachronistically – and rather inaccurately (since it was very different in form to later
armguards) – known by the medieval term ‘vambrace’. In reality, in medieval plate armour, the vambrace
only covered the lower arm, the upper arm being covered by the rerebrace, and the elbow protected by
couter plates, although modern usage tends towards referring to the complete arm defence as a vambrace (cf.
EDGE & PADDOCK, 1988, 79–80).
2 In the case of the figurine from Versigny (PICARD 1980; JUNKELMANN 2000, 83, Abb.118) usually identi-
fied with a crupellarius (mentioned by Tacitus Ann. III,43,2 and 46,3).
3 FLORESCU, 1965, Figs.189–90, 195, 197–201, 204, 212, 217, 221.
4 For this is what we must presume the curved rectangular shields, standards, and pila are intended to signify
(RICHMOND, 1982, 49).
5 COULSTON, 1989, 32.
6 Severus: AuhV 3, Heft 6, Pl.5,3; SELTZER, 1988, 142 Nr.59. Salutus: ibid., 140 Nr.54.
7 Ibid. 67.
8 COULSTON, 1995, 16.
9 ND Or. XI and Oc. IX ‘insignia viri illustris magistri officiorum’. Cf. ROBINSON, 1975, Fig.191.
10 JUNKELMANN, 2000,83–4.
11 COULSTON, 1998, 5. Cf. the Villa Borghese mosiacs, showing a copper-alloy armguard (JUNKELMANN,
2000, front endpaper). The representation of (apparently iron) scale armguards also indicates that such
defences could be made of metal (cf. ibid rear endpapers).
12 VON GROLLER, 1901.
13 Ibid. 43.
14 CURLE, 1911, caption to Pl.XXIII claims it to have come from room 5 (the sacellum), but elsewhere suggests
the find came from room 7 (ibid. 51, 159). It seems likely that the text is correct and the plate caption wrong.
15 ROBINSON, 1975, 185–6, Pls.503–4.
16 BISHOP, 1999b, 31–3, Fig.7.
17 M. Lyne, pers. comm.
18 Pers. obs. CO23508, 23542–3.
19 BISHOP forthcoming.
20 A. Morillo pers. comm.
21 Carlisle: McCARTHY et al. 2001, 507; RICHARDSON, 2001, 188–9, Figs.2–3. Sarmizegetusa: L. Petculescu,
pers. comm.
22 Newstead: pers. obs. Corbridge: pers. obs.
23 Eining: BISHOP forthcoming. León: A. Morillo pers. comm.
24 ‘Das Futter war bald Leder, bald grobe Leinwand gewesen sein’: VON GROLLER, 1901, 116. Newstead:
CURLE, 1911, 159, Pl.XXIII.
25 ROBINSON, 1975, 186.
26 ALFS, 1941, 122, followed by SIMKINS, 1988, 122.
27 Arlon: GABELMANN, 1973, 151–3, Bild 18; Lüttich: ibid., 148, Bild 15; Reitertyp: ibid., 156–70.
28 Simkins pers. comm. I am particularly grateful to Michael Simkins for providing details of his reconstruction.
29 Dura-Europos: BAUR et al., 1933, Pl.XXII,2; Tang-e Sarvak: VON GALL, 1990, 13–19; Naqs-e Rostam: ibid.,
30–6.
30 ROBINSON, 1975, Pls.457–8.
31 ROSTOVTZEFF et al., 1936, 450–2, Pl.XXIII.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 77

Chapter 9: Technical matters

FERROUS METALS blows a priority. However, it must be remembered that,
All of the components for a segmental cuirass had to ironically, some of the strengths can also be argued to
be made from sheet metal beaten out from ingots of have provided weaknesses in the cuirass.
the raw material. Billets of iron are known from Ro-
man sites (Fig.9.1a) and bars of partially-worked
brass have also been found (Fig.9.1b).1 COPPER ALLOYS
Although it was long thought that the Roman army The copper alloy used for most of the fittings (hinged
did not know how to form steel, or that where it did oc- fittings, lobate hinges, tie loops etc) was a type of
cur it did so accidentally, work by Dr David Sim has brass known as orichalcum, the same metal used in
shown that this was not the case and that deliberate brass coinage from the time of Augustus onwards.6
hardening of the plates of lorica segmentata was regularly Orichalcum, which is almost golden in appearance
accomplished, so that it was closer to a modern mild (Plates 1 & 4), was a binary alloy of copper (80–85%)
steel than wrought iron and the term ‘steely iron’ may and zinc (20–15%) and was quite widely used in mili-
be more appropriate to describe it. The sheet metal tary equipment from the 1st to the 3rd centuries AD.
was apparently deliberately produced with harder As such it closely resembles the modern alloys of ‘low
perlite on the outside, softer ferrite on the inside.2 brass’ (CA240) to ‘red brass’ (CA230) (with a
Due to the fact that most lorica segmentata plates that Rockwell hardness of between 70 and 65). Since
are excavated are heavily corroded and can yield little orichalcum was also used in currency, the components
by way of useful information on their original thick- of lorica segmentata made from it were, effectively,
ness, the occasional discoveries of uncorroded pieces constructed from bullion. The rivets used to secure
(particularly from waterlogged deposits) are especially the fittings to the iron plates might be of the same
valuable. From these, it can be determined that the composition, but a softer metal was often used, with
thickness of the ferrous plate used varied according to between 90/10 composition (‘commercial bronze’
its position in the cuirass. Plates at the top, particularly (CA220), with Rockwell hardness of 58) and 95/5
those on the shoulders, seem invariably to have been (‘gilding metal’, CA210, with a Rockwell hardness of
thicker (1mm or more) than those employed on the 52),7 which made it easier to secure (peen) the rivets
girth hoops (around 0.7mm),3 presumably reflecting in place. The higher copper content of the rivets also
the perception of threat on the part of the armourers. gave them a more coppery colour. No examples of
The one likely example of a Kalkriese-type upper bronze fittings (i.e. a copper/tin alloy) have so far
shoulderguard in fact shows a thickness closer to been identified on Corbridge-type cuirasses.8 The
3mm,4 but this was considerably reduced by the time different colour characteristics of the various metals
the Corbridge type came into use, presumably an ac- means it is often possible to identify uncorroded
ceptable compromise between weight and protection. metals tentatively without the aid of any scientific
Tests using modern mild steel showed that a replica of analysis (the Newstead fittings, for instance, are
the infamous Dacian falx could still penetrate sheet brass-coloured, although they have never been
metal 1.6mm thick.5 tested), but such analyses are obviously desirable in
Part of the secret of the success of segmental ar- the long term.
mour – if indeed it can be thought to have been so – lay
in the combination of simplicity and strength of the
armour plate. Simplicity came from the fact that the DECORATION
major components were only ever curved in one axis The decoration of lorica segmentata was achieved in a
(although some breastplates show signs of slight dish- variety of ways. The first and most obvious way was
ing) and could thus be quickly bent to shape. It may by the use of ornamental fittings. Hinges, hinged fit-
arguably also have been present in the compo- tings, and washers could all be embellished beyond
nent-based nature of the cuirass, allowing production simple functional requirements (Fig.5.6). This taste
and assembly to be undertaken by a large or a small for decorative shapes is first evident on the Kalkriese
workforce. Strength was provided by that same curva- type and still evident on the Newstead-type cuirass
ture: whilst a circle is a very strong shape, an oval (for in use nearly 300 years later.
the torso) is almost as good, and the repetition of con- Sub lobate (Fig.4.3,1–3), and later lobate (Fig.5.3f),
vex curves throughout the armour made deflection of hinges are the most obvious examples of decorated
78 M.C. Bishop

b
0 10cm

Fig.9.1 Sheet of brass from Corbridge (a) and billet of iron from Newstead (b). Scale 1:3

functional fittings. It might be argued that plain rect- plating. Notwithstanding the aesthetics of the cuirass
angular versions were all that was actually needed and for modern eyes, the Roman army had a marked pen-
were indeed used on occasion, but these seem to have chant for tinning and silvering which can be found,
been in the minority and may well represent hasty re- albeit rarely, on lorica segmentata. Only one fragment of
pairs. All of the repairs on the Corbridge Hoard tinned ferrous sheet is so far known (see below, p.80),11
cuirasses replaced lobate hinges with like (Fig.9.2), al- but a number of copper-alloy fittings are now known
though the differing styles used suggests that the that were decorated in this way. Several of the
replacements may have been cannibalised from other Kalkriese cuirass fittings still retain traces of silvering
(scrapped) units. In one or two cases, crude imitations (Fig.4.2,6), whilst a Corbridge-type lobate hinge from
of lobate hinges seem to have been fashioned the Baden (Switzerland) Du Parc site was similarly
(Fig.9.9,1), but what is remarkable is the way that deco- treated.12 The recent discovery of the Stillfried girth
rated hinges continued in use for such a long time. hoops demonstrated how tie rings could also be
Ornamental shapes, in the form of scalloped edges, tinned.13 Whether such tinning or plating was, at least
were also used on hinged fittings on the Kalkriese type in part, designed to help prevent corrosion is unknown.
cuirass (Figs.4.2,7 & 4.3,8), but by the time of the
Corbridge type, these had become much plainer
(Fig.5.6). ORGANIC COMPONENTS
Next, surface decoration on the body of the fitting The only organic components of segmental armour
itself was also used (Fig. 5.8), whether as stamped con- itself were the leather straps upon which it was artic-
centric circles, scored lines, or embossed patterns. ulated (along with the ties used to secure the girth
Decorative washers for leathering rivets began to be hoop halves). Actual examples of internal leathers
used on the Corbridge type. It has long been observed from lorica segmentata have yet to be found,14 although
that segmental armour shared these with helmets of mineral-preserved remains are quite common. This
Robinson’s Imperial-Gallic type.9 A stamp (Fig.5.7) for is a process similar to fossilisation, whereby the cel-
the production of such decorative bosses has been lular structure of the leather is replaced by iron
found at Oulton (England)10 and unfinished examples oxide from neighbouring corroding ferrous plates.
are known, although it is not possible to tell whether Therefore the form of the original straps is pre-
the bosses were intended for body armour or helmets served, even though the organic component has
(perhaps even both). rotted away. It is more common to observe it on
The third form of decoration came from the colour larger deposits, such as complete sets of plates.
contrasts inherent in the metals used for the armour
(Plates 1, 4, & 6) – grey for the plate itself together with
a golden yellow for the copper-alloy fittings and, in MANUFACTURE
many cases, a darker coppery colour for the rivets, was Although most modern replicas of lorica segmentata
on occasion further enhanced by means of decorative tend to be built by lone craftsmen undertaking all of
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 79

