Scilab Textbook Companion for

Discrete Mathematics
by S. Lipschutz, M. Lipson And V. H. Patil1

Created by
Neerja Bahuguna
B.Tech. (pursuing)
Computer Engineering
Echelon Institute of Technology, Faridabad
College Teacher
Prashant Gupta, E. I. T. ,Faridabad
Cross-Checked by
Prashant Dave, IIT Bombay

May 17, 2016

1 Funded by a grant from the National Mission on Education through ICT,

http://spoken-tutorial.org/NMEICT-Intro. This Textbook Companion and Scilab
codes written in it can be downloaded from the ”Textbook Companion Project”
section at the website http://scilab.in
Book Description

Title: Discrete Mathematics

Author: S. Lipschutz, M. Lipson And V. H. Patil

Publisher: Tata McGraw - Hill Education

Edition: 3

Year: 2009

ISBN: 9780070669123

1
 Scilab numbering policy used in this document and the relation to the
above book.

Exa Example (Solved example)

Eqn Equation (Particular equation of the above book)

AP Appendix to Example(Scilab Code that is an Appednix to a particular

Example of the above book)

For example, Exa 3.51 means solved example 3.51 of this book. Sec 2.3 means
a scilab code whose theory is explained in Section 2.3 of the book.

2
Contents

List of Scilab Codes 4

1 Set Theory 5

3 Functions and Algorithms 9

5 Vectors and Matrices 12

6 Counting 16

7 Probability Theory 23

8 Graph Theory 40

9 Directed graphs 43

11 Properties of the integers 45

12 Algebraic Systems 50

15 Boolean Algebra 52

16 Recurrence relations 54

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List of Scilab Codes

Exa 1.8 inclusion exclusion principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Exa 1.9 Inclusion exclusion principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Exa 1.13 Power sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Exa 1.14 Power sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Exa 1.18 Mathematical induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Exa 3.8 Recursively defined functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Exa 3.9 Cardinality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Exa 3.10 Polynomial evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Exa 3.11 Greatest Common Divisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Exa 5.2 Vector operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Exa 5.3 Column vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Exa 5.5 Matrix addition and Scalar multiplication . . . . . . . 13
Exa 5.6 Matrix multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Exa 5.7 Matrix multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Exa 5.8 Algebra of square matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Exa 5.9 Invertible matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Exa 5.10 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Exa 5.13 Matrix solution of a system of linear equations . . . . 15
Exa 5.14 Inverse of a square matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Exa 6.1 Sum rule principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Exa 6.2 Product rule principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Exa 6.3 Factorial notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Exa 6.4 Binomial coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Exa 6.5 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Exa 6.6 Permutations with repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Exa 6.7 Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Exa 6.8 Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Exa 6.9 Combinations with repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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Exa 6.14 Ordered partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Exa 6.15 Unordered partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Exa 6.16 Inclusion exclusion principle revisited . . . . . . . . . 22
Exa 7.1 Sample space and events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Exa 7.2 Finite probability spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Exa 7.3 Equiprobable spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Exa 7.4 Addition principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Exa 7.5 Conditional probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Exa 7.6 Multiplication theorem for conditional probability . . 28
Exa 7.7 Independent events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Exa 7.8 Independent events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Exa 7.9 Independent repeated trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Exa 7.10 Repeated trials with two outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Exa 7.12 Random variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Exa 7.13 Probability distribution of a random variable . . . . . 33
Exa 7.14 Probability distribution of a random variable . . . . . 34
Exa 7.15 Expectation of a random variable . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Exa 7.16 Variance and standard deviation of a random variable 36
Exa 7.17 Binomial diatribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Exa 7.18 Chebyshev inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Exa 7.19 Sample mean and Law of large numbers . . . . . . . . 38
Exa 8.1 Paths and connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Exa 8.2 Minimum spanning tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Exa 9.6 Adjacency matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Exa 9.8 Path matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Exa 11.2 Division algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Exa 11.4 Primes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Exa 11.5 Greatest Common Divisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Exa 11.6 Euclidean algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Exa 11.9 Fundamental theorem of Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . 47
Exa 11.12 Congruence relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Exa 11.19 Linear congruence equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Exa 12.4 Properties of operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Exa 12.17 Roots of polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Exa 12.18 Roots of polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Exa 15.1 Basic definitions in boolean algebra . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Exa 15.2 Boolean algebra as lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

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Exa 16.14 Linear homogenous recurrence relations with constant
coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Exa 16.15 Solving linear homogenous recurrence relations with con-
stant coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Exa 16.16 Solving linear homogenous recurrence relations with con-
stant coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Exa 16.17 Solving linear homogenous recurrence relations with con-
stant coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Exa 16.18 Solving linear homogenous recurrence relations with con-
stant coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Exa 16.19 Solving general homogenous linear recurrence relations 59

6
 Chapter 1

Set Theory

Scilab code Exa 1.8 inclusion exclusion principle

1 disp ( ’ To f i n d : number o f m a t h e m a t i c s s t u d e n t s t a k i n g
a t l e a s t one o f t h e l a n g u a g e s F r e n c h ( F ) , German (G)
and R u s s i a n (R) ’ )
2 F =65; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g F r e n c h
3 G =45; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g German
4 R =42; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g R u s s i a n
5 FandG =20; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g F r e n c h and
German
6 FandR =25; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g F r e n c h and
Russian
7 GandR =15; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g German and
Russian
8 FandGandR =8; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g French ,
German and R u s s i a n
9 //By i n c l u s i o n −e x c l u s i o n p r i n c i p l e
10 ForGorR = F + G +R - FandG - FandR - GandR + FandGandR ;
11 disp ( ForGorR , ’ t h e number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g
a t l e a s t one o f t h e l a n g u a g e s : ’ )

7
 Scilab code Exa 1.9 Inclusion exclusion principle

1 disp ( ’ I n a c o l l e g e , 1 2 0 m a t h e m a t i c s s t u d e n t s can o p t
f o r e i t h e r F r e n c h ( F ) , German (G) o r R u s s i a n (R) ’ )
2 n =120; // t o t a l number o f s t u d e n t s
3 F =65; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g F r e n c h
4 G =45; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g German
5 R =42; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g R u s s i a n
6 FandG =20; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g F r e n c h and
German
7 FandR =25; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g F r e n c h and
Russian
8 GandR =15; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g German and
Russian
9 FandGandR =8; // number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g French ,
German and R u s s i a n
10 disp ( ’ u s i n g i n c l u s i o n −e x c l u s i o n p r i n c i p l e : ’ )
11 ForGorR = F + G +R - FandG - FandR - GandR + FandGandR ;
12 disp ( ForGorR , ’ number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g F r e n c h o r
German o r R u s s i a n ’ )
13 FGnR = FandG - FandGandR ;
14 disp ( FGnR , ’ number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g F r e n c h and
German but n o t R u s s i a n ’ )
15 FRnG = FandR - FandGandR ;
16 disp ( FRnG , ’ number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g F r e n c h and
R u s s i a n but n o t German ’ )
17 GRnF = GandR - FandGandR ;
18 disp ( GRnF , ’ number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g German and
R u s s i a n but n o t F r e n c h ’ )
19 OF =F - FGnR - FandGandR - FRnG ;
20 disp ( OF , ’ number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g Only F r e n c h ’ )
21 OG =G - FGnR - FandGandR - GRnF ;
22 disp ( OG , ’ number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g Only German ’ )
23 OR =R - FRnG - FandGandR - GRnF ;
24 disp ( OR , ’ number o f s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g Only R u s s i a n ’ )
25 k =n - ForGorR ;
26 disp (k , ’ number o f s t u d e n t s n o t s t u d y i n g any o f t h e
languages ’)

8
 Scilab code Exa 1.13 Power sets

1 x =10; // number o f members o f s e t X

2 P =2^ x // number o f members o f t h e power s e t o f X
3 q =P -1; // x i t s e l f i s n o t t h e p r o p e r s u b s e t . Hence i t
isn ’ t counted
4 disp (q , ’ number o f members o f p o w e r s e t P which a r e
proper subsets of x are : ’)

Scilab code Exa 1.14 Power sets

1 A =[1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5]; // e a t a b l e s f o r s a l a d p r e p a r a t i o n 1=
o n i o n ,2= tomato ,3= c a r r o t ,4= cabbage ,5= cucumber
2 p = length ( A ) ; // t o t a l number o f e a t a b l e s a v a i l a b l e
3 n =2^ p -1; // no s a l a d can be made w i t h o u t a t l e a s t one
o f t h e e a t a b l e s . Hence n u l l s e t i s n ’ t c o u n t e d
4 disp (n , ’ number o f d i f f e r e n t s a l a d s t h a t can be
prepared using the given e a t a b l e s ’ )

Scilab code Exa 1.18 Mathematical induction

1 U1 =1; // g i v e n
2 U2 =5; // g i v e n
3 P =[];
4 for i =1:2
5 P ( i ) =3^ i -2^ i ;
6 disp ( P ( i ) )
7 end
8 disp ( ’P ( 1 )=U( 1 ) and P ( 2 )=U( 2 ) ’ ) ;

9
9 disp ( ’ h e n c e Un=3ˆn−2ˆn f o r a l l n b e l o n g i n g t o N ’ ) ;

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 Chapter 3

Functions and Algorithms

Scilab code Exa 3.8 Recursively defined functions

1 function [ k ]= fact ( a )
2 k = -1;
3 if (a <0| a >200)
4 disp ( ” I n v a l i d ” ) ;
5 break ;
6 else
7 if ( a ==1| a ==0)
8 k =1;
9 else
10 k = a * fact (a -1) ;
11 end
12 end
13 endfunction
14 a =4;
15 p = fact ( a ) ;
16 disp (p , ’ t h e v a l u e o f 4 ! i s ’ )

