'"Airplane "

.P.erformance

<
Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... .. . . 9

1. Data Acquisition and Analysis 11

1.1 Measuring Altitudes. . 12
1.2 MeaSuring Temperatures _ 13
1.3 Measuring Speeds • 14

2. Jet Engines 17
2.1 Ratings . . . . 18
2.2 Thrust and Parameters Affecting the Thrust . • • 20
2.2.1 Temperature 21
2.2.2 Air pressure 22
2.2.3 Altitude • 22
2.2A SpEed _ 23
2.2.5 Air Humidity 24
2.2.6 Water Injection 24
2.2.7 Air Blead. . . 24
2.2.8 Power Extraction • • • 24
2.2.9 Fuel Temperatu re 24
2.2.10 Bypass Ratio . . 25
2.2.11 Thrust Tolerances • 25
2.3 Fuel Consumption. • • 25

3. Takeoff . . . . 27
3.1 Takeoff Performance - Factors of Influence . 28
3 .1.1 Influence of the Angle of Attack on Acceleration Distance. 29
3.1.2 Influence of Flapsettlng on Acceleration Distance . . . 30
3.1.3 Influence of FlaDsetting on Climp Capability . . . . . 31
3.1.4 Relationship between Cl imb Gradient and Acceleration. 33
3.1.5 Influence of Turns on the Climb Gradient. 33
3.1.6 Wing Icing 35
3.1.7 Anti-Bkid. . . . . 36
3.1.8 Runway Condition . 36
3.1.9 Runway Slope . 37
3.1.10 Wind . . . . . • • 38
3.2 Takacff Speeds. 39
3.2.1 Stall Speed (Vs) . 39
3.2.2 Minimum Control Speed (VMC' " VIoICcJ 3.
3.2.3 Minimum Unstick Speed (VMU) • • • • 40
3.2.4 Lifton Speed (V~OF) . 40
3.2.5 Maximum Tire Speed. . . . . . . • • 40
3.2.6 Maximum Brake Energy Speed (VMSEl 40
3.2.7 Critical Engine Failu re Recognition Speed (VI)' • • 41
3.2.8 Rotation Speed (VRl . . . • • 41
3.2.9 Takeoff Climb Speed (Vt) (VR) . . . . . . . • • 41
3.3 Takeoff Weight Limitation due to Runwav Length _ 4'
3.3.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.2 Minimum Alrworth:ness CertHicaUo n Requirements 45
3.3.3 Relati on of Takeoff Distance. Accelerate Slop Distance. VI. 47
3.4 Takeoff Performance When Operating on a Contaminated Run...y 49
35 Tilkeoff Performance on a Wet Runway 50
3.6 Climb Umlted Takeoff Weight . . 50
3.7 Obstacle Limited Takeoff Weight. . . 51
3.8 Engine Failure Procedure. . . . . . .'
. 54
3.9 The Relationship Between TSlkeoff Speeds and
Maximum Allowable Takeoff Weight 55
3.9.1 FAR Field Lcngth limitation . 56
3.9.2 Second Segment LimltaUon . 57
3.9.3 Tire Speed limitation . . 58
3.9.4 Brake Ener9Y Limitation. 60
3.9.5 Obstacle Limitation . . 60
3.9.6 Summary and Example . 62

4. Climb . . . . . . . . 65
4.1 Climb Angle and Rate of Climb 66
4. 1.1 Infl uenc e of Air Spoed . 67
4.1.2 Influenc e of Ac celeration 68
4 .1.3 Infl uence of Altitude . . 69
4. 1.4 Infl uence 01Weigh t . . 69
4.1.5 Influence of Tempera ture 71
4 .1.6 Infl uence 01Wind . . . 72
4 .1.7 Influence of Dreg and Thrust . 72
4.2 Climb Speed . . . . . . . 73

5. Cruise . . 75
5.1 Ganeral. 76
5.1. 1 Dra g Polars. 76
5.1.2 Drag. . . . 78
5. 1.3 Thrust . . . 80
5.1.4 Airspeed Stability • 80
5.1.5 Maximum Speed 81
5.1.6 Maximum Altitude 82
5.' .7 Buffet Boundaries . 83
5.1.8 Maximum Endurance . 85
5.1.9 Maximum Range . . . 86
5.2 Specific Range . . . 87
5.2.1 Influence of Temperature 89
5.2.2 influence of Weight . 89
5.2.3 Influence of Airspeed . 90
5.2.4 Influence of AHitude 91
5.2.5 Influence of Wind . . 91
5.' The Economic Spud 9.
5.5 Right Performance with Engine Out 95
5.5.1 Altitude and Range. . . . . . . . . . 95
5.5.2 Point of Equal Time, Point of No Return, Point of Safe Return . 96