0 10cm

Fig.9.2 Substituted lobate hinge repair on collar assembly of Cuirass 3 from the Corbridge Hoard. Scale 1:2

the necessary tasks themselves, the segmental cuirass SIZE AND FITTING
is ideally suited to a production-line method of con- Examination of both original cuirass components
struction. This would require various unskilled and and modern reconstructions has made it very plain
semi-skilled labourers to concentrate on producing that one size did not fit all. Modern re-enactors tend
the components in parallel, finally bringing all the to opt for a ‘small, medium, large’ approach if they
pieces together to form the armour under the guid- are not producing for specific individuals of known
ance of a skilled armourer. Such a method of sizes (the degree to which armour was personally fit-
production may be the reason why plate armour is ted is, of course, unknown and parallels with modern
generally finished to such a mediocre standard. In a military practices unhelpful and ambiguous). Simi-
pre-industrial society, it was much more time-con- larly, the range of breastplate sizes in the Corbridge
suming to produce an item to the sort of levels of Hoard shows wide variation (Fig.5.4). Some ele-
millimetre accuracy that our modern mechanised ments of plate design remain fairly constant, notably
society takes for granted and it could well be that lev- the distance between the lateral fasteners and the
els of expectation of quality of finish differed. lower edge of the breastplate. Others show varia-
In fact, it could be argued that many of the known tion, amongst them the distance between the lateral
finds of lorica segmentata show clear signs of what might fastener and the upper edge of the plate and the
be termed a binary production process. First, the cui- overall width of the plate. For those longer in the
rasses were manufactured in the manner outlined body, it is possible that more girth hoops were used
above, resulting in fairly uniform (but seldom strictly (eight on the Corbridge A and one half of the
identical) sets of fittings on any one cuirass, together Stillfried set, seven on the Corbridge B/C and the
with a rather obsessive level of detailing and decora- other half of the Stillfried set), or whether the depth
tion. Second, there is plenty of extant evidence for of the girth hoops themselves was increased (in the
hasty repairs, often suggested as field maintenance.15 Corbridge Hoard, depths ranged between 50mm
One possible interpretation of this pattern might be and 60mm for the type A, and 55mm and 60mm for
that the cuirasses were made during the quiet winter the B/C.16
months, when there would be plenty of unskilled and Although the cuirass had to be designed to fit, it also
semi-skilled labour available amongst the soldiery to had to be designed to fit over an arming doublet, which
operate in the production line manner discussed we know had to be worn with the cuirass.17 Support for
above. When the campaigning season arrived, how- this assertion mainly comes from the archaeological
ever, such manpower would not be accessible, yet this finds, but would seem to be confirmed by observations
would be the time when the armour would be most of modern reconstructions. When worn without any
susceptible to damage, hence the need for makeshift padding under the shoulders, replica lorica segmentata
repairs, cannibalising parts from existing cuirasses. ‘sags’ in such a way that the breastplates meet at an an-
Such would be the inevitable result of using the same gle and often leave gaping holes in the centre of the
body of men to construct the armour as well as use it. chest (Fig.9.3a). This in turn places undue stress upon
Other interpretations are doubtless possible, but few the lateral fasteners, particularly on the Corbridge
seem quite so attractive. type. The hinged buckle and hinged strap lateral fas-
teners were always riveted on parallel to the lower edge
of the breastplate, perpendicular to the inner edges of
the same plates. Original examples show no signs of
80 M.C. Bishop

a b
Fig.9.3 Modern reconstructions a) without and b) with padded shoulders provided by an arming doublet (photos courtesy M.
Amt (left) and J.C.N. Coulston (right))

the sort of damage that might be expected if the Marcus Aurelius and a copper-alloy statuette), being at
stressed condition actually applied in the Roman pe- once metropolitan and highly derivative, is question-
riod, and Newstead cuirasses were clearly designed to able to say the least.20 Moreover, the Alba Iulia figure
have the breast- and backplates meet neatly, so we can (see above, p.62) – of provincial origin and therefore
reasonably conclude that Corbridge-type breastplates more reliable as an iconographic source – is not wear-
were not supposed to join at an angle. In fact, it was ing pteryges.21
normal in the medieval period (and earlier) for body Although the use of an arming doublet with lorica
armour to be worn over a padded garment in order to segmentata is deduced and, as such, unlikely ever to be
absorb the shock of blows. capable of proof, the necessity for it with segmental ar-
In order for the upper units to sit correctly, there- mour – as with all body armour – seems beyond doubt.
fore, padding had to be provided to obviate the natural
slope of the shoulders, largely a result of the trapezium
muscles on either side of the neck. Ample padding on CORROSION
the shoulders not only provides a level basis for the Lorica segmentata, since it was always constructed us-
shoulderguards, but also raises the neck aperture of the ing two metals (iron and copper alloy) was prone to
collar plates above the trapezium muscles, which ex- bimetallic corrosion.22 This was especially unfortu-
plains why Corbridge type collar units have such small nate, since most of the copper-alloy fittings were
neck openings (Fig.9.3b). Obviously, the padding pro- permanently riveted to their parent iron plates and it
vided by an arming doublet also improves the was thus impossible to clean between them without
protection afforded by the armour, and since the de- deriveting the fittings. This meant that every time a
sign of the lorica segmentata focuses on protecting the cuirass got wet, whether from a downpour or simply
shoulder region, additional padding in this region can from the sweat of a soldier’s exertions, the chemical
come as no surprise. reactions that led to corrosion could take place, and
In the Antonine period, lorica segmentata begins to be there was little that could be done about it short of
depicted being worn with pteryges (Figs.2.4, 2.5, and the sort of fastidious drying that would most likely be
2.7) similar to those found in earlier periods on mus- impractical in the field (Plate 2).
cled cuirasses and with mail and scale armour. There is no evidence that painting, ‘bluing’, or hot
Regardless of whether they were made of leather, stiff- oil dips were used to enhance the resistance of the ar-
ened linen, or some other material, they would have mour plate to corrosion (although, as ever, absence of
offered some limited additional protection to the upper evidence need not imply evidence of absence), but a
arms and lower torso.18 It is logical to assume that fragment of ferrous plate, readily recognisable as part
these pteryges were in fact part of the arming doublet of an upper shoulderguard, from Xanten has clearly
(and they are indeed depicted as such on one of the few been tinned.23
known representations of the garment19), but the na- Paradoxically, the same combination of metals
ture of the iconographic evidence (the Column of that accelerated corrosion could also have an effect
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 81

Fig.9.4 Modern re-enactors’ reconstruction of a Corbridge type B cuirass. It is not an exact replica of an original Roman
cuirass in terms of the materials used and their thicknesses, but it can nevertheless prove informative about the way that such
armour worked. Note that, as with Robinson’s early reconstructions, the points on the upper shoulderguards have been set
(incorrectly) to face outwards. Photos M.C. Bishop

upon the preservation of a ferrous plate once it had some insights into the ways in which lorica segmentata
been deposited in the ground. Put simply, due to the could fail and the sort of measures necessary to deal
zinc in the orichalcum fitting, the metal of the plate sur- with such potentially lethal problems. First, it must be
rounding a brass fitting could be better preserved pointed out that a straightforward comparison is by no
than those parts that were further away, which helps means easy due to the limitations of modern replicas
to explain why copper-alloy fittings are often found (see below, p.95ff). Nevertheless, display work and, in
still attached to a small portion of ferrous plate.24 Ex- some cases, even simulated combat, can produce sug-
cept in unusual conditions, such as waterlogging, the gestive data that are at least worthy of consideration.
iron plates are usually found completely reduced to One of the greatest vulnerabilities revealed by
iron oxide. This has the disadvantage that it is nor- re-enactors’ experiences with segmental armour – and
mally impossible to study the metallurgical properties one which does not necessarily show too clearly in the
of the plate, and the advantage that associated archaeological record – is failure of the internal leathers
organics, such as the internal leathers, are often still on the girth hoops. It has been noted that rivets pulling
represented as mineral-preserved organics (see above). through the leather can occur through poor assembly
(the rivets having been incorrectly peened), as a result of
a blow or crushing of the cuirass, or simply through in-
EVERYDAY ATTRITION adequate maintenance of the leather (through
Wear and tear was clearly a problem even without over-oiling, which can cause it to stretch and weaken, or
the added hazards of combat. Here the experience at the other extreme insufficient oiling, leading to dry-
of re-enactors performing in displays can be infor- ing and cracking).25 The problem of rivets pulling
mative in giving some idea of the sort of problems through is effectively countered by the use of roves, a
encountered in everyday use (Fig.9.4). practice attested on many archaeological examples, but
Indeed, attrition from ‘normal’ use looks as if it may that this in turn could split the leathers longitudinally if
be one of the main reasons that lorica segmentata fittings poor-quality leather had been used. Some re-enactors
are such common finds on military sites of the 1st cen- have recorded minor failures occurring with a fre-
tury AD. One suspects (but, given the limits of the quency of about one every 100 hours of wearing which,
archaeological evidence, cannot prove) that the finds for a Roman soldier, would probably represent one a
drastically over-represent the use of segmental armour fortnight. A modern precaution is to carry spare leather
in the Roman army: the frailty of segmental armour, thongs (of the sort used for tying the girth hoops to-
compared to the much greater integrity of mail, means gether) for emergency repairs in the event of a riveting
it is very difficult for us to assess the relative propor- failure ‘in action’. Similar problems of stretching leather
tions of these types of armour in use at any one time. can be encountered on the vertical fastenings of the
Modern reconstructions (almost exclusively of the Type A body armour, where the lower units are effec-
three variants of the Corbridge type of cuirass) provide tively suspended from the upper by means of two
82 M.C. Bishop

Fig.9.5 Reconstructed set of girth hoops standing on its internal leathers. The leather is not new and some sagging is
visible, but it would still take considerable effort to compress the hoops. Photo M.C. Bishop

Fig.9.6 Over-compressed right-hand set of Type B/C girth hoops from the Corbridge Hoard (Cuirass v) with (inset) a detail of
the rear of the set (including the mineral-preserved remains of a leather tie). Photos M.C. Bishop
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 83

Fig.9.7 Possible battle damage to the Bank of England breastplate. The plate seems to have been penetrated and distorted (see
inset) by a blow just below the lobate hinge. Photo J.C.N. Coulston

external straps at the front and four internal at the rear BATTLE DAMAGE
(see above, p.32), suggesting that this may be why hooks All armour is inevitably a compromise between effi-
were introduced as vertical fasteners.26 cacy as a defence and practicality from the point of
Finds of lower units of segmental armour almost in- view of its weight and mobility. Experiments have
variably show signs of over-compression. Left to its shown how easy it is to penetrate the sort of ferrous
own devices, a set of lorica segmentata girth hoops will plates used in lorica segmentata, whether it be with a
stand more or less upright (Fig.9.5), depending upon falx28 or a catapult bolt,29 but it is clear that the de-
the age and suppleness of their internal leathers.27 A sign ethos behind the cuirass was never intended to
cuirass will slump more as the leather becomes softer, provide full protection from such threats. Func-
but it will still stand after a fashion and not collapse in tionally, defence was concentrated against the
the manner so vividly illustrated by the lower units in downward blow from an ordinary straight-edged
the Corbridge Hoard, for this requires deliberate com- sword, hence the emphasis on defence in the shoul-
pression by a human being, presumably in order to der region, where the shoulderguards either turned
reduce the amount of storage space required. This ap- the blow outwards and away from the neck or, as-
p e a r s, a l m o s t i nva r i a bl y, t o h ave l e d t o sisted by the flange of the helmet neckguard, caught
over-compression, whereby the girth hoops are it on the out-turned or rolled edge of the collar sec-
jammed over each other, internal leathers are dam- tion. The thickness of upper shoulderguards
aged, and the outer (ie upper) plates become distorted (particularly the Kalkriese-type examples) only
in shape (Fig.9.6, Plate 8). An over-compressed set of serves to underline the primacy placed upon the role
girth hoops would require repair before being used of the upper units in the defence of the individual.
again, at least re-leathering, and possibly reshaping of The girth hoops, on the other hand, served to deflect
the distorted plates. Therefore the act of compression stray blows sideways and downwards and, as such,
would seem to imply that a set was considered beyond did not need to be as thick as the upper components.
repair and was being scrapped. The curving shape of the plates would have helped
the lower units deflect direct stabbing blows, but
since few of Rome’s enemies used such fighting tech-
niques (it is unlikely that the armour would be
designed with a view to combat in civil wars, where
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Roman Plate Armour 84