Scilab code Exa 3.9 Cardinality

11
 1 x =1;
2 y =2;
3 z =3;
4 A =[ x ,y , z ];
5 disp ( ’ c a r d i n a l i t y o f s e t A i s : ’ )
6 length ( A )
7 B =[1 ,3 ,5 ,7 ,9]
8 disp ( ’ c a r d i n a l i t y o f s e t B i s : ’ )
9 length ( B )
10
11 // 3 . 9 ( b )
12 disp ( ’ t h e s e t E h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g e l e m e n t s )
13 E = [ 2 , 4 , 6 % i n f ] // s e t E i s t h e s e t o f a l l p o s i t i v e
e v e n numbers and N i s t h e s e t o f a l l n a t u r a l
numbers
14 d i s p ( ’ function f : N to E is defined . So , E has the same
cardinality as N ’)
15 disp ( ’ s e t E i s c o u n t a b l y i n f i n i t e : ’ )
16 for x =2:2: %inf
17 y =2* x ;
18 disp ( y )
19 end

Scilab code Exa 3.10 Polynomial evaluation

1 x = poly (0 , ’ x ’ ) ;
2 p = 2* x ^3 -7* x ^2+4* x -15;
3 disp (p , ’ t h e p o l y n o m i a l i s ’ )
4 k = horner (p ,5) ;
5 disp (k , ’ v a l u e o f t h e p o l y n o m i a l a t x=5 i s ’ )

Scilab code Exa 3.11 Greatest Common Divisor

12
1 V = int32 ([258 ,60]) ;
2 thegcd = gcd ( V ) ;
3 disp ( thegcd , ’ t h e gcd o f t h e two numbers 258 and 60
is ’)

13
 Chapter 5

Vectors and Matrices

Scilab code Exa 5.2 Vector operations

1 u =[2 ,3 , -4];
2 v =[1 , -5 ,8];
3 u+v
4 5* u
5 -v
6 2* u -3* v
7 u .* v ;
8 k = sum ( u .* v ) ;
9 disp (k , ’ d o t p r o d u c t o f t h e two v e c t o r s ’ )
10 l = norm ( u ) ;
11 disp (l , ’ norm o r l e n g t h o f t h e v e c t o r u ’ )

Scilab code Exa 5.3 Column vectors

1 u =[5 ,3 , -4] ’
2 v =[3 , -1 , -2] ’
3 2* u -3* v
4 k = sum ( u .* v ) ;

14
5 disp (k , ’ The d o t p r o d u c t o f t h e two v e c t o r s u and v
is : ’)
6 l = norm ( u ) ;
7 disp (l , ’ The l e n g t h o r norm o f t h e v e c t o r u i s : ’ )

Scilab code Exa 5.5 Matrix addition and Scalar multiplication

1 A =[1 , -2 ,3;0 ,4 ,5];

2 B =[4 ,6 ,8;1 , -3 , -7];
3 k=A+B;
4 disp (k , ’ The a d d i t i o n o f t h e two m a t r i c e s A and B i s :
’)
5 m =3* A ;
6 disp (m , ’ The m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f a v e c t o r w i t h a s c a l a r
is : ’)
7 p =2* A -3* B

Scilab code Exa 5.6 Matrix multiplication

1 a =[7 , -4 ,5];
2 b =[3 ,2 , -1] ’;
3 k=a*b;
4 disp (k , ’ p r o d u c t o f a and b i s ; ’ )
5 p =[6 , -1 ,8 ,3];
6 q =[4 , -9 , -2 ,5] ’;
7 l=p*q;
8 disp (l , ’ p r o d u c t o f p and q i s : ’ )

Scilab code Exa 5.7 Matrix multiplication

15
1 A =[1 3;2 -1];
2 B =[2 0 -4;5 -2 6];
3 A*B
4 A =[1 2;3 4]
5 B =[5 6;0 -2];
6 A*B
7 B*A
8 disp ( ’ m a t r i x m u l i t p l i c a t i o n i s n o t c o m m u t a t i v e s i n c e
AB may n o t be e q u a l t o BA ’ )

Scilab code Exa 5.8 Algebra of square matrices

1 A =[1 2;3 -4];

2 A2 = A * A // m u l t i p l y i n g A by i t s e l f
3 A3 = A2 * A
4 f =2* A2 -3* A +5;
5 disp (f , ’ f o r t h e f u n c t i o n f ( x ) =2xˆ2−3x +5 , f (A) i s : ’ )
6 g = A2 +3* A -10;
7 disp (g , ’ f o r t h e f u n c t i o n g ( x )=xˆ2+3x −10 , g (A) i s ’ )

Scilab code Exa 5.9 Invertible matrices

1 A =[1 0 2;2 -1 3;4 1 8];

2 B =[ -11 2 2; -4 0 1;6 -1 -1];
3 A*B
4 disp ( ’ s i n c e A∗B i s i d e n t i t y m a t r i x , A and B a r e
i n v e r t i b l e and i n v e r s e o f e a c h o t h e r ’ )

Scilab code Exa 5.10 Determinants

16
1 A =[5 4;2 3];
2 det ( A ) ;
3 disp ( det ( A ) , ’ d e t e r m i n a n t o f A ’ )
4 B =[2 1; -4 6]
5 det ( B ) ;
6 disp ( det ( B ) , ’ d e t e r m i n a n t o f B ’ )
7 C =[2 1 3;4 6 -1;5 1 0]
8 disp ( det ( C ) , ’ d e t e r m i n a n t o f C ’ )

Scilab code Exa 5.13 Matrix solution of a system of linear equations

1 A =[1 2 1;2 5 -1;3 -2 -1]; // l e f t hand s i d e o f

the system o f e q u a t i o n s
2 B =[3 -4 5] ’; // r i g h t hand s i d e o r
the constants in the equations
3 X =[];
4 X=A\B ; // u n i q u e s o l u t i o n f o r t h e s y s t e m o f
equations
5 x = X (1)
6 y = X (2)
7 z = X (3)

Scilab code Exa 5.14 Inverse of a square matrix

1 A =[1 0 2;2 -1 3;4 1 8];

2 P = rref ([ A , eye (3 ,3) ]) ;
3 disp (P , ’ c a n o n i c a l form o f m a t r i x A : ’ )
4 disp ( ’ l e f t s i d e o f t h e m a t r i x P i s t h e i d e n t i t y
matrix so the r i g h t s i d e i s the i n v e r s e of A ’ )
5 inverseA = P (: ,4:6)

17
 Chapter 6

Counting

Scilab code Exa 6.1 Sum rule principle

1 M =8; // number o f male p r o f e s s o r s t e a c h i n g

calculus
2 F =5; // number o f f e m a l e p r o f e s s o r s t e a c h i n g
calculus
3 T=M+F ;
4 disp (T , ’ number o f ways a s t u d e n t can c h o o s e a
calculus professor ’)
5
6 E =[2 ,3 ,5 ,7]; // e v e n t o f c h o o s i n g a p r i m e number
l e s s t h a n 10
7 F =[2 ,4 ,6 ,8]; // e v e n t o f c h o o s i n g an e v e n number
l e s s t h a n 10
8 G = intersect (E , F ) ; // e v e n t o f g e t t i n g an e v e n and
p r i m e number
9 H = length ( E ) + length ( F ) - length ( G ) ;
10 disp (H , ’ e v e n t o f g e t t i n g an e v e n o r a p r i m e number ’ )
11
12 E =[11 ,13 ,17 ,19]; // e v e n t o f c h o o s i n g a p r i m e number
b e t w e e n 10 and 20
13 F =[12 ,14 ,16 ,18]; // e v e n t o f c h o o s i n g an e v e n number
b e t w e e n 10 and 20

18
14 G = union (E , F ) ; // e v e n t o f c h o o s i n g a number which
i s prime or even
15 k = length ( G ) ;
16 disp (k , ’ number o f ways o f c h o o s i n g a number which i s
prime or even ’ )

Scilab code Exa 6.2 Product rule principle

1 disp ( ’ a l i c e n s e p l a t e c o n t a i n s two l e t t e r s f o l l o w e d
by t h r e e d i g i t s where f i r s t d i g i t can n o t be z e r o
’)
2 n =26; // number o f e n g l i s h l e t t e r s
3 n * n ; // number o f ways o f c h o o s i n g two l e t t e r s i n
the l i c e n s e p l a t e
4 p =10; // number o f d i g i t s (0 −9)
5 (p -1) * p * p ; // number o f ways t o s e l e c t t h e t h r e e
d i g i t s with the f i r s t d i g i t not being z e r o
6 k = n * n *( p -1) * p * p ;
7 disp (k , ’ t o t a l number o f l i c e n s e p l a t e s t h a t can be
printed ’)
8
9 disp ( ’ a p r e s i d e n t , a s e c r e t a r y and a t r e a s u r e r h a s
t o be e l e c t e d i n an o r g a −n i s a t i o n o f 26 members .
No p e r s o n i s e l e c t e d t o more t h a n one p o s t i o n ’ )
10 t =26; // t o t a l number o f members i n t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n
11 j = t *( t -1) *( t -2) ;
12 disp (j , ’ number o f ways t o e l e c t t h e t h r e e o f f i c e r s (
president , secretary , treasurer ’)

Scilab code Exa 6.3 Factorial notation

1 disp ( ’ To f i n d : f a c t o r i a l o f a 6 ’ )
2 facto2 =2*1;

19
 3 facto3 =3* facto2
4 facto4 =3* facto3
5 facto4 =4* facto3
6 facto5 =5* facto4
7 facto6 =6* facto5
8
9 k =8*7* factorial (6) / factorial (6) ;
10 disp (k , ’ v a l u e o f 8 ! / 6 ! i s : ’ )
11 j =12*11*10* factorial (9) / factorial (9) ;
12 disp (j , ’ v a l u e o f 1 2 ! / 9 ! i s : ’ )

Scilab code Exa 6.4 Binomial coefficients

1 function [ k ]= func1 (n , r ) // c a l c u l a t i n g b i n o m i a l
coefficient
2 k = factorial ( n ) /( factorial ( r ) * factorial (n - r ) ) ;
3 endfunction
4 func1 (8 ,2)
5 func1 (9 ,4)
6 func1 (12 ,5)
7 func1 (10 ,3)
8 func1 (13 ,1)
9
10 p = factorial (10) /( factorial (10 -7) * factorial (7) ) ;
// c a l c u l a t i n g 10C7
11 q = factorial (10) /( factorial (10 -3) * factorial (3) ) //
c a l c u l a t i n g 10C3
12 disp (p , ’ v a l u e o f 10C7 i s ’ )
13 // 10−7=3 s o 10C7 can a l s o be computed a s 10C3
14 // b o t h p and q have same v a l u e s but s e c o n d method
s a v e s t i m e and s p a c e