6. The Descent 99
6.1 Descent Speed, GIKle Angle Influence Factors . 100
6.1. 1 Influence of Acceleration 100
6.1.2 Influence of VelocllY . 10 1
6.1.3 Influence 01Weight . 102
6.1.4 Influence of Thrust and Drag . 102
6. 1.5 Influ ence 01 Altrtude 102
6.1.6 Influence of Wind 103
6.1.7 Influ ence 01 Tempe rature 103
6.2 Descent Speeds • 103
6.3 Drift Down . 105

7. Landing. 107
7.1 aimb Limited Landing Weight . 100
7.2 FAR Field Length Limited Landing Weight . 108
7.2.1 Definitions . 108
7.2.2 Regulation s. 10S
7.3 Brake Energy LimHed Landing Weight 110
7.' Overweight landing . 110
7.4. 1 Flap Placard Speed . 11 0
7.4.2 Landing Distance Required . 110
7.4.3 Approach and Landing Clim b Limit 112
7.4.4 Brake Energy limit. 112
7.4.5 Rate of Descent . 112
7..1.6 O.... erwelght Inspections . . . 113

8. Aircraft Noise Problems . 115

8.1 General/Introduction .. . . • 11 6
82 Noise-Measurement (and Descrlptlon) 11 7
8.3 Noise Abatement Takeoff Procedures 118
8.3.1 Standard Takeoff Proocdure . .
8.3.2 lATA-Noise A batement Procedure.
8.4 Reduced or Derated T/OThrust . • • 120
8.5 Noise Limited TOWs . . . 121
S.6 Approach and Landing Noise . . 123
9. Weight and Balance . 125
9.1 Forces and Moments. 126
9.1.1 Gross Weight . 126
9.1.2 Lift of the Wing . . 126
9.1.3 Lift of the Stabilizer 127
9.1.4 Conditions for Equilibrium. 127
9.2 The Center of Gravity Umits. 128
9.2.1 Forward Limit of the Center of Gravity . 128
9.2.2 Aft Limit of the Center of Gravity 129

10. Flight Planning. 131

10.1 The Fuel Policy . 132
10.2 Planning Method 132

11. Definitions, Abbreviations . . . . .. . . . .. ... . 135

12. References . . . . . . . . . 141

Preface
v10re than ever before intensified conditions in various fields of civil aviation, such as
ncreased safety awareness, new ecological requirements, growing air traffic conges-
:ion and increasing economical pressure, require the optimization of the technical
)otential of ajet transport airplane. This presumes familiarity with essential fundamen -
:a15 of performance, their effect on practical application s, and an understanding of
'ecent developments.
rhis booklet is intended to provide flight crews with insightto the practical problems of
et airplane performance. It is primarily conceived as a compact reference and refresh-
ar manual without extensive mathematical derivations. It is a helpful prerequisite for
3.nyone interested in the principles of airplane performance and their application in a
5afe and economic operation, in conjunction with the respective information from the
6.irplane Operations Manual.
6.t this point, it should be mentioned that the information contained in this booklet is
based on the theoretical and practical experience gained over the years from Luft-
hansa's daily operation. Despite every effort to maintain the text's general natu re, it may
not necessarily concur with all details of philosophies, standards and procedures
found in other airlines. In case of disc repancies with individual airline regulations, the
latter have priority.
The booklet is published by Lufthansa Consulting GmbH Cologne, a subsidiary of
Lufthansa German Airlines, providing consulting and training services in all continents.
 Chapter 1

Data Acquisition
and Analysis

11
1. Data Acquisition and Analysis
1.1 Measuring Altitudes
Measurement of ttl e attitude is generally done by barometric instruments, whereas the
exact radiO altttude is mostly of importance for the approach. The barometric altHude
measurement is a measurement of the air pressure. The relation between air pressure
and altitude Is supplied by the ICAO standard atmosphere (Fig. 111) .