Fig.9.8 Parts of two backplates and the mid-collar plate from Cuirass 4 from the Corbridge Hoard showing damage
(arrowed). Photo M.C. Bishop

other segmentata wearers using a sword for stabbing blow, struck with insufficient force to penetrate it, al-
might be encountered), this would not normally though there is no way of telling if this was due to
have been a concern to the soldier. damage in service or attrition, suffered after its re-
There are no clear and indisputable examples of moval from a cuirass or even at the time of
battle damage to a piece of lorica segmentata, unlike, for deposition.32
example, the gorget found with the C̀´atalka (Bulgaria)
warrior burial, where an arrow head is still embedded
in the metal30. However, there are instances of what MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
might be open to interpretation as combat damage. Both archaeological evidence and experience with
Chief amongst these is the Bank of England breast- modern reconstructions indicate that the segmental
plate from London (Fig.9.7). This has received a cuirass was maintenance hungry, not least because
substantial blow (probably sharp force) to the centre of of its inherent weaknesses (delicate fittings, large
the plate, resulting in a jagged opening below the number of moving parts, susceptibility to corrosion)
lobate hinge and above the hinged buckle fitting. Inter- and nearly every piece of the armour that has ever
estingly, the plate has also been slightly twisted out of been found shows some signs of repair in its lifetime.
alignment and appears to have been cut down from its In fact, many finds show signs of innovation on the
original size (cf. Fig.5.4). This is the most obvious ex- part of armourers. With the Gamala armour, for ex-
ample, but the mid-collar plate of Cuirass 4 in the ample, internal leathers were replaced with a sliding
Corbridge Hoard (Fig.9.8) is quite severely dented rivet arrangement (foreshadowing a common medi-
(possibly as a result of a blow) and most of the upper eval and early modern technique).33 Conventional
shoulderguards in the Hoard show signs of re-riveting female vertical fasteners on the Newstead-type
(see below), a possible indication of blunt (or even backplate from Eining were replaced with simple
sharp) force trauma. The more serious distortions may pinched loops34 and such loops also appear to have
have been beaten out subsequently when the rivets been used on a fragmentary plate from Newstead.35
were replaced.31 The Eining backplate has been dam- Some such modifications could be of a superior qual-
aged by what would appear to have been a horizontal ity: the Corbridge type C, the same as the Corbridge B
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 85

3
1
2

0 5cm

Fig.9.9 Corbridge-type fittings showing crude replacement lobate hinge (1), two normal domed and one large flat
rivets (2) and crimped and folded hinge spindle (3). Scale 1:1

except for the fact that its female vertical fasteners were tom plate which had been inserted as a repair.36 Indeed,
made of iron, rather than copper alloy, is the only ex- it might be argued that the whole purpose of the cuirass
ample of its type so far identified, so may well units in the Hoard chest was to permit precisely these
represent a repair with available materials. The fact sort of cannibalisations.
that the Newstead type cuirass continued to use copper Some of the Corbridge Hoard shoulderguard sets
alloy for such fittings clearly indicates that the show evidence of re-riveting, perhaps the result of
Corbridge C was not an evolutionary development, wear and tear, or even possibly repaired battle damage.
but just a one-off modification. This is betrayed by the arrangement of leathering riv-
Some of the more mundane repairs appear to have e t s a n d d e c o r at i ve w a s h e r s o n t h e u p p e r
been common occurrences. Replacing hinge spindles shoulderguards (Table 9.1): Cuirass 3, for example, has
on Corbridge type fittings was one such measure. one flat-headed rivet with a decorative boss and two
When new, these items consisted of a circular-sec- domed rivets without washers, suggestive of at least
tioned rod with near-hemispherical terminals to hold one instance of repair; Cuirass 1, on the other hand,
the component in place. The usual replacement com- where the shoulderguard section was probably being
prised a piece of wire crimped at one (or, occasionally, transplanted from Cuirass 6, has one domed rivet with
both) ends and then bent over at the other to secure it no boss, and two with bosses of different patterns (so
in place (Fig.9.9,3). Another substitution that is often arguably evidence of two prior instances of repair). In-
found is the use of large irregularly shaped and terestingly, Cuirass 5 is one of the few where all the
flat-headed rivets in place of the original small leathering rivets and washers appear to be original.37
dome-headed ones (Fig.9.9,2). Corbridge is not the only source of evidence for re-
The cuirasses in the Corbridge Hoard demonstrate pair. A plate from Chichester has been dramatically
how more substantial repairs could also be undertaken. patched with a riveted copper-alloy splint (Fig.9.10).38
In several cases complete lobate hinges had been re- Maintenance was clearly carried out on an ad hoc
placed (Fig.9.2). In others, lobate hinges were basis, to judge from the repairs we can still see. How-
functionally replaced by riveting neighbouring plates to- ever, what we cannot know, but must assume, is that
gether (Fig.5.5). It is not always clear whether the regular preventative care – such as oiling of leathers
riveting of plates and the substitution of hinges were and cleaning of metal components – must have been
contemporaneous or sequential where they occur to- undertaken by those wearing the armour. Ironically,
gether. If the former, it might be thought to imply an the fact that it was may be hinted at by the note of dis-
unnecessary obsession with decorative detail; if the lat- gust in the Letters of Fronto when examples of lack of
ter, then it could be interpreted as representing repeated care of armour were included amongst the examples
repairs to the same weak point. As an extreme example, of military indolence observed at Antioch by one Ro-
the fact that both upper and lesser shoulderguards ap- man commander:
pear to have been transferred from Cuirass 6 to Cuirass
1 demonstrates fairly radical surgery being undertaken Pontius Laelianus, a serious man and an
on units. It would have required deriveting the original old-fashioned disciplinarian, partly tore up their
plates from the internal leathers and then riveting the cuirasses with his fingertips39
replacements into position. There is also the possibility
that one of the girth hoops on Cuirass v had a rolled or We need not assume (although many do) that
upset bottom edge, implying that it was a re-used bot- armour was finished to a high polish,40 but lack of
86 M.C. Bishop

0 10cm

Fig.9.10 Plate from Chichester with riveted copper-alloy splint attached as a reinforcement, probably a repair.
Scale 1:2

Cuirass breastplate mid-collar backplates upper lesser shoulder-

plate shoulderguard guards
1 riveted to riveted to breast- top plate riveted transplanted no obvious damage
mid-collar plate plate and upper to mid-collar from Cuirass 6;
backplate; rear plate and middle one and possibly
lobate hinge half plate two of its
missing leathering rivets
replaced
2 no obvious damage riveted to upper top plate riveted one leathering not identified
backplate to mid-collar rivet replaced
plate (?and mid-
dle plate)
3 vertical fastening rear lobate hinge no obvious dam- two leathering no obvious damage
hinged strap half replaced; age (two not rivets replaced
missing free ele- hinge spindle dis- identified)
ment; duplicate torted
leathering?
4 riveted to riveted to breast- top plate riveted central plate riv- no obvious damage
mid-collar plate plate and upper to mid-collar eted to ?front
backplate plate; lateral fas- plate
tener lacking free
element
5 duplicate no obvious damage lateral fastener no obvious damage no obvious damage
leathering? lacking free ele-
ment
6 lateral fastener no obvious damage no obvious damage missing (trans- missing (trans-
lacking free ele- planted to Cui- planted to Cuirass
ment rass 1) 1)

Table 9.1. Repairs to the upper units of the Corbridge Hoard cuirasses

proper cleaning will soon have taken its toll, been assumed that lorica segmentata was put on in a
particularly on a corrosion trap like lorica segmentata. particular way. This usually involves the left upper
and lower units fastened together, the right upper
and lower likewise, and both halves fastened across
PUTTING IT ON the back so that the cuirass can ‘be put on like a
Since Robinson first published a feasible reconstruc- waistcoat’.41 It has even been seen as a deficiency in
tion of the articulated Roman cuirass, it has always a reconstructed cuirass if it is not possible to do
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 87

Fig.9.11 Reconstruction lorica segmentata stored broken into its four constituent units in two different ways.
Photos M.C. Bishop

this.42 However, the assumption that segmentata was did not happen, just that it would be undesirable and
indeed put on in this way is not necessarily the cor- unwise. Suspension on a pole passed side to side
rect one, nor even the most logical one. through both upper units would be feasible, and par-
Mail and scale had to be put on over the shoulders alleled by the Norman method of transporting mail
of the wearer, almost certainly by raising the arms hauberks,43 but it is difficult to see how such an ar-
(and, in so doing, reducing the width of the shoulders). rangement could be accomplished in the limited
It is possible that segmental armour may also have space of a barrack room or, even worse, in a tent
been put on in this way. Such a suggestion may well when on the march. A famous scene from Trajan’s
meet with disbelief amongst re-enactors, used to don- Column (Plate 2) shows a soldier fording a river with
ning the armour in the ‘traditional’ way, but there is at his equipment held above a river on the back of his
least one important structural feature of lorica shield, which he holds in both hands.44 The equip-
segmentata that may have a bearing here: the hinged ment includes a lorica segmentata. In fact, a segmental
plates. The hinges on upper shoulderguards and collar cuirass could not be stored as compactly as a mail
plates appear to have no function, but if two upper shirt (which could just be dropped in a pile on a shelf)
units are left attached to each other but detached from unless it was disassembled. If broken into its four
their lower units, then the hinges allow the upper units component units, then segmentata could be stored by
to be placed almost flat on a surface. This implies that stacking one inside the other, so that the whole cui-
this feature was in some way important to the wearer. rass would effectively only take up the space of one
Moreover, the fact that upper units could be left at- lower unit (Fig.9.11). This was how the units were
tached may indicate that our assumptions that the packed into the chest of the Corbridge Hoard (with
cuirass should be (at least partially) broken into left and the exception that the girth units were over-com-
right halves need not be the correct one. pressed in order to fit the twelve units in the
So, could the segmental cuirass be put on over the available space).45 If this was indeed the normal
head? This may indeed have been the case and may ex- method of storage, then it implies that disassembly
plain why the lowest two girth hoops seem always to was routine for a wearer of a cuirass.
have been unfastened at the front and back.