Scilab code Exa 6.5 Permutations

20
1 disp ( ’ f i n d i n g t h e number o f t h r e e − l e t t e r words u s i n g
o n l y t h e g i v e n s i x l e t t e r s (A, B , C , D, E , F ) w i t h o u t
repetition ’)
2 n =6; // t o t a l number o f l e t t e r s
3 l1 = n ; // number o f ways i n which f i r s t l e t t e r o f t h e
word can be c h o s e n
4 l2 =n -1; // number o f ways i n which s e c o n d l e t t e r o f
t h e word can be c h o s e n
5 l3 = n -2; // number o f ways i n which t h i r d l e t t e r can
be c h o s e n
6 k = l1 * l2 * l3 ;
7 disp (k , ’ number o f t h r e e − l e t t e r words possible ’)

Scilab code Exa 6.6 Permutations with repetitions

1 function [ k ]= funct1 (n ,p , q )
2 k = factorial ( n ) /( factorial ( p ) * factorial ( q ) ) ;
3 endfunction
4 k = funct1 (7 ,3 ,2) // i n ”BENZENE” t h r e e l e t t e r s are
a l i k e ( t h e t h r e e Es ) and two a r e a l i k e ( t h e two Ns
)
5 disp (k , ’ The number o f s e v e n − l e t t e r words t h a t can be
f o r m e d u s i n g l e t t e r s o f t h e word BENZENE ’ )
6
7 disp ( ’ a s e t o f 4 i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e r e d c o l o u r e d
f l a g s , 3 i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e w h i t e f l a g s and a b l u e
f l a g i s given ’)
8 j = funct1 (8 ,4 ,3) ;
9 disp (j , ’ number o f d i f f e r e n t s i g n a l s , e a c h c o n s i s t i n g
of eight flags ’)

Scilab code Exa 6.7 Combinations

21
 1 disp ( ’ f o u r o b j e c t s a r e g i v e n ( a , b , c , d ) and t h r e e a r e
taken at a time ’ )
2 combinations = factorial (4) /( factorial (4 -3) *
factorial (3) ) ;
3 disp ( combinations , ’ number o f c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e
four objects given ’)
4 k = factorial (3) ; // number o f p e r m u t a t i o n s o f o b j e c t s
in a combination
5 permutations = combinations * k ;
6 disp ( permutations , ’ t o t a l number o f p e r m u a t a t i o n s f o r
the problem ’ )

Scilab code Exa 6.8 Combinations

1 function [ k ]= myfunc (n , r )
2 k = factorial ( n ) /( factorial (n - r ) * factorial ( r ) ) ;
3 endfunction
4 k = myfunc (8 ,3) ;
5 disp (k , ’ t h e number o f c o m m i t t e e s o f t h r e e t h a t can
be f o r m e d o u t o f e i g h t p e o p l e ’ )
6
7 cows = myfunc (6 ,3) // number o f ways t h a t a f a r m e r can
c h o o s e 3 cows o u t o f 6 cows
8 pigs = myfunc (5 ,2) // number o f ways t h a t a f a r m e r can
choose 2 p i g s out o f 5 p i g s
9 hens = myfunc (8 ,4) // number o f ways t h a t a f a r m e r can
choose 4 hens out o f 8 hens
10 p = cows * pigs * hens ;
11 disp (p , ’ t o t a l number o f ways t h a t a f a r m e r can
choose a l l these animals ’)

Scilab code Exa 6.9 Combinations with repetitions

22
1 // e a c h s o l u t i o n t o t h e e q u a t i o n can be v i e w e d a s a
combination of o b j e c t s
2 r =18; // number o f o b j e c t s
3 M =3; // k i n d s o f o b j e c t
4 m = factorial ( r +( M -1) ) /( factorial ( r +( M -1) -(M -1) ) *
factorial (M -1) ) ;
5 disp (m , ’ number o f non n e g a t i v e i n t e g e r s o l u t i o n s o f
t h e g i v e n e q u a t i o n x+y+z =18 ’ )

Scilab code Exa 6.14 Ordered partitions

1 c1 =3; // number o f t o y s t h a t t h e y o u n g e s t child

should get
2 c2 =2; // number o f t o y s t h a t t h e t h i r d c h i l d s h o u l d
get
3 c3 =2; // number o f t o y s t h a t t h e s e c o n d c h i l d s h o u l d
get
4 c4 =2; // number o f t o y s t h a t t h e e l d e s t s o n s h o u l d
get
5 m = factorial (9) /( factorial (3) * factorial (2) * factorial
(2) * factorial (2) ) ;
6 disp (m , ’ number o f ways n i n e t o y s can be d i v i d e d
between f o u r c h i l d r e n with the youngest son
g e t t i n g 3 t o y s and o t h e r s g e t t i n g 2 e a c h ’ )

Scilab code Exa 6.15 Unordered partitions

1 p =12; // t o t a l number o f s t u d e n t s
2 t =3; // number o f teams o r p a r t i t i o n
3 disp ( ’ e a c h p a r t i t i o n o f t h e s t u d e n t s can be a r r a n g e d
i n 3 ! ways a s an o r d e r e d p a r t i t i o n ’ )
4 r = factorial (12) /( factorial (4) * factorial (4) * factorial
(4) ) // number o f o r d e r e d p a r t i t i o n s

23
 5 m = r / factorial ( t ) ; // number o f u n o r d e r e d p a r t i t i o n s
6 disp (m , ’ number o f ways t h a t 12 s t u d e n t s can be
p a r t i t i o n e d i n t o t h r e e teams s o t h a t e a c h team
consists of 4 students ’)

Scilab code Exa 6.16 Inclusion exclusion principle revisited

1 U =1000; // number o f e l e m e n t s i n t h e s e t o f p o s i t i v e
i n t e g e r s not e x c e e d i n g 1000
2 A = U /3; // number o f e l e m e n t s i n t h e s u b s e t o f
i n t e g e r s d i v i s i b l e by 3
3 B = U /5; // number o f e l e m e n t s i n t h e s u b s e t o f
i n t e g e r s d i v i s i b l e by 5
4 C = U /7; // number o f e l e m e n t s i n t h e s u b s e t o f
i n t e g e r s d i v i s i b l e by 7
5 AandB = floor ( U /(3*5) ) // number o f e l e m e n t s i n t h e
s u b s e t c o n t a i n i n g numbers d i v i s i b l e by b o t h 3 and
5
6 AandC = floor ( U /(3*7) ) // number o f e l e m e n t s i n t h e
s u b s e t c o n t a i n i n g numbers d i v i s i b l e by b o t h 3 and
7
7 BandC = floor ( U /(5*7) ) // number o f e l e m e n t s i n t h e
s u b s e t c o n t a i n i n g numbers d i v i s i b l e by b o t h 5 and
7
8 AandBandC = floor ( U /(3*5*7) ) // number o f e l e m e n t s i n
t h e s u b s e t c o n t a i n i n g numbers d i v i s i b l e by 3 , 5
and 7
9 s =U -( A + B + C ) +( AandB + AandC + BandC ) -( AandBandC ) ; // By
i n c l u s i o n −e x c l u s i o n p r i n c i p l e
10 S = round ( s ) ;
11 disp (S , ’ The number o f i n t e g e r s i n t h e s e t U, which
a r e n o t d i v i s i b l e by 3 , 5 and 7 i s ’ )

24
 Chapter 7

Probability Theory

Scilab code Exa 7.1 Sample space and events

1 S =[1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6]; // s a m p l e s p a c e f o r t h e
r o l l i n g of a die
2 A =[2 ,4 ,6]; // e v e n t t h a t an e v e n number
occurs
3 B =[1 ,3 ,5]; // e v e n t t h a t an odd number
occurs
4 C =[2 ,3 ,5]; // e v e n t t h a t a p r i m e number
occurs
5 disp ( union (A , C ) , ’ s a m p l e s p a c e f o r t h e e v e n t t h a t an
e v e n o r a p r i m e number o c c u r s ’ )
6 disp ( intersect (B , C ) , ’ s a m p l e s p a c e f o r t h e e v e n t t h a t
an odd p r i m e number o c c u r s ’ )
7 disp ( setdiff (S , C ) , ’ s a m p l e s p a c e f o r t h e e v e n t t h a t a
p r i m e number d o e s n o t o c c u r ’ ) // I t i s t h e
complement o f t h e s e t C .
8 intersect (A , B ) // I t i s a n u l l s e t o r n u l l v e c t o r
s i n c e t h e r e can ’ t o c c u r an e v e n and an odd
number s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
9
10 H =0; // ” head ” f a c e o f a c o i n
11 T =1; // ” t a i l ” f a c e o f a c o i n

25
12 S =[ ” 000 ” ,” 001 ” ,” 010 ” ,” 011 ” ,” 100 ” ,” 101 ” ,” 110 ” ,” 111 ” ]
; // s a m p l e s p a c e f o r t h e t o s s o f a c o i n t h r e e
times
13 A =[ ” 000 ” ,” 001 ” ,” 100 ” ]; // e v e n t t h a t two more o r
more h e a d s a p p e a r c o n s e c u t i v e l y
14 B =[ ” 000 ” ,” 111 ” ]; // e v e n t t h a t a l l t o s s e s
a r e t h e same
15 disp ( intersect (A , B ) , ’ s a m p l e s p a c e f o r t h e e v e n t i n
which o n l y h e a d s a p p e a r ’ )
16
17 disp ( ’ E x p e r i m e n t : t o s s i n g a c o i n u n t i l a head a p p e a r s
and t h e n c o u n t i n g t h e number o f t i m e s t h e c o i n
is tossed ’)
18 S =[1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 , %inf ] // The s a m p l e s p a c e h a s
i n f i n i t e elements in i t
19 disp ( ” S i n c e e v e r y p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r i s an e l e m e n t o f
S , the sample space i s i n f i n i t e ”)