SEA LEVEL

AIR I"R£SSURE • mb _
Fig. 111

The air pressure is taken from the static ports In the outer skin of the fu!lelage orfrom
the pilot static tube, but this air prcssu ra Is diHerentfrom the actualatatlc pressure due
to the airflow around the aircraft.
Tht3 erro,. which depends on the directiOn and the velocity of the ah' flow 800 also
occurs when measuring speed, is called poaitkm error.
Correctton charts for the posffion alTO( afe Included in the night I1\IInuals unless this
error Is negligible, i. e. less than 20 ft resp. 1 kl. In modem airplanes this error wi. be
compensated for by an air data computer which Interfaces win the Instruments.
The main scale of the altimeter is calibrated In ft, whereas the subscale Indicates air
pressure (hPa or inches mercury) .
In the basic adjustment the subscale Indicates an air preuure of 1013.25 hPa or
29.92 Inches mercury. This Is the air pressure of the !CAD standard atmosphere at sea
level. If the altimeter is adjusted In this way, the so called pressure altitude will be in-
dicated. The pressure altitude Is an Important parameter for the sening 0' the engine
power (either EPA or Nt setting).

12
For the determination of obstacle clearance, the tnJ9 altitude is required. For that
reason the altimeter Is adjusted in such 8 way that the indicated altitude on ground is
equal to the airport elevation. The value 01 the air pressure whk:h is read on the sub-
scalels calles ONH. However, the ONHaltitude equals Ihe truealliludeonty in the case
thai Ihe temperature distribution corrnponds to the tCAD standard a1mosphere
IFig. 1I2).

--_ _--- ....

______ ~USE

SEAIiVEL
o .~.O
Fig. 112 AIR TEMf"ERATURE _·C -

If thetemperatu re is lowerthan the stande rd temperatu re, the true attitude is lower than
the QNH altitude (I. e. the airplane Illes on a lower level than Indicated) and vice versa.
If the alUmeter is adjusted to the eubseale value, which is calle QFE, then the pressure
maasured Is eQual to the real air pre$Sure of the airport. This value may be converted
into a pressure altitude using the ICAD standard atmosphere.
An altimeter set to QFE indicates a zero altitude on ground.

1.2 Measuring Temperatu ......

For the temperature analysis the following tenns are defined :
-SAT static air temperature
-OAT outside air temperature
-TAT total air temperature
-RAT ram air temperature
nnt SAT resp. OAT is the real temperature ofthe ambient air and therefore 50metimes
caMed ambient air temperature. It is required for instance to calculate the tnJe airspeed
from Ihe CAS. and the true altitude from the ONH-aJtitude. It Is also required for the
determination of the thrust setting parameters (EPR or N1) for the takeoff power.

13
k'I flight, the TAT reap. RAT ts used to determine the maximum adjustabte N1 or Em.
The TAT Is always higher than the SAT due to the fonnatlon of ram air stagnation on the
temperature probe. The higher the Mach number, the higherlhe Increase In tempera-
ture:
TAT - SAT + SAT 0.2 M2 TAT, SAT ("K) (1)
The indJcated temperature (RAT) will differ from the TAT due to the installaUon error
which results from the fact that th e air flow does not hit the temperatura probe aa a tree
stream, but Is deflected by the fuselage olth.alrplane. ThustheRATisa !lnl. lower than
the TAT. In modern airplanes this error also ...... 111 be compensated for by an electronical
circuit.

1.3 Measuring $peeds

When measuring speeds the aerodynamic pressure is used :
Q _...e..1P (2)
2
p - air density
V- velocity
However, the air speed indicator does not Indicate the true air speed,

v_/ 2Q
p
(3)

becausa an additional measurement of the air density would be requlr~. Insteed of

this, a constant air mass density is assumed which corresponds tothe m... denslt:; of
the ICAO standard atmosphere at sea leval:

v_/ 2q
P.
(4)

For a speed according to eQuallon (4) only 008 measurement of the dynamic preae~
Is required. Actually however,lhe situation Is a bit more complicated becau.. thecom-
pressibility of the air (not negUg Ible if Mach > 0 .4), and the position error already men-
tioned result in a further deviation of the ind leated speed. To obtain the true anpeed
Irom the ind~ted airspeed, quite a number of corrections are required.

Indicated AIrSpeed (lAS)

At this speed the compressibility of the air Is taken into account as a correction In the
scaling 01 the airspeed indicator, but onJy for ... level conditione.
Next to the Mach number, th e lAS Is the most common speed variable tarlhe crewwhen
working with performance charts and table:s.
Correcting the lAS for the poSition error re$Olts In the

Cellbrated AI,.peed (CAS)

This speed Is generally used to determine the speed limits for the legal requirements,
especially at low speeds.