LIFETIME
STORAGE How long did a segmental cuirass last? The simple
When lorica segmentata was not being used, how was it answer is that we do not know. Plate armour articu-
stored? To leave a cuirass assembled was not only lated on leather straps of the 16th and 17th centuries
bulky, but would also stress the leathers on the lower has survived to the present day in small amounts,
units if it were stood on a surface (the girth hoops usually cosseted under special circumstances (often
were designed to be suspended from the shoulder because it has been kept in a special collection).46
units, not to support them). This is not to say that it However, whilst a lifespan of several hundred years
88 M.C. Bishop

was theoretically possible, all our evidence suggests the Corbridge Hoard implies that their matching
that the average cuirass lasted for a much shorter halves were somewhere else, other than in the box. It is
time. By analogy with other equipment, such as hel- even possible that they were still in use: the two oppos-
mets (which bear multiple ownership inscriptions), it ing halves of the Stillfried cuirass, both lower units, did
would not be unreasonable to expect a cuirass, if not match (one had seven girth hoops, the other eight,
cared for, to last for the service life of its wearer and and there are numerous other differences between
perhaps even longer. them), and the coincidence between this discovery and
Modern replicas, worn by re-enactors, have lasted the fact of the bizarre symmetry of the non-matched
more than 25 years in some cases, although it has to be halves in the Corbridge Hoard47 might lead to the in-
stressed that such cuirasses are generally better-built ference that the Romans not only had no objection to
and more strongly-constructed than the originals, and asymmetry in their cuirasses, but actively practised a
not worn as intensively as Roman ones would have mix-and-match policy in order to keep as many ser-
been. The internal leathering has to be replaced every viceable sets of armour in the field as possible. This
few years, but regular care keeps the metal compo- would be the next logical step after the cannibalisation
nents in good condition. of components to repair damaged armour and, as
It is possible that some parts of a cuirass might last such, suggests that this armour was not just being worn
longer than others. The presence of twelve dissimilar, for parades in peacetime.
but opposing, halves of both upper and lower units in
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 89

NOTES

1 On the processes of ferrous sheet metal production in Roman times, see SIM, 1992, 106; SIM & RIDGE,
2002, 71.
2 SIM, 1998, 9.
3 Upper plates at 1.5–1.7mm: BISHOP, 1998b, 28, 31; upper shoulderguard at 2mm SCHALLES &
SCHREITER, 1993, 228; thickness of girth hoops (from Vindonissa) E. Deschler-Erb pers. comm.
4 UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, 28, Taf.30,615.
5 SIM, 2000, 40.
6 BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 191.
7 Technical names, codes, and Rockwell hardnesses are taken from www.anchorbronze.com.
8 One bronze item from Camerton, suggested as having belonged to lorica segmentata (COWELL, 1991, 70
No.27; JACKSON, 1991, Pl.3,27), is probably either a repair or not a piece of segmental cuirass. There is
also a 97% copper buckle loop from the same site, which may well be a repair made from riveting metal.
9 ROBINSON, 1975, 48.
10 JACKSON, 1990.
11 SCHALLES & SCHREITER, 1993, 50.
12 Kalkriese: FRANZIUS, 1995, 364; Baden Du Parc: DESCHLER-ERB, 1996, Abb.70.
13 Pers. obs. October 2001.
14 Although it is feasible that they might survive in anaerobic conditions (such as waterlogged or chemically rich
environments) most of the leather that survives from the Roman period appears to be tanned. Tawed or oiled
leather is much rarer (VAN DRIEL-MURRAY, 1985, 44).
15 Field maintenance is a subjective classification that depends partly upon our modern perception of what
might or might not be acceptable quality for a piece of workmanship. Nevertheless, the difference (as we per-
ceive it) seems sufficiently marked between ‘cuirass as produced’ and ‘repairs’ for it to be a real phenomenon
and hence functionally derived.
16 ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 43–51. Although the number of girth hoops has always been thought
of as a feature of the various types and sub-types of cuirass (ROBINSON, 1975, 177, 180), the Stillfried find
shows that this may be a mistaken assumption and that it may really be connected with the sizing of
segmentata.
17 Possibly to be identified with the garment known as a subarmalis (BISHOP, 1995). The identification of the
subarmalis with the thoracomachus of the Anonymous’ De Rebus Bellicis XV (cf. WILD, 1979) is based primarily
upon the SHA’s Vita Severi 6,11, where it is difficult to interpret the term in any way other than as a garment.
The word also occurs in the Vindolanda writing tablets (BOWMAN & THOMAS, 1994, 139 (No.184)) and on
a document from Carlisle, but the usage in these is more ambiguous than in the SHA reference (consequently,
in at least one case, the term has been interpreted as a type of spear: TOMLIN, 1998, 62).
18 No examples of pteryges have been recognised as having survived from antiquity and it is by no means clear
what material was used in their construction. ROBINSON (1975, 149) suggested soft leather.
19 ROBINSON, 1975, Fig.158.
20 Marcus Column: ROBINSON, 1975, Pl.240; statuette: ibid., Pl.501.
21 On the relative merits and demerits of metropolitan and provincial sculpture, see BISHOP & COULSTON,
1993, 19–30.
22 Also known as galvanic or electrolytic corrosion.
23 SCHALLES & SCHREITER, 1993, 50.
24 I am grateful to Dr Mike Thomas for discussing this. Although iron is less noble than copper (and thus more
prone to suffer in the corrosion process), zinc is in turn less noble than iron, which may explain this effect. It
remains for this to be demonstrated scientifically, so it is a hypothetical, but nonetheless plausible, explanation
for this phenomenon.
25 Damage to leathers can also occur through overcompression of girth hoops (see below).
26 S. Richards, pers. comm.
27 The lower units hang from the upper and thus the whole cuirass was never designed to be stood on its girth
hoops in this way.
28 SIM, 2000, 40.
90 M.C. Bishop

29 WILKINS & MORGAN, 2000, 93.

30 BUJUKLIEV 1986, Cat. number 96. Embedded arrowhead: pers. obs. September 1987.
31 Unfortunately, such reworking is only likely to be visible metallurgically on plates that have not oxidised, so
this cannot be proven for any of the Corbridge Hoard plates. I am grateful to Dr David Sim for discussing
this in some depth with me.
32 Bishop forthcoming. The Kalkriese breastplate (see above, p.24) is also dented in such a way to suggest a blow
(pers. obs.).
33 G. Stiebel, pers. comm. For medieval and early modern sliding rivets see EDGE & PADDOCK, 1988, 181
fig.
34 BISHOP, forthcoming..
35 BISHOP, 1999b, 31, Fig.6,Frag.2.
36 ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 51; this is the second plate from the top.
37 ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 25–43, Figs.26–49.
38 DOWN, 1978, 299, Fig.10.36,vi.
39 Fronto Ad Verum II,1,19: ‘vir gravis et veteris disciplinae Laelianus Pontius loricas partim eorum digitis primoribus scinderet‘
40 It is true that ancient writers (Vegetius II,12 and 14, and Ammianus XXXI,10,10, for example) comment
upon the morale boost provided by shining armour, but the effect that they are noting is arguably as easily
achieved at a distance with cleaned armour as it is with highly (i.e. ‘mirror-’) polished material. Appeals to
The Roman Military Mind and commonality with soldiers’ love of shiny armour through the ages are unpro-
ductive and can as easily be countered from the sources as they can be supported. I am grateful to Thom
Richardson of the Royal Armouries for pointing out that many post-medieval portraits depict plate armour
with a blackened finish which is retained by very few actual examples of European plate armour in the Ar-
mouries’ collections (cf.. RODRÍGUEZ-SALGADO et al., 1988, 218, 13.2). For an elaboration on the variety
of finishes available to the medieval and early modern armourer, see a contribution to the Arador Armour
Library discussion board from Ian Bottomley of the Royal Armouries:
www.brothersgrymme.org/arador/forum/messages/29224.html.
41 ROBINSON, 1974, 11. Cf. ROBINSON & EMBLETON, n.d., 20–1, figure.
42 POULTER, 1988, 36.
43 As shown on the Bayeux Tapestry (GRAFE, 1994, 130).
44 CICHORIUS, 1896–1900, Scene XXVI.
45 Over-compression invariably seems to have happened when sets of girth hoops were deliberately deposited in
the archaeological record. It can be seen with the Corbridge (ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 102),
Zugmantel (ORL B8, Taf. XIV,50), Rißtissen (ULBERT, 1970, Taf.5,90), and Stillfried (pers. obs.) sets.
46 The various harnesses of Henry VIII are a case in point (RICHARDSON, 2002), preserved in the Royal Ar-
mouries and formerly kept at the Tower of London, where they received loving attention at the hands of the
British army garrisons based there for several centuries (I am grateful to Thom Richardson for discussing this
and many other issues relating to the survival of medieval and early modern armour). A chance survival is
the armoury in the porch of the parish church at Mendlesham in Suffolk (England), which contains 16th-cen-
tury armour of various origins (RODRÍGUEZ-SALGADO et al., 1988, 139–41). Thanks are due to Dr J.C.N.
Coulston for reminding me of this last reference.
47 Four A top units (two left, two right), one B (left) and one C (right) top unit, four A bottom units (two left,
two right), and two B/C bottom units (one left, one right): ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 23–51.
Moreover, the pairings of the girth hoop overlaps (see above, p.43) are suggestive of three sets of girth hoops
(left-hand Cuirasses iii, iv, and vi overlapping; right-hand i, ii, and v being overlapped), rather than six indi-
vidual units. Whilst at the time it was felt possible to write ‘we can be reasonably confident that they do not
go together to make complete sets’ (ibid. 102) this no longer looks quite so certain.
91 M.C. Bishop

Chapter 10: Development and use

LORICA SEGMENTATA IN THE Articulated limb armour seems to have been
ROMAN ARMY adopted by Roman infantry in the latter half of the 1st
Our evidence seems to point fairly convincingly to century AD, perhaps even by the Flavian period, but
the fact that segmental body armour was primarily a well after segmental body armour (although it is not
legionary (and praetorian) form of defence. This clear how long after armguards started being used in
does not mean that legionaries used it to the exclu- the arena). Although the Dacian use of the falx may
sion of other types, since there is ample evidence for have encouraged the employment of limb defences by
the use of scale and mail amongst the legions the Roman armies opposing them it was certainly not
throughout the Principate (and arguably on into the the only stimulus. The Mainz tombstones and finds of
Dominate), simply that it was a form of armour that manicae from the Danube, Britain, and Spain suggest
seems mainly (on the limited evidence exclusively) to much more widespread use of arm defences than just
have been issued to the legions and the Praetorian the Dacian theatre. As with greaves, the use of which
Guard.1 was not confined to officers, the individual legionary
It has been suggested that the discovery of frag- may have enjoyed a degree of freedom in how he chose
ments of lorica segmentata at many supposedly to equip himself which extended to the amount of
auxiliary sites implies that auxiliary infantry also ha- limb protection.9
bitually used the same form of cuirass,2 but this can
equally be countered by suggesting that bases that
have traditionally been identified as auxiliary may LATER ROMAN AND NON-ROMAN
not have held a purely auxiliary garrison. The de- USE
tailed arguments on both sides have been rehearsed Segmental body armour seems to have fallen out of
elsewhere and need not be repeated beyond this use with Roman infantry some time after the middle
briefest of summaries.3 of the 3rd century AD (Fig.10.1),10 although limb
Interestingly, although it has been speculated that defences may have continued in service with ar-
equipment differentiation decreased between legionary moured cavalry. A well-known, but rather crude,
and auxiliary troops during the 2nd century,4 there is in graffito from Dura-Europos shows an armoured caval-
fact no more evidence than for the earlier period that ryman, often identified as a clibanarius. 11 He is
auxiliaries used the lorica segmentata beyond the discovery depicted as wearing what can probably be identified
of pieces at sites (such as Zugmantel, Great Chesters, as segmental armour on his arms and lower legs and,
and South Shields5) traditionally thought to have been given the metropolitan nature of Dura-Europos,
associated exclusively with auxiliaries. Legionaries were need not necessarily even be Roman.
certainly still using it during the 2nd and 3rd centuries, Segmental limb defences are also shown in manu-
as is abundantly clear from the tie rings found in the Ro- script illustrations belonging to the Notitia Dignitatum,
man Gates barrack area at Caerleon.6 the late-4th to early-5th century Roman army lists re-
Attempts to pinpoint the adoption of lorica cording the ar my’s command structure and
segmentata by the Roman army have not, as yet, met dispositions. These pieces of armour are crudely de-
with much success. These have included the Roman picted in illustrations showing the insignia of the
defeat at Carrhae in 53 BC and the revolt of Florus magistri officiorum and it is often suggested that these
and Sacrovir in AD 21.7 We now know that the were pieces of cavalry equipment.12 This time they are
Kalkriese form of the cuirass was in use as early as 9 quite clearly in a Roman context and thus would seem
BC, possibly by legio XIX,8 and that it was present to confirm the continued use of segmental armour (for
amongst legiones XVII, XVIII, and XIX when they were limbs, at least) into the Late Roman period.
defeated in the Teutoburgerwald debacle in AD 9, so Interestingly, a fragment of segmental armour, al-
it had clearly been adopted well before AD 21 most certainly an armguard, has been excavated in
(Fig.10.1). It is a type of armour that provides defence Britain from a 4th-century context at a signal station at
against downward blows with long swords, a style of Bowes Moor, on the main road across the Pennines
combat favoured by various Iron Age European peo- from York to Carlisle.13 This is the latest certain use of
ples, so any notion that it was invented to counter the segmental armour in the Roman West known to the
perceived superiority of Parthian archery in the east writer.
seems unlikely.
92 M.C. Bishop