Scilab code Exa 7.2 Finite probability spaces

1 disp ( ’ E x p e r i m e n t : t h r e e c o i n s a r e t o s s e d and t h e
number o f h e a d s a r e o b s e r v e d ’ )
2 S =[0 ,1 ,2 ,3]; // t h e s a m p l e s p a c e f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t
where 0 i m p l i e s no heads , 1 i m p l i e s o n l y one head
o u t o f t h e t h r e e c o i n s and s o on
3 disp ( ” t h e p r o b a b i l i t y s p a c e i s a s f o l l o w s ” )
4 P0 =1/8; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g no head on any o f
t h e c o i n s i . e TTT
5 P1 =3/8; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g o n l y one head on
any o f t h e c o i n s , o u t o f t h e t h r e e c o i n s i . e HTT,
THT,TTH
6 P2 =3/8; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g two heads , o u t o f
t h e t h r e e c o i n s i . e THH, HTH,HHT
7 P3 =1/8; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a l l t h e t h r e e
h e a d s i . e HHH

26
8 disp ( ”A i s t h e e v e n t t h a t a t l e a s t one head a p p e a r s
and B i s t h e e v e n t t h a t a l l h e a d s o r a l l t a i l s
appear ”)
9 A =[1 ,2 ,3]; // HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT,TTH
10 B =[0 ,3]; //HHH, TTT
11 PA = P1 + P2 + P3 ;
12 disp ( PA , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f e v e n t A ’ )
13 PB = P0 + P3 ;
14 disp ( PB , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f e v e n t B ’ )

Scilab code Exa 7.3 Equiprobable spaces

1 disp ( ” E x p e r i m e n t : a c a r d i s s e l e c t e d from a d e c k o f
52 c a r d s ” )
2 disp ( ”A i s t h e e v e n t o f t h e s e l e c t e d c a r d b e i n g a
spade ”)
3 disp ( ”B i s t h e e v e n t o f t h e s e l e c t e d c a r d b e i n g a
f a c e card ”)
4 t =52 ; // t h e t o t a l number o f c a r d s
5 s =13; // number o f s p a d e s
6 PA = s / t ;
7 disp ( PA , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f s e l e c t i n g a s p a d e ’ )
8 f =12; // number o f f a c e c a r d s ( j a c k , queen , k i n g )
9 PB = f / t ;
10 disp ( PB , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f s e l e c t i n g a f a c e c a r d ’ )
11 sf =3; // number o f s p a d e f a c e c a r d s
12 Psf = sf / t ;
13 disp ( Psf , ” p r o b a b i l i t y o f s e l e c t i n g a s p a d e f a c e c a r d
i s : ”)

Scilab code Exa 7.4 Addition principle

27
 1 disp ( ” E x p e r i m e n t : s e l e c t i o n o f a s t u d e n t o u t o f 100
students ”)
2 M =30; // no o f s t u d e n t s t a k i n g m a t h e m a t i c s
3 C =20; // no o f s t u d e n t s t a k i n g c h e m i s t r y
4 T =100; // t o t a l no . o f s t u d e n t s
5 PM = M / T // p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e s e l e c t e d s t u d e n t
taking mathematics
6 PC = C / T // p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e s e l e c t e d s t u d e n t
taking chemistry
7 MnC =10; // no o f s t u d e n t s t a k i n g m a t h e m a t i c s and
chemistry
8 PMnC = MnC / T // p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e s e l e c t e d s t u d e n t
t a k i n g m a t h e m a t i c s and c h e m i s t r y b o t h
9 PMorC = PM + PC - PMnC ;
10 disp ( PMorC , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e s e l e c t e d s t u d e n t
taking mathematics or chemistry ’ )

Scilab code Exa 7.5 Conditional probability

1
2
3 //EXAMPLE 7 . 5 ( a )
4
5
6 disp ( ” E x p e r i m e n t : A d i e i s t o s s e d and t h e o u t c o m e s
a r e o b s e r v e d ”);
7
8
9 disp ( ”To f i n d : p r o b a b i l i t y (PM) o f an e v e n t t h a t
one o f t h e d i c e i s 2 i f t h e sum i s 6 ” ) ;
10
11
12 E =[ ” ( 1 , 5 ) ” ,” ( 2 , 4 ) ” ,” ( 3 , 3 ) ” ,” ( 4 , 2 ) ” ,” ( 5 , 1 ) ” ]
//
e v e n t t h a t t h e sum o f t h e two numbers on t h e two
dice is 6

28
13
14
15 A =[ ” ( 2 , 1 ) ” ,” ( 2 , 2 ) ” ,” ( 2 , 3 ) ” ,” ( 2 , 4 ) ” ,” ( 2 , 5 ) ” ,” ( 2 , 6 ) ” ,”
( 1 , 2 ) ” ,” ( 3 , 2 ) ” ,” ( 4 , 2 ) ” ,” ( 5 , 2 ) ” ,” ( 6 , 2 ) ” ] // e v e n t
t h a t 2 a p p e a r s on a t l e a s t one d i e
16
17
18 B = intersect (A , E ) // p o s s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n o f
numbers on two d i e s u c h t h a t t h e i r sum i s 6 and 2
a p p e a r s a t l e a s t on one d i e
19
20
21 PM =2/5 // s i n c e E h a s 5 e l e m e n t s and B h a s 2
elements
22
23
24
25
26
27 //EXAMPLE 7 . 5 ( b )
28
29 disp ( ”A c o u p l e h a s two c h i l d r e n ” ) ;
30
31
32 b =1; // boy c h i l d
33
34 g =2; // g i r l c h i l d
35
36 S =[11 ,12 ,21 ,22] ; // s a m p l e s p a c e where 11 i m p l i e s
b o t h c h i l d r e n b e i n g boys , 1 2 i m p l i e s f i r s t c h i l d
b e i n g a boy and t h e s e c o n d c h i l d b e i n g a g i r l
and s o on
37
38 disp ( ”To f i n d : p r o b a b i l i t y (PM) t h a t b o t h c h i l d r e n
a r e boys ”);
39
40
41

29
42 // 7 . 5 ( b ) . i
43
44 L = S (: ,1:3) // r e d u c e d s a m p l e s p a c e i f it i s known
t h a t one o f t h e c h i l d r e n i s a boy
45
46
47 PM =1/ length ( L )
48
49
50 // 7 . 5 ( b ) . i i
51
52 R = S (: ,1:2) // r e d u c e d s a m p l e s p a c e if it i s known
t h a t t h e o l d e r c h i l d i s a boy
53
54
55 PM =1/ length ( R )

Scilab code Exa 7.6 Multiplication theorem for conditional probability

1 disp ( ”A bag c o n t a i n s 12 i t e m s o f which f o u r a r e

d e f e c t i v e . Three i t e m s a r e drawn a t random , one
a f t e r the o t h e r ”);
2 s =12; // t o t a l i t m e s i n t h e bag
3 d =4; // d e f e c t i v e i t e m s i n t h e bag
4 Pf =( s - d ) / s ; // p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e f i r s t i t e m
drawn i s non d e f e c t i v e
5 Pe = Pf *[( s -d -1) /( s -1) ]*[( s -d -2) /( s -2) ];
6 disp ( Pe , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a l l t h r e e i t e m s a r e non
defective ’)
7 // a f t e r t h e f i r s t i t e m i s c h o s e n , t h e s e c o n d i t e m i s
t o be c h o s e n from 1 l e s s t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l number
o f i t e m s i n t h e box and s i m i l a r l y t h e number o f
non d e f e c t i v e i t e m s g e t s d e c r e a s e d by 1 . S i m i l a r l y
, f o r t h e t h i r d draw o f i t e m from t h e box

30
 Scilab code Exa 7.7 Independent events

1 H =1; // h e a d s o f a c o i n
2 T =2; // t a i l s o f t h e c o i n
3 S =[111 ,112 ,121 ,122 ,211 ,212 ,221 ,222] // s a m p l e s p a c e
f o r t h e t o s s o f a c o i n t h r e e t i m e s . 111 i m p l i e s
h e a d s a l l t h r e e t i m e s , 1 1 2 i m p l i e s h e a d s on f i r s t
two t o s s e s and t a i l s on t h e t h i r d t o s s
4 A =[111 ,112 ,121 ,122]; // e v e n t t h a t f i r s t t o s s i s
heads
5 B =[111 ,112 ,211 ,212]; // e v e n t t h a t s e c o n d t o s s i s
heads
6 C =[112 ,211]; // e v e n t t h a t e x a c t l y two h e a d s
a p p e a r i n a row
7 PA = length ( A ) / length ( S ) ;
8 disp ( PA , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f A i s ’ )
9 PB = length ( B ) / length ( S ) ;
10 disp ( PB , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f B i s ’ )
11 PC = length ( C ) / length ( S ) ;
12 disp ( PC , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f C i s ’ )
13 AnB = intersect (A , B )
14 AnC = intersect (A , C )
15 BnC = intersect (B , C )
16 PAnB = length ( AnB ) / length ( S ) ;
17 disp ( PAnB , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e e v e n t AnB ’ )
18 PAnC = length ( AnC ) / length ( S ) ;
19 disp ( PAnC , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e e v e n t AnC ’ )
20 PBnC = length ( BnC ) / length ( S ) ;
21 disp ( PBnC , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e e v e n t BnC ’ )
22 if (( PA * PB ) == PAnB ) ,
23 disp ( ”A and B a r e i n d e p e n d e n t ” )
24 else
25 disp ( ”A and B a r e d e p e n d e n t ” )
26 end

31
27 if (( PA * PC ) == PAnC ) ,
28 disp ( ”A and C a r e i n d e p e n d e n t ” )
29 else
30 disp ( ”A and C a r e d e p e n d e n t ” )
31 end
32 if (( PB * PC ) == PBnC ) ,
33 disp ( ”B and C a r e i n d e p e n d e n t ” )
34 else
35 disp ( ”B and C a r e d e p e n d e n t ” )
36 end