14
Correcting the influence of compressibil ity for the actual flight level results In the

equivalent All'tlpeed (EAS)

The EAS is the speed directly resulting from equation (4). It is dependent only on the
dynamic pressure. Since the dynamic pressure detennines the aerodynamic stress on
the airplane, speed limits depending on the structural strength of the airplane will
usually be given in EAS. A speed accord ing to equation (3) is named

True Airspeed (TAS)

It results from the EAS according to the following equation;

TAS-EAS' I 'P (5)

The value y"P'-o{Cp::- is called the density correction factor. An approximate value may be
taken from the standard atmosphere for the given flight level. For more accuracy the
SAT has to be measured, and", Po I p has to be replaced by ",Po I P x ~.

TAS-EAS/po
p
xl T
To
(6)

p - air pressure
T - temperature ("K)
Po, To - standard values at sea level
Since p-poatsea level and the compressibility of the air has been taken into conside-
ration in the scaling, the following rela tion is valid for normal sea level pressure
(Po -1013.24 hPa) and temperature (to - 15°C or To - 288.15°K)
TAS - EAS - CAS,
A summary of speed conversions Is shown In fig. 1/3.

TAS·"!'I kTS

EM·)r.!I
"" .".
==1
iDEHSITY COfllllECTlON. 120kTS
COMP'ItEU-I"LITY
COI'IAECIlON • -1OKTS

"-200 IAS .. :n3 ~noN ERAOR

COftRECTlON. + 2kTS

TAS· EAS ·CAS • 332

lAS 0333 ~ """""" """'"
CTIONo-lkT
~~,

no
""
,.. .... ....
FiQ.1I3 A'it SP£E:D - KTS -

15
....... -
The TAS Is needed pr1merIly for the navigation of the airplane •• 18 ttle cue wtth the

which I. obtaJned from ttl! TAS and a wind correction. Furthe~, the ground IP ead
is the basis for the calculation of braking distances on ground.
At high speeds, where compressibility effects prevail, speeds ere expressed In
terme of
Mech Number (M,
which, Juat.1I the EAS, Is essential for the aerodynamic character1atlca.
The Mach number is defined as the relation between the TAS and the apMd of sound
(a) which Is dependent oniy on temperature (tM lower the temperature, the Iowerthe
speed 01 sound) .

M- T~ m
•
Replacing the yalU8S tor the 8peed of aoul"ld results In the equation

16
 Chapter 2

Jet Engines

17
2. Jet Engines
2.1 Ratings
The principle 01 reaction as a means of propulsion has been applied in biological
organisms for millions of years. The English physicist Isaac Newton recognized thla
principle as a natural law, and put it into the simple formula
actio - (eactio
Nev8r1heless,lhe developmental jel engines look along lime. Not theignorance at this
principle, but the lack Of better heat-resistant materials restrleted, and still limite the
designers.
Even the most modern Jet engines would be worn out after a short time Iftheywera run
at maximum power for a longer period of time. To obtain a reasonable Ilfeexpectancyof
eve;, the most stressed components, the engine has to be throttled. The reatrlctlons
imposed upon the engine, such as the limit of rotor speed, temperature. pf"888ure and
operation time, are called ratings. In Fig. 211 Ills shown how Ihe Itte expectancy of an
engine deleriorates with Increasing skess.

Fig. 211 ENGINE STR£SS -

The greatest stress on the material of the engine cen be found In the -hot sectlon~, the
first (stator/rotor) slage of the high prenur. turbine. lithe thrust Is Increased by raising
the luel flow, the following essential changes occur:
8) the rpm otlhe turbine (or lutbines lormuttlple rotor enginea) Increases. The centri ~
fugallorces increase proportlonal to the &quare of the rpm. AI the same time, Ihe
aerodynamic slress of the stator vanes and the rotor blades Increases.
b)lhe gas temperature, usually measured behind the turbine, Increases. This may
cause a decrease Of the strength of the material to such an exlent that the turbine
blades will be deformed permanently under prolonged high stress. This is referred
to as creeping of the turbine blades, followed by a deterioration of the efficiency of
the lurbine, and a further increase In temperature.
Thus, the engine js slructuralJy lis W&Bkest when the most is demanded of itl For that
feason maximum allowable values for the rpm and the temperature have to be fixed,