ALBA IULIA

NEWSTEAD

CORBRIDGE

KALKRIESE

Fig.10.1 Timeline showing the approximate periods of usage

of lorica segmentata in the Roman army.

Fig.10.2 Graph showing introduction of new marks of

ADVANTAGES AND DRAWBACKS Supermarine Spitfire between 1938 and 1946: an example of
Lorica segmentata (along with its related defences) is war-driven development. Data are only crude approximations
something of an enigma: all the available archaeo- of the main variants
logical evidence suggests that it was, in many
respects, an extremely fragile form of defence. De- changes (Kalkriese to Corbridge, or Corbridge to
spite this, the timeline (Fig.10.1) show just how long Newstead) as a response to some new kind of threat.
each of the main forms lasted – at least 55 years in But how fair an assessment of reality is this and is the
the case of the Kalkriese type, 70 for the Corbridge modern analogy perhaps too convenient? Certainly,
form, and more than 90 years for the Newstead type. the oft-cited experience of Trajan’s Dacian Wars, per-
This inevitably leads to the questions why did each haps forcing the adoption of helmet cross-pieces,
form last so long and, when it did come, why was greaves, and the widespread use of laminated arm
change thought necessary? defences, might be thought to offer a contemporary
It would be easy to answer the first question by cit- parallel, but this does not stand up to analysis. Arm
ing what is often perceived as the Romans’ innate defences were in use before the Dacian Wars and in
conservatism, and to make a comparison with a other areas, whilst greaves appear sporadically in the
timeline for helmet development14 which shows similar Roman army, which really just leaves helmet cross
slow evolution. Nevertheless, there may be more to this pieces. Just as Spitfire development continued inde-
than a supposed cultural unwillingness to change, per- pendent of specific threats, so there is probably no
haps connected with the slow rate of progress in need to postulate particular stimuli for the develop-
pre-industrial societies. ment of the Corbridge and Newstead versions of the
In weapons technology, war is an all-too-obvious cuirass. So one model – that of development driven by
motivator for development and change. A parallel may enemy technological superiority – through which to in-
be cited here in what might be called the ‘Spitfire terpret the evidence for development, would not
Curve’ (Fig.10.2). Between 1938 and 1939, appear to be viable. It may be more profitable to think
Supermarine produced only the one variant of the in terms of the techniques of fighting encountered by
Spitfire, the Mk.I, but a comparable two-year period the Romans as a driving developmental force. Lorica
(1940–1) during the early stages of the second world segmentata, taken together with helmet designs that lay
war saw the aircraft developed to Mk.V. The period emphasis on deflecting downward blows, appears orig-
1942–3 witnessed the greatest number of improve- inally to have been intended to counter a particular
ments, the war ending with the Spitfire having reached style of combat.
Mk.24. Some of these changes were purely to accom- Key to its success may well be the combination of a
modate minor upgrades to the components (and this high degree of protection for the shoulders with its
excludes all the minor variants of each Mark due to weight advantage over mail and greater flexibility than
variations in weaponry or role), but others (such as the scale armour. Most reconstructed examples of lorica
introduction of the Mk.IX) were often perceived as a segmentata weigh between 5kg and 9kg, compared to 8kg
direct response to an enemy threat (in this case the ar- to 9kg for an equivalent-length unriveted mail shirt (it
rival of the Focke-Wulf 190 in 1942, markedly might be estimated that riveting would add approxi-
superior to the V).15 Slowed down, and stretched out, mately 1kg to such a defence), or 6kg to 15kg for scale.16
we may be seeing a similar process in operation with There is plenty of evidence to confirm that lorica
the lorica segmentata. Minor variants (Kalkriese A to B, segmentata saw heavy and continuous use. That it was
Corbridge A to B/C, perhaps even Newstead to Alba not found wanting and continued in service for more
Iulia) accommodating improvements to the technol- than 250 years is presumably some sort of testament to
ogy to counter recognised faults, but major type its perceived efficacy. The fact that active development
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 93

was undertaken may also support the notion that this knowledge (particularly since the type is not men-
was a type of armour popular with both the soldiery tioned in the classical sources), but once it had been
and their commanders. We must not let our subjective rediscovered it showed certain traits in common
impressions of its shortcomings prejudice any assess- with the older form, if only because of the inevitable
ment of its long-term effectiveness. Lorica segmentata practical similarities in the techniques used for its
clearly worked and, moreover, worked well. articulation.17
Plate armour articulated on internal leathers can be
found in medieval contexts as early as the 14th century,
COMPARISON WITH LATER but its heyday came in the 15th and 16th centuries, de-
ARTICULATED PLATE ARMOUR clining with the advent of the popularity of
There is no evidence of continuity in articulated gunpowder weaponry.18 The use of sliding rivets was
plate armour in western Europe after the Roman pe- also found, but once again this does not appear to have
riod. Its adoption once again during the medieval been a survival from the one set of which we are aware
period does not appear to have drawn upon ancient – from Gamala – from the Roman period.19
94 M.C. Bishop

NOTES

1 Lorica segmentata was used on Trajan’s Column to distinguish citizen from non-citizen troops (COULSTON,
1989, 32). Other monuments, such as the Great Trajanic Frieze (LEANDER TOUATI, 1987, Fig. Nos. 22,
26) and the pedestal of the Pius Column (VOGEL, 1973, Pl.9, 12, 15, 28–9) show praetorians (identifiable by
their standards and insignia) clad in it.
2 MAXFIELD, 1986, 68. Cf. POULTER, 1988, 39–42.
3 COULSTON, 1988b, 13–15; BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 206–9; BISHOP, 1999a, 114–16. The argu-
ment refuses to go away despite the lack of hard (as opposed to circumstantial or deduced) evidence for the
auxiliary use of segmentata: see now SAUER, 2000, 23–8, which sadly brings nothing new to the debate.
4 BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 209.
5 Zugmantel: ORL B8, Taf. XIV,50; Great Chesters: ALLASON-JONES, 1996, Fig.12,50; South Shields:
ALLASON-JONES & MIKET, 1984, 3.689 and 3.691.
6 Webster in METCALFE & EVANS, 1992, 116–19.
7 Carrhae: BRIZZI, 1981, 198; Florus and Sacrovir: BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 85.
8 As indicated by finds from Dangstetten (BISHOP, 1998, 12).
9 Greaves: BISHOP & COULSTON, 1993, 87. Choice of equipment: COULSTON, 1990, 151; 1998b, 173.
10 The late context of the Carlisle plate (CARUANA, 1993, 15) being ascribed to residuality, although we must
beware of circular arguments here.
11 Graffito: BAUR et al., 1933, Pl.XXII,2. Clibanarius: NEGIN, forthcoming.
12 ROBINSON, 1975, Fig.191.
13 Bishop in VYNER, 2002, 169–70.
14 WAURICK, 1988, Beilage 2.
15 Spitfire development: VADER, 1969. Many of the changes involved upgrading or converting existing air-
frames and the ‘sequence’, such as it was, looks quite haphazard upon close inspection. E.g. the XIV was a
re-engined XII, there was no XV (it being a Seafire, the naval version), then the XVI was merely a IX with
the American-built version of the Merlin 66 (and these were further modified in 1945). For all this there were
only two major changes to the airframe, the VII and the F21 (ibid. 144).
16 The whole question of weight is a fraught one and not helped by some re-enactors’ reluctance to publish de-
tails of vital statistics for their equipment (for here, size definitely matters). Whilst Robinson’s first lorica
segmentata replica weighed only 14 lb (6.35kg: Daniels in ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, 99;
ROBINSON, 1974, 11), and Peterson’s is just 12lb (5.5kg: PETERSON, 1992, 22), a modern Albion Armories
replica is heavier at 20 lb (9kg: www.albionarmorers.com/armor/roman/lorica.htm – checked 9.7.02), so
much depends upon the gauge of the materials used. A true estimate of Roman weights will only be gained
once a cuirass has been made using authentic materials and techniques. Mail is even more variable, depend-
ing as it does on the thickness of wire used, and the size and number of the rings, whilst the fact that
re-enactors nearly always use butted, rather than riveted, rings leads to underestimates of the weight of mail.
The scale shirt weights are suggested by JUNKELMANN, 1986, 169 at 8kg to 9kg for 30,000 rings (ibid.
166). He also speculates that segmentata would normally be 2kg to 3kg lighter than mail (ibid. 168).
17 I am grateful to Thom Richardson for discussion on this point.
18 14th century: EDGE & PADDOCK, 1988, 68; 15th century: ibid. 100–1; 16th century: ibid. 139.
19 EDGE & PADDOCK, 1988, 178, 180.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 95