Scilab code Exa 7.8 Independent events

1 disp ( ” E x p e r i m e n t :
A and B b o t h s h o o t a t a t a r g e t ” )
2 PA =1/4; // g i v e n p r o b a b i l i t y of A h i t t i n g the t a r g e t
3 PB =2/5; // g i v e n p r o b a b i l i t y of B h i t t i n g the t a r g e t
4 disp ( ”A and B a r e i n d e p e n d e n t e v e n t s s o PA∗PB w i l l
be e q u a l t o p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e e v e n t o f A and B
b o t h h i t t i n g t h e t a r g e t i . e PAnB” )
5 PAnB = PA * PB ;
6 PAorB = PA + PB - PAnB ;
7 disp ( PAorB , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f a t l e a s t one o f them
h i t t i n g the t a r g e t ’ )

Scilab code Exa 7.9 Independent repeated trials

1 disp ( ” E x p e r i m e n t : Three h o r s e s r a c e t o g e t h e r t w i c e ” )
2 Ph1 =1/2; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f f i r s t h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e
race
3 Ph2 =1/3; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f s e c o n d h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e
race
4 Ph3 =1/6; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h i r d h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e
race

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5 S =[11 ,12 ,13 ,21 ,22 ,23 ,31 ,32 ,33] // s a m p l e s p a c e where
11 i m p l i e s f i r s t h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e f i r s t and
s e c o n d r a c e both , 1 2 i m p l i e s f i r s t h o r s e w i n n i n g
t h e f i r s t r a c e and s e c o n d h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e
s e c o n d r a c e and s o on
6 P11 = Ph1 * Ph1 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f f i r s t h o r s e w i n n i n g
both r a c e s
7 P12 = Ph1 * Ph2 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f f i r s t h o r s e w i n n i n g
t h e f i r s t r a c e and s e c o n d h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e
second race
8 P13 = Ph1 * Ph3 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f f i r s t h o r s e w i n n i n g
t h e f i r s t r a c e and t h i r d h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e s e c o n d
race
9 P21 = Ph2 * Ph1 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f s e c o n d h o r s e w i n n i n g
t h e f i r s t r a c e and f i r s t h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e s e c o n d
race
10 P22 = Ph2 * Ph2 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f s e c o n d h o r s e w i n n i n g
both the r a c e s
11 P23 = Ph2 * Ph3 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f s e c o n d h o r s e w i n n i n g
t h e f i r s t r a c e and t h i r d h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e s e c o n d
race
12 P31 = Ph3 * Ph1 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h i r d h o r s e w i n n i n g
t h e f i r s t r a c e and f i r s t h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e s e c o n d
race
13 P32 = Ph3 * Ph2 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h i r d h o r s e w i n n i n g
t h e f i r s t r a c e and s e c o n d h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e
second race
14 P33 = Ph3 * Ph3 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h i r d h o r s e w i n n i n g
both the r a c e s
15 disp ( P31 , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h i r d h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e
f i r s t r a c e and f i r s t h o r s e w i n n i n g t h e s e c o n d
race i s ’)

Scilab code Exa 7.10 Repeated trials with two outcomes

33
 1 n =6; // number o f t i m e s a f a i r c o i n i s t o s s e d and
g e t t i n g a heads i s a s u c c e s s
2 p =1/2; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a h e a d s
3 q =1/2 ; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f n o t g e t t i n g a h e a d s
4 P2 =( factorial (6) /( factorial (6 -2) * factorial (2) ) ) * p ^2*
q ^(6 -2) ;
5 disp ( P2 , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g e x a c t l y two h e a d s ( i
. e k =2) ’ )
6
7 P4 =( factorial (6) /( factorial (6 -4) * factorial (4) ) ) * p ^4*
q ^(6 -4) ; // p r o b a b i l t y o f g e t t i n g f o u r h e a d s
8 P5 =( factorial (6) /( factorial (6 -5) * factorial (5) ) ) * p ^5*
q ^(6 -5) ; // p r o b a b i l t y o f g e t t i n g f i v e h e a d s
9 P6 =( factorial (6) /( factorial (6 -6) * factorial (6) ) ) * p ^6*
q ^(6 -6) ; // p r o b a b i l t y o f g e t t i n g f i v e h e a d s
10 PA = P4 + P5 + P6 ;
11 disp ( PA , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a t l e a s t f o u r h e a d s ( i
. e k =4 ,5 o r 6 ) ’ )
12
13 Pn = q ^6 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g no h e a d s
14 Pm =1 - Pn ;
15 disp ( Pm , ’ p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g one o r more h e a d s ’ )

Scilab code Exa 7.12 Random variables

1 disp ( ”A box c o n t a i n s 12 i t e m s o f which t h r e e a r e

d e f e c t i v e ”)
2 disp ( ”A s a m p l e o f t h r e e i t e m s i s s e l e c t e d from t h e
box ” )
3 s = factorial (12) /( factorial (12 -3) * factorial (3) ) ;
4 disp (s , ’ number o f e l e m e n t s i n t h e s a m p l e s p a c e where
samples are of s i z e 3 ’ )
5 //X d e n o t e s t h e number o f d e f e c t i v e i t e m s i n t h e
sample
6 x =[0 ,1 ,2 ,3]; // r a n g e s p a c e o f t h e random v a r i a b l e X

34
 Scilab code Exa 7.13 Probability distribution of a random variable

1 r =[1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,5 ,4 ,3 ,2 ,1];
2 // number o f o u t c o m e s whose sum i s
2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y such that
t h e r e i s o n l y 1 outcome i . e ( 1 , 1 ) whose sum i s 2 ,
two o u t c o m e s ( 1 , 2 ) and ( 2 , 1 ) whose sum i s 3 and
s o on
3 t =36; // t o t a l number o f
elements in the sample space o f the experiment o f
tossing a pair of dice
4 for i =1:11;
5 p=r(i)/t;
6 disp ( p )
7 end
8 0.0277778 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a sum
of 2
9 0.0555556 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a
sum o f 3
10 0.0833333 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a sum
of 4
11 0.1111111 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a sum
of 5
12 0.1388889 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a sum
of 6
13 0.1666667 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a sum
of 7
14 0.1388889 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a sum
of 8
15 0.1111111 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a sum
of 9
16 0.0833333 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a sum
o f 10
17 0.0555556 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a sum

35
 o f 11
18 0.0277778 // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a sum
o f 12
19 x =[2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,10 ,11 ,12]; // r a n g e s p a c e o f
random v a r i a b l e X which a s s i g n s t o e a c h p o i n t i n
s a m p l e s p a c e t h e sum o f t h e numbers
20 D =[ 2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,10 ,11 ,12; 0.0277778 , 0.0555556
, 0.0833333 , 0.1111111 , 0.1388889 ,0.1666667 ,
0.1388889 ,0.1111111 , 0.0833333 , 0.0555556 ,
0.0277778];
21 disp (D , ’ d i s t r i b u t i o n t a b l e o f X where f i r s t row
g i v e s t h e r a n g e s p a c e and s e c o n d row g i v e s t h e
r e s p e c t i v e p r o b a b i l i t i e s i s as f o l l o w s ’ )

Scilab code Exa 7.14 Probability distribution of a random variable

1 disp ( ” a box c o n t a i n s 12 i t e m s o f which t h r e e a r e

d e f e c t i v e ”)
2 disp ( ”A s a m p l e o f t h r e e i t e m s i s s e l e c t e d from t h e
box ” )
3 r = factorial (9) /( factorial (9 -3) * factorial (3) ) //
number o f s a m p l e s o f s i z e 3 w i t h no d e f e c t i v e
items
4 t =220; //
number o f d i f f e r e n t s a m p l e s o f s i z e 3 i . e t h e
number o f e l e m e n t s i n t h e s a m p l e s p a c e
5 P0 = r / t //
p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g no d e f e c t i v e i t e m
6 r1 =3*( factorial (9) /( factorial (9 -2) * factorial (2) ) )
// number o f s a m p l e s o f s i z e 3 g e t t i n g 1
d e f e c t i v e item
7 P1 = r1 / t

// p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g 1 d e f e c t i v e i t e m
8 r2 =9*( factorial (3) /( factorial (3 -2) * factorial (2) ) )

36
 // number o f s a m p l e s o f s i z e 3 g e t t i n g 2
d e f e c t i v e item
9 P2 = r2 / t
//
p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g 2 d e f e c t i v e item
10 r3 =1; // number o f s a m p l e s o f
s i z e 3 g e t t i n g 3 d e f e c t i v e item
11 P3 = r3 / t // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g 3
d e f e c t i v e item
12 x =[0 ,1 ,2 ,3];
13 p =[ P0 , P1 , P2 , P3 ];
14 D =[0 ,1 ,2 ,3; P0 , P1 , P2 , P3 ];
15 disp (D , ’ d i s t r i b u t i o n t a b l e f o r random v a r i a b l e X t h e
u p p e r row b e i n g v a l u e s o f X ’ )

Scilab code Exa 7.15 Expectation of a random variable

1 disp ( ”A f a i r c o i n i s t o s s e d s i x t i m e s ” ) ;
2 x =[0 ,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6]; // number o f h e a d s which can
occur
3 p =[1/64 ,6/64 ,15/64 ,20/64 ,15/64 ,6/64 ,1/64]; //
p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r i n g o f h e a d s where 1 / 6 4 i s
p r o b a b i l i t y f o r o c c u r r e n c e o f a s i n g l e head , 6 / 6 4
t h a t o f o c c u r r e n c e o f two h e a d s and s o on .
4 r =0;
5 for i =1:7;
6 r = r + (x(i)*p(i));
7 end
8 disp (r , ’ mean o r e x p e c t e d number o f h e a d s a r e ’ )
9
10 disp ( ”X i s a random v a r i a b l e which g i v e s p o s s i b l e
number o f d e f e c t i v e i t e m s i n a s a m p l e o f s i z e 3 ” )
;
11 // Box c o n t a i n s 12 i t e m s o f which t h r e e a r e d e f e c t i v e
12 x =[0 ,1 ,2 ,3]; // p o s s i b l e number o f d e f e c t i v e i t e m s