,.
and a maximum thrust defined.
a) Tlkeoff Thrust This rating can be applied for a period of 5 minutes. If an engine
failure occurs, takeoff power on the remaining engines is sometimes permitted for
10 minutes. Since the FAA for instance, 8S a matter of principle, allows only 5 minutes
takeoff power even in the event of an engine failure, the aircraft of American manu-
facturers may receive special authorization for 10 minutes from the relevant national
alilation authority, If according to the flight manual 10 minutes takeoff power is
permissible.
b) Go Around Thrust is the same rating as maximum takeoff thrust, with the higher
speeds during go around taken into consideration. It is limited to the same time
durations as takeoff thrust.
c) Maximum Continuoul Thrust represents the highest thrust level for continuous
use, and should be applied only in case of emergency if the takeoff or go around
thrust may not be used any more due to time or altitude restrictions.
Takeoff, go around, and maximum continuous thrust are certified ratings, i. e. they
have to be authorized by the aviation authorities.
d) Maximum Climb Thrust is usually below the thrust level of maximum continuous
raling, and should be used only for the enroute climb, the step climb, and forthe
acceleration to cruise speed.
e) IIIxlmum Cruise Thrust. This rating is the upper thrust limit for normal cruise.
In modern airplanes, the thrust setting parameters (N1, EPR) are no longer taken from
tables and diagrams, but calculated and displayed by onboard computers.
The engine manufacturers base the various ratings of their engines on the absolute
strength Umit of the turbine, the so-called "Turbine Inlet Temperature Limit" (TIT), as
shown in Fig. 2/2.

MAX. TAKE-
RATING

tiz
CRUISE
RATING

FiQ.212 TEMPERATURE - -

19
The life expectancy of the engine Is prolonged with increased margin from the TITlimit.
The takeoff thrust operation comes relative Iy close to the TIT limit, but only for a short
time, whereas maximum cruise thrust which is required for a considerably longer
period of time, must and can make-do with less thrust. The part of the thrust curve
parallel to the TIT limit is called full rated th,-ust or temperature limit. With decreasing
engine inlet temperature, not only the full rated thrust, but also the pressure insidethe
engine increases. Thus, the structural siren gth of the engine-casing requires the defi-
nition of a maximum thrust level. Therefore, at a certain temperature the -flat rated~
thrust or "pressure limit" respectively is reached. In this region of constant thrust (a
small exemption to this will be seen in chapters 2.2.1 and 2.2.2), the turbine inlet tem-
perature decreases with decreasing enginE inlet temperature.
The application of maximum takeoff thrus.t or maximum climb thrust is not always
required (I. e. at lowtakeoffweight).tn these cases it is possible to use reduced takeoff
thrust (up to 25% thrust reduction for takeoff). Through this, the life expectancy of the
engines "Hot Section" parts is increased su bstantially.ln addition the probability of an
engine failure is reduced, resulting in a contribution towards increased safety.

2.2 Thrust and Parameters affecting the Thrust

The thrust of ajel engine may be explained through the well-known physical law
force - mass x acceleration F- m x b
0'
mass .
force - - - x velocity F-riIxv
time
The second case is called an "impulse force". Thus, two impulsetorcescan bedeflned
for a simple fanless engine; the "Gross Thrust~ Fa at the noule, and the "Ram Drag" FR
at the inlet diffusor (not to be confused with the ram effect mentioned later). According
to the upper equation. ram drag is induced as soon as the engine is moved forward
through the air. The difference Fa-FR Is called net thrust. This is the thrust which the
engine transmits to the airplane. At the beginning of a static takeoff the gross thrust is
identical to the net thrust, whereas with increasing rolling speed (and of course in
flight) the net thrust is always smaller than the gross thrust. Therefore, the ram drag
also is regarded as an impulse loss.

Fig. 213

Assuming that the bleed losses and air leakages are compensated by the fuel supply,
that is to say thatthe intake air mass m. is equal to the exiting air mass ml ,the pure thrust
can simply be written as
FN -ril (VI-V.) with m.-rill-ril
Analogous conditions exist in a fan engine, whereby fan and core of the engine have to
be considered separately.