Chapter 11: Reconstructing Lorica

Segmentata
Since Robinson’s first attempt at a reconstruction of alloy used for fittings: modern sheet is preferred over
one of the cuirasses from the Corbridge Hoard, a that beaten from ingots. To some extent it is easier to
veritable cottage industry has grown up to supply be authentic with leather, although we do not know
the demand for replica Roman plate armour (it is whether tanned or tawed material was used by the
now even possible to buy a mass-produced one over Romans for the internal leathers of segmental cui-
the internet).1 This essentially takes two forms: first rasses, nor even which type of animal hide was used.
there are specialist craftsmen who produce sets of ar- Nevertheless, the composition and thicknesses of the
mour for museum displays; then there are those who materials used will have a direct bearing on any as-
produce them for re-enactment groups, either singly sessment of issues such as the overall weight of the
or cooperatively (many re-enactment groups provid- cuirass or its defensive capabilities. Re-enactment is not
ing assistance to would-be novice armourers). necessarily valid experimental archaeology.
Amongst these there is a degree of crossover, with
some craftsmen producing for re-enactors, whilst
some re-enactment groups have produced armour FINISH
for museums. With few exceptions, most modern replicas are too
However, until now, what has been lacking is any at- well made. This may seem a surprising statement,
tempt at serious experimental archaeology: many of but close inspection reveals how haphazard, even
the existing reconstructions can certainly provide valu- shoddy, Roman armouring could be. Roman crafts-
able insights into lorica segmentata, but they cannot men were certainly capable of fine pieces of work,
provide the sort of scientific data that is badly needed, but these tended to be the exception rather than the
particularly where the efficacy of particular materials rule. A slapdash approach to the production of seg-
is in question. This should not be seen as a criticism of mental armour can be manifested in many ways.
such replicas or of the intentions of their constructors Such indications might include poor finishing of
(which obviously have to be seen in practical and plates (the Newstead and Eining back- and breast-
economic context), but rather a lament that the ar- plates are rather irregularly edged), amateurish
chaeological community has not seen fit to build upon cutting out – and highly irregular (and asymmetric)
Robinson’s elementary work. riveting – of fittings. Moreover, once repairs needed
To this end, a few comments on the construction of to be undertaken, little care seems to have been
replica segmental armour may be appropriate, al- taken to match ‘new’ fittings to their parent cuirass.
though it should be emphasised that this discussion is Where needed, holes in lorica segmentata seem invari-
not intended as a guide to building a cuirass (indeed, ably to have been punched, rather than drilled.
there are far more capable texts than this widely avail- Sometimes this led to dishing around the punched
able on the internet). If anything, it should point up hole, presumably a measure of the competence of
caveats in the value of reconstructions, what they are the person wielding the punch. Most Roman armourers
intended for, and just how authoratative any statement were not as competent as their modern imitators.
based upon the construction, use, or destruction of a
replica may be.
LEATHERING
Robinson felt that Roman armourers may have used
MATERIALS leathering templates for cuirasses, although it has to
It has long been common to use rolled mild steel to be said that all the extant cuirasses seem to show
produce the ferrous plates, whereas (as has been unique leathering regimes.2 This may well point to-
pointed out above, p.77) the Romans had to manu- wards the conclusion that leathering was an
facture their sheet metal by beating out ingots. The individual preference of any given armourer, and
characteristics of the metals are inevitably, there- this tends to be reinforced by the evidence of plates
fore, going to be different between the two where traces of more than one leathering regime are
techniques. The same is obviously true of the copper still evident, usually betrayed by the presence of su-
96 M.C. Bishop

perfluous riveting holes.3 The skill of the Roman USE

armourer, as opposed to his minions (probably sec- Apart from issues associated with the necessity for
onded soldiers producing the components),4 lay in the use of a padded arming doublet worn beneath
assembly, for it was then that the various pieces lorica segmentata, there are a number of assumptions
came together and, without the millimetre perfec- that stem from Robinson’s reconstruction of the cui-
tion that has only become possible with modern rass. Prime amongst these is the idea that the two
machinery, there was inevitably going to be a need lowest girth hoops were left unfastened because they
for some adjustment during the assembly process; would be secured by the belt.5 Whilst it is undeniably
hence, the leathering for each cuirass was almost true that they would indeed be fastened by the belt,
bound to be unique. Leather is as vital a component in there remains a possibility that this is was not the pri-
lorica segmentata as copper alloy or ferrous plate. mary function of this feature. Many re-enactors
prefer to secure a belt to the lowest of the fastened
girth hoops, as it tends to constantly slip off the unse-
SIZING cured ones. Assumptions based on familiarity with modern
How did the Romans size their cuirasses? Nowa- reconstruction cuirasses will always be just that: assumptions
days the tendency is to scale up or down from (but no more or less valid because of it).
known examples of cuirasses on a fairly ad hoc basis
and there is no reason to suspect that the Romans
did anything different: ancient artisans tended to REPORTING
work from experience, not measured plans. It has Ultimately, the test of the academic usefulness of re-
already been stressed that allowance has to be constructions of lorica segmentata since Robinson lies
made for not only the size of the individual for in the number of publications providing details of
whom it is being made, however, but also for an how these replicas perform. It is, perhaps, salutary
arming doublet which is almost an integral part of that – even on the most charitable interpretation –
the cuirass, since it will have to be padded to ensure such reports are scarce.6 It is to be hoped that this sit-
that the shoulder guards sit level and prevent the uation will be remedied in the near future. In order for
breastplates crossing and gaping. Sagging and gaping the results of any sort of experimental archaeology to be taken
plates are the sign of a poor fit. seriously, they must be published.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 97

NOTES

1 It would be invidious to name particular modern armouries (and none of them can of course be endorsed by
the author), but many of them may be reached from the companion website for this volume,
www.loricasegmentata.org.
2 ROBINSON, 1972, 32. Such templates, if they existed, presumably would have taken the form of patterns
for the craftsman to copy. The very notion of practical handbooks in the ancient world has been called into
question (in the context of tactical manuals: CAMPBELL, 1987) and may be an example of projecting back
into the past modern approaches that are irrelevant in a pre-industrial society.
3 Examination of the sets of armour in the Corbridge Hoard certainly points towards a high degree of individ-
uality in leathering and, moreover, that different leathering regimes were employed on the same cuirass when
replacement was needed (whilst the Corbridge type B Cuirass 5 uses a single large sheet to join its three
backplates, the type C Cuirass 6 has two separate straps, as do all the type A collar assemblies in the Hoard:
ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, Figs. 43 and 49 for the B and C respectively).
4 Cf. BISHOP, 1985, 12–13.
5 ROBINSON, 1975, 177; for hints of Robinson’s misgivings about the accepted interpretation of the lack of
fastenings on the lower two plates, see ibid. 181.
6 One of the most detailed examinations of reconstructed equipment (JUNKELMANN, 1986) concentrated on
the Augustan period and, at the time, since it was not thought the lorica segmentata was in use then, it was not
used in the exercise covered there. Published accounts of experimental work with segmental armour include
POULTER, 1988; KNIGHT, 1998; HAINES, 1998, 54–5; HAINES et al., 2000, 123; WILKINS &
MORGAN, 2000, 93.
98 M.C. Bishop

Epilogue
Lorica segmentata was a form of body armour that The chief weaknesses of the body armour lay in the
lasted in Roman service for more than 250 years. As fragility of some of its components and, to a lesser ex-
such, despite many apparent shortcomings, it can tent, the fact that it appears to have been designed (or
only be judged as a success. It was a lightweight and evolved) with one principal enemy in mind: an enemy
flexible defence that could be patched up in service slashing downwards with a blade. The level of ingenu-
by any soldier and maintained to a higher standard ity in maintenance that is all too obvious from the
by any competent craftsman. It also arguably pro- archaeological record suggests that these faults were
vided the best available defence for the shoulders of fully appreciated and allowed for in everyday use.
an infantryman. Almost as interesting as the evolution of the cuirass
We have seen how much appears to have been left to itself is the history of scholarship of this type of ar-
the individual preferences of the armourer, with few mour and the pervasive influence of the reliefs on
hard-and-fast rules in the construction of segmental Trajan’s Column. The study continues apace and, far
armour. Furthermore, there appears to be evidence from everything being solved by the discovery of the
that the technology of plate armour articulated on Corbridge Hoard, the only thing of which we can now
leather straps was, like virtually all their arms and ar- be sure is that there is much more still to find out.
mour, borrowed by the Romans from other peoples.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 99

Glossary
Over the years, a technical terminology of Roman ing breastplate and topmost girth hoop.
articulated armour has built up more by accident (ROBINSON, 1975, 177 as ‘breast-plate’;
than design (Fig.13.1) and is only partially related to ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, Fig.22 as
more familiar medieval armoury terms. Much of it ‘breastplate’)
was invented by Robinson, and has been added to
(and in some cases modified) in subsequent years,
but an attempt has been made in what follows to ref- COLLAR PLATES
erence the first use of terms (as applied to lorica Collective term for the breastplate, mid-collar
segmentata) where appropriate. plate, and backplate(s) which form the collar of
the armour. Attached to the upper
shoulderguard by means of three leathers.
AKETON
See arming doublet.
COUTER PLATES
Large flat plates that protected the elbows on articu-
ARMGUARD lated medieval armguards.
Limb defence (manica) protecting the (usually
sword) arm of the wearer. Sometimes anachronisti-
cally (and, the present writer feels, incorrectly in a CUISSE
Roman context) called a vambrace. Defence for the upper thigh.

ARMING DOUBLET DECORATIVE BOSS

Padded garment worn beneath armour to absorb See boss.
the impact of blows and improve comfort for the
wearer in everyday use. Also known by the medieval
term aketon, the Greek thoracomachus, and DERIVETING
(possibly) the Latin subarmalis. Removing rivets, usually for the purpose of repair
or maintenance.

BACKPLATE(S)
Either three (Corbridge) or one (Newstead) plate GIRDLE PLATE
covering half of the upper back area up to the collar See girth hoop. (ROBINSON, 1975, 177)
line and forming part of the collar plate set.
Hinged to the mid-collar plate and fastened to
the neighbouring backplate(s) and topmost girth GIRTH HOOP
hoop. (ROBINSON, 1975, 177 as ‘back-plate’; Curved ferrous plate that is one of the components
ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, Fig.22 as of a lower unit. Shaped to fit the torso, each plate is
‘backplate’) paired with a mate on the opposite side of the body.
Fastened using tie loops (Corbridge types) or tie
rings and slots (Newstead).
BOSS
External decorative washer used with some of the
rivets used to secure the internal leathers. HALF-COLLAR PLATE
See mid-collar plate. (ROBINSON, 1975, 177)

BREASTPLATE
One of three collar plates covering one half of the HINGED BUCKLE
chest area up to the collar line. Hinged to the On the Corbridge types used with hinged strap
mid-collar plate and fastened to the neighbour- fittings as lateral fasteners to join the pairs of
100 M.C. Bishop

BOTTOM BACKPLATE

MIDDLE BACKPLATE

REAR
PLATE

TOP BACKPLATE

MID-COLLAR CENTRAL
PLATE PLATE

FRONT
PLATE
BREASTPLATE

COLLAR PLATES UPPER SHOULDERGUARDS LESSER SHOULDERGUARDS

Fig.13.1 Technical terminology of the upper units of lorica segmentata

breastplates and backplates. On the Corbridge LAME

Type A, also used as vertical fasteners to join the Term employed in medieval armoury to describe a
breastplates to the upper girth hoops (and as single plate, often used of the components of arm-
such usually mounted on the girth hoop). guards or, less often, lorica segmentata itself.

HINGED STRAP FITTING LATERAL FASTENER

On the Corbridge types used with hinged buckles The means of fastening pairs of breastplates or
as lateral fasteners to join the pairs of breastplates backplates together, using hinged buckles and
and backplates. On the Corbridge Type A, also hinged strap fittings (Corbridge) or turning
used as vertical fasteners to join the breastplates pins and slots (Newstead).
to the upper girth hoops (and as such usually
mounted on the breastplate).
LEATHERS
Internal strips of leather to which the metal plates of
HINGELESS BUCKLE segmental armour were riveted. (ROBINSON,
On the Corbridge type A used to attach the internal 1975, 177)
leathers of the backplates to the upper girth
hoop (where they were normally mounted) and the
known examples were made of iron. Similar buckles LESSER SHOULDERGUARD
(but of copper alloy) were also associated with the Sets of four curved plates that form the outermost el-
Kalkriese type and it is assumed they fulfilled a simi- ements of an upper unit, attached by three
lar function with this cuirass. leathers to the upper shoulderguard and, even-
tually, the collar plates. (ROBINSON, 1975, 177
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 101

a s ‘ s h o u l d e r - g u a r d ’ ; A L L A S O N - J O N E S & les, hinged strap fittings, lobate hinges, and

BISHOP, 1988, Fig.22 as ‘ lesser shoulder guard’) tie loops.