37
 in a smaple o f s i z e 3
13 p =[84/220 ,108/220 ,27/220 ,1/220]; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f
o c c u r r e n c e o f e a c h number i n x r e s p e c t i v e l y where
8 4 / 2 2 0 i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y f o r g e t t i n g no
d e f e c t i v e item , 1 0 8 / 2 2 0 i s t h a t o f g e t t i n g 1
d e f e c t i v e i t e m and s o on .
14 r =0;
15 for i =1:4;
16 r = r + (x(i)*p(i));
17 end
18 disp (r , ’ e x p e c t e d number o f d e f e c t i v e i t e m s i n a
sample o f s i z e 3 are ’ )
19
20 Ph1 =1/2; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f w i n n i n g t h e r a c e by
f i r s t horse
21 Ph2 =1/3; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f w i n n i n g t h e r a c e by
second horse
22 Ph3 =1/6; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f w i n n i n g t h e r a c e by
third horse
23 //X i s t h e p a y o f f f u n c t i o n f o r t h e w i n n i n g h o r s e
24 X1 =2; //X p a y s $2 a s f i r s t h o r s e w i n s t h e r a c
25 X2 =6; //X p a y s $6 a s s e c o n d h o r s e w i n s t h e r a c e
26 X3 =9; //X p a y s $9 a s t h i r d h o r s e w i n s t h e r a c e
27 E = X1 * Ph1 + X2 * Ph2 + X3 * Ph3 ;
28 disp (E , ’ e x p e c t e d pay o f f f o r t h e r a c e i s ’ )

Scilab code Exa 7.16 Variance and standard deviation of a random vari-
able

1 u =3; // mean o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f random

variable X
2 x =[0 ,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6]; // v a l u e s o f X i n t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n a s x where i t i s t h e number o f t i m e s
h e a d s o c c u r s when a c o i n i s t o s s e d s i x t i m e s
3 p =[1/64 ,6/64 ,15/64 ,20/64 ,15/64 ,6/64 ,1/64]; //

38
 p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f o c c u r r e n c e o f each value o f X ( x
) i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n such t h a t 1/64 g i v e s the
p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f no h e a d s a t a l l , 6 / 6 4
g i v e s t h a t o f o c c u r r e n c e o f h e a d s f o r o n l y one
t i m e and s o on
4 k =0;
5 for i =1:7;
6 k = k +(( x ( i ) -u ) ^2) * p ( i ) ;
7 end
8 disp (k , ’ V a r i a n c e o f X i s ’ )
9 s = sqrt ( k ) ;
10 disp (s , ’ S t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f X i s ’ )
11
12 u =0.75; // mean
13 x =[0 ,1 ,2 ,3]; // v a l u e s o f random v a r i a b l e X a s x i n
the p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of X
14 p =[84/220 ,108/220 ,27/220 ,1/220]; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f
v a l u e s i n x which a p p e a r i n d i s t r i b u t i o n t a b l e o f
X
15 g =0;
16 for i =1:4;
17 g = g +(( x ( i ) ) ^2) * p ( i ) ;
18 end
19 h =g -( u * u ) ;
20 disp (h , ’ v a r i a n c e o f X i s ’ )
21 sd = sqrt ( h ) ;
22 disp ( sd , ’ S t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n f o r X ’ )

Scilab code Exa 7.17 Binomial diatribution

1 p =1/5; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e man h i t t i n g a t a r g e t
2 q =1 -1/5; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e man n o t h i t t i n g t h e
target
3 n =100; // number o f t i m e s t h e man f i r e s
4 e=n*p;

39
 5 disp (e , ’ e x p e c t e d number o f t i m e s t h e man w i l l h i t
the t a r g e t ’ )
6 r = sqrt ( n * p * q ) ;
7 disp (r , ’ S t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n ’ )
8
9 p =1/2; // p r o b a b i l i t y o f g u e s s i n g t h e c o r r e c t a n s w e r
i n a f i v e q u e s t i o n t r u e − f a l s e exam
10 n =5; // number o f q u e s t i o n s i n t h e exam
11 g = n * p ;
12 disp (g , ’ e x p e c t e d number o f c o r r e c t a n s w e r s i n t h e
exam ’ )

Scilab code Exa 7.18 Chebyshev inequality

1 u =75; // mean o f a random v a r i a b l e X

2 n =5; // s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f X
3 k =2; // f o r k=2
4 l1 =u - k * n
5 l2 = u + k * n
6 P1 =1 -(1/ k ) ^2
7 disp ( ” t h u s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a v a l u e o f X l i e s
b e t w e e n 65 and 85 i s a t l e a s t 0 . 7 5 a c c o r d i n g t o
Chebyshev i n e q u a l i t y ” )
8 k =3; // f o r k=3
9 l1 =u - k * n
10 l2 = u + k * n
11 P2 =1 -(1/ k ) ^2
12 disp ( ” t h u s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a v a l u e o f X l i e s
b e t w e e n 60 and 90 i s a t l e a s t 0 . 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 a c c o r d i n g
t o Chebyshev I n e q u a l i t y ” )

Scilab code Exa 7.19 Sample mean and Law of large numbers

40
1 disp ( ” a d i e i s t o s s e d 5 t i m e s w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g
outcomes ”)
2 x1 =3;
3 x2 =4;
4 x3 =6;
5 x4 =1;
6 x5 =4;
7 xmean =( x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 ) /5 // mean o f t h e o u t c o m e s
8 disp ( ’ f o r a f a i r d i e t h e mean i s 3 . 5 . So law o f l a r g e
numbers t e l l s u s t h a t a s number o f o u t c o m e s
i n c r e a s e f o r t h i s experiment , there i s a g r e a t e r
l i k e l i h o o d t h a t themean w i l l g e t c l o s e r t o 3 . 5 ’ )

41
 Chapter 8

Graph Theory

Scilab code Exa 8.1 Paths and connectivity

1 // r e f e r t o p a g e 8 . 6
2 disp ( ’ g i v e n a g r a p h w i t h 6 n o d e s v i z . node1 , node2
. . . . node6 ’ )
3 A =[0 1 0 1 1 0;1 0 1 0 1 0;0 1 0 0 0 1;1 0 0 0 0 0;1
1 0 0 0 0;0 0 1 0 0 0];
4 disp (A , ’ The a d j a c e n c y m a t r i x f o r A i s ’ )
5 disp ( ’ s e q u e n c e A i s a p a t h from node4 t o node6 ; but
i t i s n o t a t r a i l s i n c e t h e e d g e from node1 t o
node2 i s u s e d t w i c e ’ )
6 B =[0 0 0 1 1 0;0 0 0 0 1 1;0 0 0 0 0 0;1 0 0 0 0 0;1
1 0 0 0 0;0 1 0 0 0 0];
7 disp (B , ’ The a d j a c e n c y m a t r i x f o r B i s ’ )
8 disp ( ’ s e q u e n c e B i s n o t a p a t h s i n c e t h e r e i s no
e d g e from node2 t o node6 i s u s e d t w i c e ’ )
9 C =[0 0 0 1 1 0;0 0 1 0 1 0;0 1 0 0 1 0;1 0 0 0 0 0;1
1 1 0 0 1;0 0 0 0 1 0];
10 disp (C , ’ The a d j a c e n c y m a t r i x f o r C i s ’ )
11 disp ( ’ s e q u e n c e C i s a t r a i l s i n c e i s no e d g e i s u s e d
twice ’)
12 D =[0 0 0 1 1 0;0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 1 1;1 0 0 0 0 0;1
0 1 0 0 0;0 0 1 0 0 0];

42
13 disp (D , ’ The a d j a c e n c y m a t r i x f o r D i s ’ )
14 disp ( ’ s e q u e n c e D i s a s i m p l e p a t h from node4 t o
node6 ’ )

Scilab code Exa 8.2 Minimum spanning tree

1 disp ( ’ t o f i n d : m i n i m a l s p a n n i n g t r e e ’ )
2 disp ( ’ t h e a d j a c e n c y m a t r i x f o r t h e w e i g h t e d g r a p h (
nodeA , nodeB . . . nodeF ) o f 6 n o d e s i s : ’ )
3 K =[0 0 7 0 4 7;0 0 8 3 7 5;7 8 0 0 6 0;0 3 0 0 0 4;4
7 6 0 0 0;7 5 0 4 0 0]
4 disp ( ’ e d g e s o f t h e g r a p h ’ )
5 AC =7;
6 AE =4;
7 AF =7;
8 BC =8;
9 BD =3;
10 BE =7;
11 BF =5;
12 CE =6;
13 DF =4;
14 M =[ AC , AE , AF , BC , BD , BE , BF , CE , DF ]; // s e t o f a l l e d g e s
15 V = int32 ( M ) ;
16 L = gsort ( V ) // e d g e s s o r t e d i n d e c r e a s i n g o r d e r o f
their weights
17 disp ( ’ d e l e t i n g e d g e s w i t h o u t d i s c o n n e c t i n g t h e g r a p h
u n t i l 5 edges remain ’ )
18 N =[ BE , CE , AE , DF , BD ]; // e d g e s i n minimum s p a n n i n g
tree
19 Sum = sum ( N ) ;
20 disp ( Sum , ’ w e i g h t o f t h e m i n i m a l s p a n n i n g t r e e i s ’ )
21
22
23 disp ( ’ a n o t h e r method o f f i n d i n g a m i n i m a l s p a n n i n g
tree is : ’)

43
24 K = gsort (V , ’ g ’ , ’ i ’ ) // e d g e s s o r t e d i n i n c r e a s i n g
order
25 N2 =[ BD , AE , DF , CE , AF ]; // e d g e s i n minimum s p a n n i n g
tree
26 Sum2 = sum ( N2 ) ;
27 disp ( Sum2 , ’ w e i g h t o f t h e m i n i m a l s p a n n i n g t r e e i s ’ )

44
 Chapter 9

Directed graphs

Scilab code Exa 9.6 Adjacency matrix

1 A =[0 0 0 1;1 0 1 1;1 0 0 1;1 0 1 0];

2 disp (A , ’ a d j a c e n c y m a t r i x o f g r a p h G i s ’ )
3 A2 = A ^2
4 A3 = A ^3
5 disp ( ’ t h e number o f o n e s i n A i s e q u a l t o t h e number
of edges i n the graph i . e 8 ’ )