20
At present, the thrust of an engine in flight can not be measured. As a result, one has to
resort to other measurable variables that represent the thrust. There are twovariables
which seem to be most useful forthat: Theengine pressure ratio EPA as the ratio oftur~
bine exit to compressor inlet pressure, and the low pressure rotor speed N1 . Both have
their advantages and disadvantages forthe measurement ofthe thrust, and are appl ied
depending on the individual philosophy oi the manufacturer.
Fuel flow as a measure of thrust is especially inappropriate for -thrust setting". Air
bleeds (air conditioning, anti-icing) and each deterioration olthe engine efficiency (air
leakages at the blade tips of compressor and turbine, distorted or damaged blades,
etc.) increase the fuel flow although the thrust remains constant.
The following parameters influence thrust:

2.2.1 Temperature

Moving along the full rated thrust limit, more fuel can be burned with decreasing inlet
temperature without exceeding the allowable temperature of the turbine. Therefore,
more thrust is generated coupled with th e mass flow increase 01 the air due to de-
creasing ambient temperature. As soon 8S the flat rated region is reached, the gross
thrust is kept constant regardless of the Inlet temperature. A variable ram drag at the
inlet (FR - m. V.) as well as a variable cross section of the nozzle (temperature
expansion) may lessen the netthruat slight Iywith decreasing temperature, particularly
in engines with a low by-pass ratio (see 2. 2.10).
If an engine operates at any temperature below the thrust limit, which is considered
normal in cruise, the thrust goes down with increasing temperature if the engine is not
readjusted.

FLAT FULL
RATED
I
TRUST

Fig. 214 TAT •

One more fact which is illustrated in Fig. :2/4 should be emphasized. While the EGT
resp. the turbine temperature remains constant with decreasing temperature along the
increasing full rated thrust curve, they drop off in the flat rated region.

21
2.2.2 Air p .....ure

With decreasing altitude and increasing

air pressure respectively, the thrust in-
creases at a constant EPR or N1 because
the air mass flow Increasee. However,
since the differential pressure between
the inside and outside of the engine
(which is responsible for the structu'ral
stress) increases at the same time, the
EPRorN1 is limited dependlngonthealti-
tude. That means for example, leas N1 or
EPR may be set at sea level than at
4000 ft. The gross thrust remains con-
stant, whereas (theoretically) the net
thrust increases slightly with increasing
altitude, because the ram drag atthelnlet
decreases due to a reduction of air
! density. This small increase inthrustwJth
altitude Is generally not utilized.
f
•

t
z

TAT _
Fig. 215

2.2.3 AHttude

The negative effect of the air pressure on the thrust is not quite compensated for by the
positive aspect of the decreasing temperature. Thus, the thrust decraaseB with in-
creasing altitude. Since th e air temperature remains constant beyond the tropopause
up to an altitude of about 80,000 ft, the thrust decreases more rapidly there than at
lower flight levels.

In this discussion the Innuence of tem-

perature and pressure was deliberately
... not combined as a density Influence,
since each parameter also In ltaeffhasan
influence on the efficiency olthe engine,
t and as such affects thrust

I
AUITUD£ _
Fig. 216

22
_~rt.....~~...~
2.2A Speed
From the formula for thrust from chapter 2.2
FN - (mJ VJ) - (m. v.)
it can be seen that the net thrust decreases with increasing airspeed at constant
throttle setting. On the other hand, the stagnation pressure at the inlet increases with
the square of speed, which increases the air mass flow, and consequently the th rust. At
a constant EPR - P1,/Pl2 an increasing stagnation pressure means a rise in ~ which
will also increase P" Consequently, a higher pressure gradient for expansion in the
nozzle is available. This results In a higher exhaust velocity, and subsequently more
thrust.

t
tiz

Fig. 217 AIR SPEED ~

At a constant EPA or N1, both effects COrrlbined (speed and ram effect) yield a thrust
curve as shown in Rg. 2/7 ata speed range moslcommonforcommerciaijetalrplanes.
It should be noted that a constant EPA requires a resetting of the throttle with increas-
ing speed. For instance, If at Mach .84 an EPA or N1 calculated for .82 isset, and nofur-
ther change is made 10 the throttles, the airspeed will stabilize somewhat higher then
Mach .82, because at Mach .82 more thru st would be available than calculated. This is
important when decelerating to cruise speed from a higher speed.
With increasing airspeed the ram or tota I air temperature (AAT, TAT) increases: as a
result the maximum allowable EPR has to be reduced so that the temperature limit in
the full rated region will not be exceeded. Therefore, a partoftheascending segment of
the curve In Rg. 217 cannot be utilized by certain engines. For engines with a high
bypass ratio, the airspeed has to be tak;en into account even In the flat rated limit,
because the fan flow limit comes into effect which marks the maximum possible airflow
through the fan. An Increase of the fan speed N1 beyond this limit would not generate
any significant thrust increase.