LOBATE HINGE ROLLING

Two-part decorative hinges, used to join the three The process of turning the edge of a plate back on it-
parts of the upper shoulderguard and the self (usually outwards) to prevent chafing. Used on
breast-, mid-collar, and backplate. Held in collar plates and the topmost and lowest girth
place by rivets. (ROBINSON, 1975, 177) hoops.

LOWER UNIT ROVE

See unit. A washer, usually (but not always) square or rectan-
gular in lorica segmentata, which secured the end of a
rivet passing through a leather (thereby ensuring
MANICA (L.) that the rivet could not be torn out).
See armguard.

SLOT
MID-COLLAR PLATE Method of fastening used on Newstead type cui-
One of the collar plates, hinged to both the breast- rasses. Used with turning pins on the breast- and
plate and backplate and attached by leathers to backplates, and with tie loops on the girth
the upper shoulderguard. (ALLASON-JONES hoops. Usually surrounded by a riveted copper-al-
& BISHOP, 1988, Fig.22) loy plate.

ORICHALCUM (L.) SPLIT PIN

An alloy of copper similar to modern brass (in partic- A length of wire bent into a loop, the two ends of
ular, analagous to alloys like ‘low brass’ and ‘red which butt against each other before turning out-
brass’), composed of copper and zinc. The maxi- wards. Evidently multi-functional in the Roman
mum zinc proportion possible in the Roman period period.
was around 28%.

SUBARMALIS (L.)
PEENING See arming doublet.
Hammering over the end of a rivet or shank to ex-
pand it and thereby hold it in place.
SUB-LOBATE HINGE
Similar in function to lobate hinges but used on
PTERYGES (L. FROM THE GK.) the Kalkriese type of cuirass. Instead of fully-formed
Literally ‘wings’ in Greek (presumably because they lobes, they have either a) three pointed terminals or
flapped around), these were movable strips that b) two shallow hemispherical lobes. They are held in
hung below the waist and over the shoulders. place by varying numbers of rivets, either three in
Usually presumed to have been attached to an arm- the case of a), or three or four in the case of b).
ing doublet. They may have been made of leather
or possibly stiffened linen.
SUB-RECTANGULAR HINGE
Similar in function to lobate hinges and
RIVET sub-lobate hinges and possibly used on the
Usually dome-headed and made of copper alloy Kalkriese form of segmental body armour. Gen-
when new (sometimes with a higher copper con- erally held in place by three rivets on either leaf.
tent than other fittings), these were frequently
crudely repaired with flat-headed substitutes.
Used to attach all the leathers and the various THORACOMACHUS (L. FROM THE GK.)
copper-alloy fittings, such as the hinged buck- See arming doublet.
102 M.C. Bishop

TIE HOOK four lesser shoulderguards. A lower unit com-

See tie loop, which is preferable, as these fittings prised between six and eight girth hoop halves.
are usually loops rather than hooks in form.

UPPER SHOULDERGUARD
TIE LOOP Three plates (front, central, and rear), attached by
Pairs of tie loops were used to fasten girth hoops, means of leathers to (and sitting above and par-
each pair with their own knotted leather thong. tially covering) the collar plates on one side and
Made either from rod beaten out into sheet or plate the lesser shoulder guards on the other..
rolled up at one end, these objects consist of a taper- (ROBINSON, 1975, 177 as ‘shoulder-guard’;
ing plate attached to the girth hoop with two ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, Fig.22 as
rivets with the part nearest the end of the plate ‘upper shoulder guard’)
rolled up to form a loop.

UPPER UNIT
TIE RING See unit.
Cast ring with a shank which passed directly through
the girth hoop and was peened over to hold it in
place, sometimes with a rove. It formed one half of UPSETTING
the method of fastening girth hoops used on New- Thickening the edge of a ferrous plate by hammer-
stead type cuirasses, each loop passing through a ing that edge in order to prevent chafing. Used on
matching slot in the matching girth hoop and was collar plates and the topmost and lowest girth
probably secured with a split pin. (First use: Web- hoops.
ster 1992)

VAMBRACE
TURNING PIN Term from medieval armoury often used to describe
Possibly used (with a matching slot and probably se- an armguard, although strictly the more recent ex-
cured with a split pin) as a lateral fastener on ample consisted of a rerebrace on the upper arm,
Newstead type armour. Having passed through its vambrace on the lower, and couter plates at the el-
slot, it would be rotated through 90° and secured. bow.

UNIT VERTICAL FASTENER

Each cuirass was made up of four units, two upper Joining upper and lower units, taking the form of
and two lower. An upper unit consisted of breast- buckle and strap on the earlier forms, a hook and eye
plate, backplate(s), upper shoulderguard, and on the later.
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 103

Appendix A: Major Published Finds of

Lorica Segmentata
The following handlist comprises only the most sig- the armour together with their principal compo-
nificant published (and at the time of writing there nents. Full details will be found in the second
are a number of very important unpublished) finds of volume, THOMAS, 2002.

BODY ARMOUR
Date found Site Publication Contents
1899 Carnuntum (Waffenmagazin) VON GROLLER, 1901 Corbridge girth hoops, fittings;
Newstead girth hoops, fittings
1905 Newstead (Pit 1) CURLE, 1911 Newstead collar unit, lesser
shoulderguards
1906 Zugmantel ORL 8B Newstead and/or Alba Iulia
backplates and girth hoops
1917 Eining (Weinberg) REINECKE, 1927 Newstead backplate and lesser
shoulderguards
1936 London Bank of England WEBSTER, 1960 Corbridge breastplate
1961 St Albans NIBLETT forthcoming Corbridge girth hoops
1964 Corbridge (Hoard) ALLASON-JONES
& BISHOP 1988 Corbridge collar units and
girth hoops
1968 Rißtissen ULBERT, 1970 Corbridge ?breastplate, girth
hoops, and fittings
1989 Carlisle CARUANA, 1993 Newstead backplate
1987–95 Kalkriese FRANZIUS, 1995 Kalkriese breastplate and fit-
tings
2000 Stillfried EIBNER, 2000 Newstead girth hoops

ARMGUARDS
Date found Site Publication Contents
1899 Carnuntum (Waffenmagazin) VON GROLLER, 1901 lames, rivets, organics
1905 Newstead (principia room 5) CURLE, 1911 shoulder plate, lames, rivets,
organics
1905 Newstead (Pit I) BISHOP, 1998 lames, rivets
2001 Carlisle McCARTHY et al, 2001;
RICHARDSON, 2001 shoulder plate, lames, rivets,
organics
104 M.C. Bishop

Appendix B: Sources of Illustrations

This appendix provides details of the sources used For the purposes of consistency, a uniform simpli-
for all the (re)drawn line illustrations employed in fied style has been adopted for the line illustrations of
this book. Readers who find their interest in a partic- finds used in this volume. An attempt has also been
ular fitting aroused are urged, wherever possible, to made to distinguish between ferrous metal, copper al-
refer to the source drawing or photograph and, nat- loy, silvering/tinning, and leather by means of a series
urally, to consider attempting to see the original of tone conventions, the key for which will be found on
artefact (for which there is, of course, no substitute). p.viii.
Fig.3.3: BERNARD, 1980, Fig.11
Fig.3.4: CONZE, 1913; BISHOP, in preparation b
Fig.4.1: FRANZIUS, 1995, Abb.2
Fig.4.2: 1: FRANZIUS, 1992, Abb.9,1; 2: ibid. Abb.9,4; 3: ibid. Abb.9,6; 4: ibid. Abb.9,7; 5: ibid. Abb.9,3; 6: 1995,
Abb.7,3; 7: ibid. Abb.7,5
Fig.4.3: 1: FILLOY NIEVA & GIL ZUBILLAGA, 1998, 266 No.353; 2: DESCHLER-ERB, 1999, Taf.15,238; 3:
DESCHLER-ERB, 1996, Taf.21,312; 4: UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.33,764; 5: HÜBENER, 1973,
Taf.14,22; 6: DESCHLER-ERB, 1999, Taf.13,192; 7: FINGERLIN, 1970–1, Abb.11,8; 8: UNZ &
DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.32,731
Fig.4.4: 1: FORRER, 1927, Taf.LXXVII,26; 2: DOWN, 1989, Fig.27.5,80
Fig.4.5: UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.30,615
Fig.4.6: UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.30,619
Fig.5.1: WEBSTER, 1958, Fig.6,159
Fig.5.4: Corbridge 1: ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, Fig.26; 2: ibid., Fig.31; 3: ibid., Fig.34; 4: ibid., Fig.39; 5:
ibid., Fig.43; 6: ibid., Fig.49; London: WEBSTER, 1958, Fig.6,159; Vindonissa: UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB,
1997, Taf.30,616; Kalkriese: FRANZIUS, 1995, Abb.2; Newstead: BISHOP, 1999b, Fig.2
Fig.5.5: 1: ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, Fig.39; 2: ibid., Fig.31; 3: ibid., Fig.26
Fig.5.6: 1a: UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.33,746; 1b: ibid., Taf.31,636; 2a: VON GROLLER, 1901,
Taf.XIX,46; 2b: UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.31,631; 3a: RITTERLING, 1913, Taf.II,14; 3b: UNZ &
DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.34,827; 4a: VON GROLLER, 1901, Tav.XVII,25; 4b: UNZ &
DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.32,670
Fig.5.7: 1: JACKSON, 1990, Fig.8; 2: ULBERT, 1969, Taf.29,6; 3: ibid., Taf.29,7; 4: ibid., Taf.29,3; 5: ibid., Taf.29,2
Fig.5.8: 1: UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB, 1997, Taf.32,723; 2: JACKSON, 1991, Pl.2,11; 3: UNZ & DESCHLER-ERB,
1997, Taf.31,636; 4: BROWN, 1986, Fig.28,202; 5: FRERE & ST JOSEPH, 1974, Fig.26,29
Fig.5.12: DOWN, 1978, Fig.10.36,iv
Fig.6.1: 1: VON GROLLER, 1901, Taf.XIX,57; 2: ibid., Taf.XIX,59; 3: ibid., Taf.XIX,58; 4: ibid., Taf.XVIII,29; 5:
ibid., Taf.XVIII,30; 6: ibid., Taf.XVIII,31; 7: ibid., Taf.XIX,66
Fig.6.2: BISHOP, 1999b, Figs.2–3
Fig.6.3: BISHOP, in preparation a
Fig.6.4: BISHOP, forthcoming
Fig.6.5: CARUANA, 1993, Fig.1
Fig.6.7: 1a: RAJTAR, 1994, Abb.7,1; 1b: ibid., Abb.7,2; 2a: VON GROLLER, 1901, Taf.XVIII,28; 2b: ibid.,
Taf.XVIII,27
Fig.6.11: GARBSCH, 1978, Taf.8,1; a: GUDEA, 1989, Pl.CCVII,28; b: ibid., Pl.CCVII,21; c: ibid., PL.CCXL,42; d: ibid.,
Pl.CCXL,50
Fig.6.12: 1: EVANS & METCALF, 1992, 118 Fig., 48; 2: ibid. 55; 3: ibid. 59; 4: ibid. 63; 5: unpublished; 6: McCAR-
THY, 1990, Fig.109,48; 7: WRATHMELL & NICHOLSON, 1990, Fig.70,28; 8: ALLASON-JONES &
MIKET, 1984, Fig.3.691; 9: NEWSTEAD, 1928, Pl.IX,11; 10: BRYANT et al., 1986, Fig.5.5,3150; 11:
BISHOP, 1996, Fig.37,419; 12: unpublished
Fig.7.3: 1: VON GROLLER, 1901, Taf.XVI,6; 2: ibid., Taf.XVI,16; 3: ibid., Taf.XVI,13.
Fig.7.4: 1: JUNKELMANN, 1996, Abb.141; 2: GARBSCH, 1978, Taf.8,1; 3: JUNKELMANN, 1996, Abb.134
Fig.7.5: BISHOP, in preparation a
Fig.7.6: VON GROLLER, 1901, Taf.XIX,57
Fig.8.1: 1: VON GROLLER, 1901, Taf.XX,7; 2: ibid., Taf.XX,6; 3: ibid., Taf.XX,9; 4: ibid., Taf.XX,8; 5: ibid.,
Taf.XX,10
Fig.8.2: CURLE, 1911, Pl.XXIII
Fig.8.4: BISHOP, forthcoming
Fig.9.1: top: ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, Fig.97,250; bottom: CURLE, 1911, Pl.LXV,9
Fig.9.2: ALLASON-JONES & BISHOP, 1988, Fig.35
Fig.9.9: 1: ULBERT, 1969, Taf.33,17; 2: WEBSTER, 1958, Fig.6,159; 3: CRUMMY, 1983, Fig.145,4186
Fig.9.10: DOWN, 1978, Fig.10.36,vi
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 105