Scilab code Exa 9.8 Path matrix

1 A =[0 0 0 1;1 0 1 1;1 0 0 1;1 0 1 0];

2 disp (A , ’ a d j a c e n c y m a t r i x o f g r a p h G i s ’ )
3 A4 = A ^4;
4 A3 = A ^3;
5 A2 = A ^2;
6 B4 = A + A2 + A3 + A4 ;
7 B4 =[4 11 7 7 0 0 0 0 3 7 4 4 4 11 7 7];
8 for i =1:16
9 if ( B4 ( i ) ~=0) then

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10 B4 ( i ) =1;
11 end
12 end
13 disp ( B4 , ’ R e p l a c i n g non z e r o e n t r i e s o f B4 w i t h 1 , we
g e t path ( r e a c h a b i l i t y ) matrix P i s : ’ )
14 disp ( ’ t h e r e a r e z e r o e n t r i e s i n P , t h e r e f o r e t h e
graph i s not s t r o n g l y connected ’ )

46
 Chapter 11

Properties of the integers

Scilab code Exa 11.2 Division algorithm

1 disp ( ’ D i v i s i o n A l g o r i t h m ’ )
2 a =4461; // d i v i d e n d
3 b =16; // d i v i s o r
4 r = modulo (a , b ) // r e m a i n d e r
5 k = fix ( a / b ) // q u o t i e n t
6 j = b * k + r // d i v i d e n d= d i v i s o r ∗ q u o t i e n t+r e m a i n d e r
7
8 a = -262; // d i v i d e n d
9 b =3; // d i v i s o r
10 k = fix ( a / b ) // r e m a i n d e r
11 r = modulo (a , b ) // q u o t i e n t
12 j = b * k + r // d i v i d e n d= d i v i s o r ∗ q u o t i e n t+r e m a i n d e r
13 disp ( ’ a and j have e q u a l v a l u e s . Hence d i v i s i o n
algorithm i s proved ’ )

Scilab code Exa 11.4 Primes

1 disp ( ’ D i v i s i b i l i t y and P r i m e s ’ )

47
2 x =50;
3 disp ( ’ p r i m e numbers l e s s t h a n 50 a r e ’ )
4 y = primes ( x )
5
6 disp ( ’ t h e p r i m e f a c t o r i s a t i o n o f 2 1 , 2 4 and 1 7 2 9
r e s p e c t i v e l y are : ’)
7 k = factor (21)
8 l = factor (24)
9 n = factor (1729)

Scilab code Exa 11.5 Greatest Common Divisor

1 disp ( ’ t h e GCD o f t h e f o l l o w i n g numbers i s : ’ )

2 V = int32 ([12 ,18]) ;
3 [ thegcd ]= gcd ( V )
4 V = int32 ([12 , -18]) ;
5 [ thegcd ]= gcd ( V )
6 V = int32 ([12 , -16]) ;
7 [ thegcd ]= gcd ( V )
8 V = int32 ([29 ,15]) ;
9 [ thegcd ]= gcd ( V )
10 V = int32 ([14 ,49]) ;
11 [ thegcd ]= gcd ( V )

Scilab code Exa 11.6 Euclidean algorithm

1 disp ( ’ E u c l i d e a n A l g o r i t h m ’ )
2 a =[540 ,168 ,36 ,24];
3 b =[168 ,36 ,24 ,12];
4 for i =1:4
5 V = int32 ([ a ( i ) ,b ( i ) ]) ;
6 thegcd =[];
7 thegcd ( i ) = gcd ( V ) ;

48
 8 disp ( thegcd ( i ) )
9 end
10
11 function []= myf ( dividend , divisor )
12 quotient = floor ( dividend / divisor ) ;
13 rem = modulo ( dividend , divisor ) ;
14 k = quotient * divisor + rem ;
15 disp ( k )
16 if ( rem ~=0) then
17 myf ( divisor , rem )
18 end
19 endfunction
20
21 myf (540 ,168)
22
23 disp ( ’ f o r t h e e q u a t i o n 5 40 ∗ x +168∗ y =12 , we a r e g i v e n ’ )
24 a =540;
25 b =168;
26 c =24;
27 d =36;
28 d =a -3* b ; // Eqn ( 1 )
29 c =b -4* d ; // Eqn ( 2 )
30 k =d -1* c ; // Eqn ( 3 )
31 5* d -1* b ; // Eqn ( 4 )
32 k =d - b +4* d ; // s u b s t i t u t i n g v a l u e o f c i n Eqn ( 3 )
from Eqn ( 2 )
33 r =5* a -16* b ;
34 if ( r == k ) then
35 disp ( ’ x=5 and y=16 ’ ) ;
36 end

Scilab code Exa 11.9 Fundamental theorem of Arithmetic

1 a =2^4*3^3*7*11*13
2 b =2^3*3^2*5^2*11*17

49
3 V = int32 ([ a , b ]) ;
4 [ d ]= gcd ( V )
5 lcm1 =2^4*3^3*5^2*7*11*13*17 // lcm i s t h e p r o d u c t
o f t h o s e p r i m e s which a p p e a r i n e i t h e r a o r b

Scilab code Exa 11.12 Congruence relation

1 x = poly (0 , ’ x ’ ) ;
2 g =3* x ^2 -7* x +5
3 m = horner (g ,2) // v a l u e o f p o l y n o m i a l a t 2
4 n = horner (g ,8) // v a l u e o f p o l y n o m i a l a t 8
5 j =m - n
6 disp (n , ” f o r n = ” )
7 if ( modulo (j ,6) ==0) then
8 mprintf ( ’ %i i s c o n g r u e n t t o %i ( mod 6 ) ’ ,m , n )
9 end

Scilab code Exa 11.19 Linear congruence equation

1 disp ( ’ s o l v i n g f o r t h e c o n g r u e n c e e q u a t i o n 8 x @ 1 2 (
mod 2 8 ) , where @ i s t h e s i g n f o r c o n g r u e n c e ’ )
2 a =8;
3 b =12;
4 m =28;
5 V = int32 ([ a , m ]) ;
6 d = gcd ( V ) ;
7 a1 = a / d ;
8 b1 = b / d ;
9 m1 = m / d ;
10
11 function yd = f ( x )
12 yd = ( a1 * x ) - b1
13 endfunction

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14
15 disp ( ’ k i s t h e u n i q u e s o l u t i o n o f t h e e q u a t i o n ’ )
16 for i =0 : m1
17 x=i;
18 p=f(x);
19 if ( modulo (p , m1 ) == 0)
20 k=x
21 break ;
22 end
23 end
24
25 s1 = k ;
26 s2 = k + m1 ;
27 s3 = k +( m1 *2) ;
28 s4 = k +( m1 *3) ;
29 disp ( ’ s o l u t i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n a l e q u a t i o n a t d=4 ’ )
30 disp ( s1 )
31 disp ( s2 )
32 disp ( s3 )
33 disp ( s4 )

51
 Chapter 12

Algebraic Systems

Scilab code Exa 12.4 Properties of operations

1 a =(8 -4) -3
2 b =8 -(4 -3)
3 disp ( ’ s i n c e a and b a r e n o t e q u a l s o s u b t r a c t i o n is
non−c o m m u t a t i v e on Z ( s e t o f i n t e g e r s ) ’ )
4
5 a =[1 2;3 4]
6 b =[5 6;0 -2]
7 g= a*b
8 k= b*a
9 disp ( ’ s i n c e g and k a r e n o t e q u a l m a t r i x
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n i s non−c o m m u t a t i v e ’ )
10
11 h =(2^2) ^3
12 j =2^(2^3)
13 disp ( ’ s i n c e h and j are not equal so e x p o n e n t i a l
o p e r a t i o n i s non a s s o c i a t i v e on t h e s e t o f
positive integers N’)

Scilab code Exa 12.17 Roots of polynomial

52
1 t = poly (0 , ’ t ’ ) ;
2 f = t ^3+ t ^2 -8* t +4
3 g = factors ( f )
4 disp ( r = roots ( f ) , ’ r o o t s o f f ( t ) a r e a s f o l l o w s : ’ )
5
6 t = poly (0 , ’ t ’ ) ;
7 h = t ^4 -2* t ^3+11* t -10
8 disp ( r = roots ( h ) , ’ t h e r e a l r o o t s o f h ( t ) a r e 1 and −2
’)

Scilab code Exa 12.18 Roots of polynomial

1 t = poly (0 , ’ t ’ ) ;
2 f = t ^4 -3* t ^3+6* t ^2+25* t -39
3 g = factors ( f )
4 disp ( r = roots ( f ) , ’ r o o t s o f f ( t ) are as f o l l o w s : ’ )

53
 Chapter 15

Boolean Algebra

Scilab code Exa 15.1 Basic definitions in boolean algebra

1 // 0 d e n o t e s F a l s e and 1 d e n o t e s t r u e
2 b =[0 ,1];
3 // b i n a r y o p e r a t i o n + on t h e s e t o f b i t s
4 for i =1:2
5 for j =1:2
6 k = b(i)& b(j);
7 disp ( k )
8 end
9 end
10 // b i n a r y o p e r a t i o n ∗ on t h e s e t o f b i t s
11 for i =1:2
12 for j =1:2
13 k = b(i)| b(j);
14 disp ( k )
15 end
16 end
17 // u n a r y o p e r a t i o n ’ on t h e s e t o f b i t s
18 k =~ b
19 clear ;
20 D =[1 ,2 ,5 ,7 ,10 ,14 ,35 ,70];
21 a =35;

54
22 b =70;
23 V = int32 ([ a , b ]) ;
24 thelcm = lcm ( V ) // a+b=lcm ( a , b )
25 V = int32 ([ a , b ])
26 thegcd = gcd ( V ) // a ∗b=gcd ( a , b )
27 abar =70/ a // a ’=70/ a

Scilab code Exa 15.2 Boolean algebra as lattices

1 D =[1 ,2 ,5 ,7 ,10 ,14 ,35 ,70];

2 a = 2; // a and b b e l o n g t o D
3 b = 14;
4 V = int32 ([ a , b ]) ;
5 thelcm = lcm ( V )
6 V = int32 ([ a , b ]) ;
7 thegcd = gcd ( V )
8 abar =70/ a
9 bbar =70/ b
10 j =[ abar , b ];
11 h =[ a , bbar ];
12 V = int32 ([ j ])
13 lcm1 = lcm ( V )
14 K = int32 ([ h ])
15 lcm2 = lcm ( K )