23
2.2.5 Air Humidity
Theweight of steam is atabout60"fo c:iftheweightofdry air. Since humid airweighsless
than dry air, the mass flow drops with increasing air humidity. However, sincea certain
air humidity is assumed as the basis for the definition of the engine rating, this effect
may be neglected.

2.2.6 Water Injection

The thrust of an engine may be increased during takeoff for a short period using water
injection. The water will be injected either into the inlet of the compressor, the diffusor
directly in front of the combustion chamber, or directly into the combustion chamber.
The second method is most commonly used. Due to the evaporation of the water the
temperature in front of the combustion chamber decreases so that more fuel can be
burned without exceeding the fixed turbine inlet temperature. The velocity of the jet
stream increases (more volume flow for the same cross-section) leading to a higher
thrust level. The increased mass flow rate- due to the water injection increases the
thrust too, but only to a small extent. In highly stressed engines, water injection is
sometimes used only to lower the turbine t-emperature.
Water injection cannot be used below a certain ambient temperature (in most cases
less than WC) and only with demineralized water.
An unsymmetrical cooling of the various en gine components when using water injec-
tion may lead to thermal shocks, fissures caused by the heat tension, orto an uneven
expansion of the turbine casing and rotor. Therefore, the pros and cons of water injec-
tion have to be carefully weighed.
This method is no longer used with modern engines.

2.2.7 Air Bleed

If the engine bleeds air from the compressor region, i. e. for airconditioning or anti-
icing, its performance changes accordingly: the engine pressure ratio (EPR)
decreases, the exhaust gas temperature (EG1) increases, the rotor speeds N1, N2,
possibly N3) change according to the characteristics of the engine. The thrust
decreases in spite of the increasing thermal stress of the engine. If maximum thrust is
required fora specific partoftheflight (I. e. for takeoff), the drop in EPR and thrust resp.,
may generally not be compensated for by pushing the throttle forward, but must to be
taken into consideration in the performance calculations. Only with certain types of
engines is a slight overboosting of the engine permitted by regulating the throttles
while operating the engine anti-ice system.

2.2.8 Power Extraction

For the operation of pumps and generators mechanical power is extracted from each
engine. Such relatively small power losses have already been taken Into account for
the specification of thrust as well as for the performance.

2.2.9 Fuel Temperature

The fuel temperature has a negligible effect upon the thrust development of an engine.
Nevertheless, the fuel heating system must be switched onat low temperatures to keep
the fuel filter free from paraffin flaking. This may lead to thrust losses depending on the
type of the heating system.

24
2.2.10 Bypass Ratio
The bypass ratio is regarded as the relation between the mass flow of the cold air
through the fan, to the mass flow of the hot air through the turl)ine. Numerous engines
in operation today have bypass ratios of:5: 1 and higher, whereby the fan contributes
75 % of the total thrust.
A fan engine. especially with higher bypass ratios, combines the advantages of a
turboprop (high overall efficiency, high takeoff thrust) with those of the pure turbojet
(suitable for high speeds at high altitudes).
The superiority of the fan engine overthe turboprop with regard to the propulsive effi-
ciencyat high speed, is due to the cowling of the fan and its integration into the dlffusor
inlet system of the engine. Thus, the mass. flow through the fan is hardly affected by the
cruise speed, and does not loose its efficiency at high subsonic speeds. The signifi-
cantly lower noise development of the fan engine compared to the turbojet is based
mainly on lower exhaust speeds, especially of the cold fan flow, because the noise in-
tensity varies with the fifth power of the exhaust velocity.
The commercial use of high bypass ratios has been made possible only through the
development of high strength materials for the fan (high centrifugal and aerodynamic
forces) and turbine (high heat resistance) stages.

2.2.11 Thrust Tolerances

It is obvious that engines of a specific series cannot be quite 100% identical after
assembly. As a result, it is possible for two engines to produce different thrust levels
even atthe same Nt orEPRsettings. Forthis reason, the two thrust definitions -Average
Engine Thrust- and -Minimum Engine Th rust- were Introduced.
While the average thrust is used for all pre-flight calculations of cruise performance,
takeoff perfonnance calculations make exclusive use of the manufacturer's guaran-
teed Minimum Engine Thrust.