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110 M.C. Bishop

Index
This index should also serve to guide the reader to the geographic locations of the various sites mentioned
in text. The nationality of these has been indicated using the standard three-letter international abbrevia-
tions (following ISO 3166) for the countries concerned which are as follows:

AFG Afghanistan ESP Spain ISR Israel RUS Russian Fdn

AUT Austria FRA France ITA Italy SVK Slovakia
BEL Belgium GBR Great Britain KAZ Kazakhstan SVN Slovenia
BGR Bulgaria GRC Greece LUX Luxembourg SYR Syria
CHE Switzerland HRV Croatia MAR Morocco TUR Turkey
CZE Czech Republic HUN Hungary NLD Netherlands
DEU Germany IRN Iran ROM Romania

Adamclisi (ROM) 13, Britain 15, 91 Connolly, P. 5, 41, 55 Domus Aurea 21, 22
17, 62, 68 bronze 77 copper alloys 77; see also Dura-Europos (SYR) 74,
Ai Khanum (AFG) 18 orichalcum 91
aketon 99 Camerton (GBR) 89 Corbridge (GBR) 13, 17,
Alba Iulia (ROM) Cardiff (GBR) 68 Edinburgh (GBR)
sculpture 12, 62, 65, Roman Frontiers Hoard 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, National Museums of
80 Congress 4, 15 13, 14, 15, 23, 31, Scotland 7
type 6, 12, 54, 62–6, Caerleon (GBR) 57, 91 33, 36, 40, 41, 42, Eining (DEU) 2, 46, 57,
92 Legionary Museum 7 43, 46, 59, 67, 78, 59, 61, 68, 69, 84, 95
Alfs, J. 3 Carlisle (GBR) 1, 6, 14, 79, 84, 85, 87, 88, equipment, Dacian 1
Annaius Salutus, G. 68 46, 47, 49, 57, 59, 97, 98 evidence
Amtioch (SYR) 85 62, 68, 69, 89, 91 type 4, 6, 14, 15, 17, archaeological 13–15,
Arch Tullie House Museum 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 68
of Constantine 9 46 31–44, 46, 47, 49, 50, experimental 15–16,
of Severus 9 Carnuntum (AUT) 2, 3, 7, 51, 56, 58, 64, 65, 17, 43, 81–3, 95–6
Arlon (LUX) 72 14, 49, 51, 64, 68 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, iconographic 2, 3, 6,
armguards 46, 47, Waffenmagazin 2, 3, 14, 84, 85, 92, 99, 100 9–13, 62, 65, 68, 72,
68–71, 91, 92, 99, 31, 45, 46, 47, 55, corrosion 15, 78, 80–1, 74, 80
101 57, 62, 68 84, 86, 89
arming doublet 79–80, Carrhae (SYR) 91 Couissin, P. 3, 9 falx 68, 77, 83, 91
96, 99, 101 Caruana, I. 47 crupellarii 76 Florus 1, 91
Athens (GRC) 22 Catalka (BGR) 84 cuisses 73–5, 99 Forum
attrition see damage, catapult bolts 83 Curle, J. 2–3, 4, 5, 14, Romanum 9
everyday Chester (GBR) 7, 9 46, 54, 55 of Trajan 9
Augustus 77 Grosvenor Museum 4, Fronto 85
auxiliaries 91 6 Dacian Wars 13, 92
Chichester (GBR) 23, damage Gamala (ISR) 31, 84, 93
Bad Deutsch-Altenburg 25, 31, 41, 43, 60, battle 83 Gentilis, A. 7
(AUT) 2 72, 85 everyday (attrition) gladiators 18, 68
Baden (CHE) 78 Chirik-Rabat (KAZ) 22 81–3 gorget 84
battle damage see clibanarii 91 Dangstetten (DEU) 23, Great Chesters (GBR)
damage, battle coats of plates 7 25 47, 91
Berlin papyrus inv. 6765 Column Daniels, C.M. 4, 14, 15, Great Trajanic Frieze 9,
1 Antoninus Pius’ 9, 94 41 94
bluing 80 Marcus Aurelius’ 9, 80 Danube 1, 58, 91 greaves 13
Bowes Moor (GBR) 91 Trajan’s 1, 3, 4, 9, 13, decoration 39, 40, 77–8
brass 77, 81, 101 18, 27, 68, 87, 94, 98 Dendra cuirass 18
 Lorica Segmentata I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour 111

von Groller(-Mildensee), hamata 1, 7, 87 reconstructions see Stillfried (AUT) 6, 14,

M. 2, 3, 7, 14, 36, lam(m)inata 1 evidence, 47, 51, 57, 58, 59,
55, 68, 69 segmentata passim experimental 60, 64, 67, 78, 88
squamata 7, 62, 87 repair 84–6 storage 87
helmets 9, 17, 46, 83, Lüttich (DEU) 72 Rhineland 72 Strasbourg (FRA) 23, 25
92 Rhoxolani 1, 18 subarmalis 89, 99, 101;
Imperial-Gallic 43, 78 Magdalensberg (AUT) Richmond, I.A. 68 see also arming
Italo-Corinthian 21 25 Rißtissen 31 doublet
hot oil dips 80 magistri officiorum 68, 91 rivets 1, 4, 23, 24, 25,
Hrusic̀´a (SVN) 67 maintenance 84–6 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, Tacitus 1, 7, 18
Mainz (DEU) 68, 91 36, 41, 43, 44, 46, Tang-e Sarvak (IRN) 74
iron 77 pedestal reliefs 9, 62 47, 50, 51, 57, 58, Teutoburgerwald (DEU)
Isidore of Seville 1 Römisch-Germanisches 59, 62, 66, 69, 71, 91; see also
Iz̀´a (SVK) 47 Zentralmuseum 7 72, 73, 75, 77, 78, Varusschlacht
manica see armguard 79, 80, 81, 84, 85, thoracomachus 89, 99, 101;
Kaiseraugst (CHE) 25 manufacture 79 86, 95, 99, 100, 101, see also arming
Kalkriese (DEU) 14, 15, Marcomannic Wars 47 102, 103 doublet
17, 23, 30, 90 holes 4, 25, 29, 40, 59 tinning 57, 78, 80
type 6, 23–9, 31, 32, Naqs-e Rostam (IRN) 74 sliding 31, 84, 90, 93 Tropaeum Traiani 13, 68
43, 57, 77, 78, 83, Nero 21 Robinson, H.R. 2, 3, Turner, J. 5
91, 92, 100, 101 Newcastle upon Tyne 4–5, 6, 13, 14, 15,
(GBR) 5 23, 32, 36, 39, 41, Ulpia Traiana
lamellar armour, Museum of Antiquities 43, 46, 54, 56, 57, Sarmizegetusa 68, 69
Japanese 7 4 58, 59, 68, 69, 74,
leathers Newstead 2, 3, 4, 14, 86, 95, 96 Valerius Severus, Sex. 68
fastenings 23, 24, 29, 46, 68, 69, 74, 77, 95 Rome (ITA) 9, 21, 73 vambrace 76, 99, 102
32 type 4, 5, 6, 14, 17, roves 29, 41, 43, 45, 51, Varusschlacht 14, 23
internal 1, 2, 18, 23, 23, 31, 39, 46–59, 64, 58, 81, 102; see also Versigny (FRA) 76
24, 25, 26, 29, 31, 77, 80, 84, 85, 92, washers Villa Borghese mosaics
32, 33, 41, 43, 44, 99, 100, 101, 102 76
49, 50, 51, 57, 59, Notitia Dignitatum 68, 91 Sacrovir 1, 91 Vindolanda (GBR) 1
62, 66, 69, 71, 72, St Albans (GBR) 31 Vindonissa (CHE) 23, 25,
73, 75, 78, 83, 84, orichalcum 36, 77, 81, Saintes (FRA) 65
87, 88, 93, 95–6, 98, 101 relief 12
99, 100, 101, 102 Osnabrück (DEU) 23 Sarmatians 1 washers 43, 46, 51, 59,
laces 18, 36 Oulton (GBR) 78 armour 18 73, 101; see also roves
legio over-compression 83 Scythians 18, 22 decorated 23, 37, 40,
II Traiana Fortis 1 shields 9, 76 45, 77, 78, 85, 99
XVII 91 paludamentum 21 shoulderguards 72–3 Waddon Hill (GBR) 23,
XVIII 91 Parthians 18, 91 Simkins, M. 72 25
XIX 91 Pergamon (TUR) 18–21 size 79–80, 96 Webster, G. 3–4, 57
XXII Primigenia 68 pila 9, 76 Society for Creative Windisch (CHE) see
León (ESP) 47, 58, 68, polishing 85–6, 90 Anachronism (SCA) Vindonissa
69 Pontius Laelianus 85 17
limb defences 13, 18 Post, P. 22 South Shields (GBR) 91 Xanten (DEU) 17, 80
Lipsius, Iustus 1 Poulter, A. 5–6, 46, 54, Spain 91 Xenophon 18
London (GBR) 56, 57 Spitfire 92
Bank of England 3, 4, Praetorian Guard 9, 91, Staroe (RUS) 22 York (GBR) 91
17, 31, 84 94 standards 76
Guildhall Museum 3 pteryges 62, 80, 89, 101 statuette 9 Zugmantel (DEU) 2, 3,
longevity 87–8 steel 77, 95 46, 49, 54, 57, 58,
Longthorpe (GBR) 31 64, 67, 91
lorica
112 M.C. Bishop

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