55
 Chapter 16

Recurrence relations

Scilab code Exa 16.14 Linear homogenous recurrence relations with con-
stant coefficients

1 a =[];
2 a (1) =1; // i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n
3 a (2) =2; // i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n
4 disp ( ’ f o r r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n a ( n ) =5∗a ( n −1)−4∗a ( n
−2)+n ˆ2 ’ ) // t h i s i s a s e c o n d o r d e r r e c u r r e n c e
r e l a t i o n w i t h c o n s t a n t c o e f f i c i e n t s . I t i s non
homogenous b e c a u s e o f t h e n ˆ2
5 for n =3:4
6 a ( n ) =5* a (n -1) -4* a (n -2) + n ^2;
7 mprintf ( ’ V a l u e o f a ( %i ) i s : %i \n ’ ,n , a ( n ) )
8 end
9
10 a =[];
11 a (1) =1; // i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n
12 a (2) =2; // i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n
13 disp ( ’ f o r r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n a ( n ) =2∗a ( n −1) ∗ a ( n −2)+n
ˆ2 ’ ) // t h i s r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n i s n o t l i n e a r
14 for n =3:4
15 a ( n ) =2* a (n -1) * a (n -2) + n ^2;
16 mprintf ( ’ V a l u e o f a ( %i ) i s : %i \n ’ ,n , a ( n ) )

56
17 end
18
19 a =[];
20 a (1) =1; // i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n
21 a (2) =2; // i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n
22 disp ( ’ f o r r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n a ( n )=n∗ a ( n −1)+3∗a ( n −2)
’) // t h i s i s a homogenous l i n e a r s e c o n d o r d e r
recurrence r e l a t i o n without constant c o e f f i c i e n t s
b e c a u s e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f a [ n −1] i s n , n o t a
constant
23 for n =3:4
24 a ( n ) = n * a (n -1) +3* a (n -2) ;
25 mprintf ( ’ V a l u e o f a ( %i ) i s : %i \n ’ ,n , a ( n ) )
26 end
27
28
29 a =[];
30 a (1) =1; // i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n
31 a (2) =2; // i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n
32 a (3) =1; // i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n
33 disp ( ’ f o r r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n a ( n ) =2∗a ( n −1)+5∗a ( n −2)
−6∗a ( n −3) ’ ) // t h i s i s a homogenous l i n e a r t h i r d
order r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n with constant
c o e f f i c i e n t s . Thus we n e e d t h r e e , n o t two , i n i t i a l
c o n d i t i o n s to y i e l d a unique s o l u t i o n of the
recurrence relation
34 for n =4:6
35 a ( n ) =2* a (n -1) +5* a (n -2) -6* a (n -3) ;
36 mprintf ( ’ V a l u e o f a ( %i ) i s : %i \n ’ ,n , a ( n ) )
37 end

Scilab code Exa 16.15 Solving linear homogenous recurrence relations with
constant coefficients

1 disp ( ’ r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n o f F i b o n a c c i numbers f [ n ]=

57
 f [ n−1]+ f [ n −2] ’ )
2 x = poly (0 , ’ x ’ ) ;
3 g = x ^2 -x -1;
4 disp (g , ’ c h a r a c t e r s t i c e q u a t i o n o f t h e r e c u r r e n c e
relation is : ’)
5 j =[];
6 j = roots ( g ) ;
7 disp (j , ’ r o o t s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s t i c e q u a t i o n j 1 , j 2 ’ )
8 disp ( ’ f o r g e n e r a l e q u a t i o n f n=Ar ˆn+Br ˆn , v a l u e s o f
Aand B r e s p e c t i v e l y a r e c a l c u l a t e d a s : ’ )
9 disp ( ’ i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n a t n=0 and n=1 r e s p e c t i v e l y
are : ’)
10 f1 =1;
11 f2 =1;
12 // p u t t i n g t h e v a l u e s o f f 1 and f 2 we g e t t h e
equations to s o l v e
13 D =[ 1.6180340 -0.618034;(1.6180340) ^2 ( -0.618034)
^2];
14 K =[1 1] ’;
15 c =[];
16 c=D\K;
17 A = c (1)
18 B = c (2)
19
20 disp ( ’ t h u s t h e s o l u t i o n i s f [ n
] = 0 . 4 4 7 2 1 3 6 ∗ ( ( 1 . 6 1 8 0 3 4 ) ˆn−(− 0 . 4 4 7 2 1 3 6 ) ˆ n ) ] ’ )

Scilab code Exa 16.16 Solving linear homogenous recurrence relations with
constant coefficients

1 disp ( ’ The r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n t [ n ]=3 t [ n−1]+4 t [ n −2] ’ )

2 x = poly (0 , ’ x ’ ) ;
3 g = x ^2 -3* x -4;
4 disp (g , ’ c h a r a c t e r s t i c p o l y n o m i a l e q u a t i o n f o r t h e
above r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n ’ )

58
 5 j =[];
6 j = roots ( g ) ;
7 disp (j , ’ r o o t s o f the c h a r a c t e r s t i c equation j1 , j 2 ’ )
8 disp ( ’ g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n t [ n ]= c 1 ∗( −1) ˆn+c 2 ∗4ˆ n ) ’ )
9 disp ( ’ i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n a t n=0 and n=1 r e s p e c t i v e l y
are : ’)
10 t0 =0;
11 t1 =5;
12 // p u t t i n g t h e v a l u e s o f t 0 and t 1 we g e t t h e
equations to s o l v e
13 D =[1 1; -1 4]
14 K =[0 5] ’
15 c =[];
16 c=D\K;
17 c1 = c (1)
18 c2 = c (2)
19 disp ( ’ t h u s t h e s o l u t i o n i s t {n}=4ˆn−(−1) ˆ n ’ )

Scilab code Exa 16.17 Solving linear homogenous recurrence relations with
constant coefficients

1 disp ( ’ The r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n t [ n ] = 4 ( t [ n−1]− t [ n − 2 ] ) ’

)
2 x = poly (0 , ’ x ’ ) ;
3 disp ( g = x ^2 -4* x +4 , ’ c h a r a c t e r s t i c p o l y n o m i a l e q u a t i o n
f o r the above r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n ’ )
4 j =[];
5 j = roots ( g ) ;
6 disp (j , ’ r o o t s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s t i c e q u a t i o n j 1 , j 2 ’ )
7 disp ( ’ t h e g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n i s t [ n ]= n ∗2ˆ n )
8 d i s p ( ’ initial condition at n =0 and n =1 respectively
are : ’ )
9 t 0 =1;
10 t 1 =1;
11 // p u t t i n g t h e v a l u e s o f t 0 and t 1 we g e t t h e

59
 equations to s o l v e
12 D=[1 0 ; 2 2 ]
13 K=[1 1 ] ’
14 c = linsolve (D , K )
15 D =[1 0;2 2]
16 K =[1 1] ’
17 c =[];
18 c=D\K;
19 c1 = c (1)
20 c2 = c (2)
21 disp ( ’ t h u s t h e s o l u t i o n i s t {n}=2∗n−n ∗ 2 ˆ ( n−1) ’ )

Scilab code Exa 16.18 Solving linear homogenous recurrence relations with
constant coefficients

1 disp ( ’ The r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n a [ n ]=2∗ a [ n−1]−3 a [ n −2] ’

)
2 x = poly (0 , ’ x ’ ) ;
3 disp ( g = x ^2 -2* x -3 , ’ c h a r a c t e r s t i c p o l y n o m i a l e q u a t i o n
f o r the above r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n ’ )
4 j =[];
5 j = roots ( g ) ;
6 disp (j , ’ r o o t s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s t i c e q u a t i o n j 1 , j 2 ’ )
7 disp ( ’ t h e g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n i s a [ n ]= c 1 ∗3ˆ n+c 2 ∗( −1) ˆ n ’
)
8 disp ( ’ i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n a t n=0 and n=1 r e s p e c t i v e l y
are : ’)
9 // p u t t i n g t h e v a l u e s o f t 0 and t 1 we g e t t h e
equations to s o l v e
10 a0 =1;
11 a1 =2;
12 D =[1 1;3 -1]
13 K =[1 2] ’
14 c =[];
15 c=D\K;

60
16 c1 = c (1)
17 c2 = c (2)
18 disp ( ’ t h u s t h e s o l u t i o n i s a [ n ]=0.75∗(3ˆ n ) +0.25∗(1ˆ n
) ’)

Scilab code Exa 16.19 Solving general homogenous linear recurrence re-
lations

1 disp ( ’ The r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n a [ n ]=11∗ a [ n −1] −39∗ a [ n

−2]+45∗ a [ n −3] ’ )
2 x = poly (0 , ’ x ’ ) ;
3 disp ( g = x ^3 -11* x ^2+39* x -45 , ’ c h a r a c t e r s t i c p o l y n o m i a l
e q u a t i o n f o r the above r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n ’ )
4 j =[];
5 j = roots ( g ) ;
6 disp (j , ’ r o o t s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s t i c e q u a t i o n j 1 , j 2 ’ )
7 disp ( ’ h e n c e t h e g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n i s : a [ n ]= c 1 ∗ ( 3 ˆ n )+c 2
∗n ∗ ( 3 ˆ n )+c 3 ∗ ( 5 ˆ n ) ’ )
8 disp ( ’ i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n a t n=0 and n=1 r e s p e c t i v e l y
are : ’)
9 // p u t t i n g t h e v a l u e s o f t 0 and t 1 we g e t t h e
equations to s o l v e
10 a0 =5;
11 a1 =11;
12 a2 =25;
13 D =[1 0 1;3 3 5;9 18 25];
14 K =[5 11 25] ’
15 c =[];
16 c=D\K;
17 c1 = c (1)
18 c2 = c (2)
19 c3 = c (3)
20 disp ( ’ t h u s t h e s o l u t i o n i s a [ n ]=(4 −2∗ n ) ∗ ( 3 ˆ n ) +5ˆn ’ )

61