2.3 Fuel Consumption

The fuel consumption of an engine is most commonly used in performance calcula-
tionsas -kg fuel perN (Newton) thrust"' (th rustspecificfuelconsumption - TSFC-). The
variation of tho TSFC in relation to Mach number, flight level, and thrust is shown in
Fig. 218, and 219 for a constant temperature.
Considering that the required th rust and drag resp. are themselves affected by various
parameters (Ag. 5.1.2), it can easily be seen thatforall discussions that include the fuel
consumption of an aircraft, the aerodynamic characteristics must be considered in
connection with the engine performance. Specific fuel consumption will not be dis-
cussed here, since Specific Range (chapt 5.2) provides quick and more illustrative
results for the cruise phase which is the most important segment with regard to fuel
consumption, and while supplying conve nienttablesand diagrams in the discussions
of the other phases of flight.

25
•
 t

Fig. 218 THRUST •

[CONST M I

fig. 219 THRUST -

26
3. Takeoff
3.1 Takeoff Perfonnance - Factors of Influence
During takeoff the following essentialforce9 have an effect on the airplane

Fig. 311

These forcas are not constant, they change during takeoff. At first, lift (l) and drag (0)
are equal to zero, but increase with the squats 01 the airspeed, as shown by the follow·
ina two equations

L-Ct .£..V2 5 (1 )
2
D-C, ..£...V1S
2 (2)

L - 1m
o -drag
CL - lift coefficient
CD - drag coefficient
p - air density
V -speed
S -wing area
m - .....
b - acceleration
F, - force of Inertia (mass x acceleration)
The roll resistanc e
R - (W-l)1J (3)
,.. - coefficient 01 rolling friciton
starts oulat ils max. value, and reduces with Increasing speed and lin. The roll resist-
ance is Influenced by the runway surface, especially by contaminants likesnow, slush
and water.
Thrust and weight decrease during takeoff.
The term (1"- (O+R» 1m is decisive for the acceleration durin g takeoff. At the moment
of liftoff, l is OQual Wand R - 0, so thallhe thrust surplus for the acceleration Is T - D.
The distance between brake release and lift..aff Is called acceleration dlslancB.

28
3.1.1 1nfIuenc. Of the Angle of AIteck on the Aocll.retion Ot.tanc.
The angte between the flowdkeclion of Ih e relalive wind and Ihe c hord line iscalled the
"angle 01attack" and is represented by the Greek symbol Alpha (a~ (FIQ . 3/ 2) .

tIFT t

r
_ -H
HORWlt!l. . _

Fig. 312

Within a certain region the lift coefficient rises proportional 10 a (Fig. 3/3) .

INCREASING
SEPARATION

I 1.& CLMAX STALL

.ffi
oJ
U

u
It
~
Ii:
::;

O· 18·
ANGLE OF ATTACK ~ -
Rg.3/3

(The upper part oHhe curve in Ftg . 3/ 3, where the slope decreases and then dropS off,
ahall be d iscussed later).

29
As menlloned earlier, at the moment of lift-off the 11ft force is eQual 10 the weight L-W,
see eQuation (1) .

L-W-Ct."£"V2S
2
Since the value of W is fixed, this would mean that for a higher ~ the lift necessary for
lakeotfwould be reached at slower speed V, In other words ; the acceleratIon dlatance
is shorter for greater ang~ of attack.
The maximum angle of anack is generally II mited by the airplane's geometry, which
means through ground contact of the fuselage undersideal thelail. The angleofattack
cannot be increased in any desired aile to r9duceacceleratlon diatance. Ontheother
hand however, insutficient rotation would increase the acceleration distance.

3.1.2 Influence of FlaPHtttng on AcceIe,.Uon Di8tance

Extending the flaps primar1ly meanalncreasing the wing area In equaHon (1) and equa-
tion (2). Furthennore, the coefficients ~ and Co change as a result of the ftow pattem
variations.
To almplify the calculation, a constant value for S will be assumed (tor .ample the wing
area with flaps retracted), and the entire increaSe In lift and drag la expteesedu anln-
crease of the coefficients c,. and Co.Therefo·re, for a given alrplflnetypethevalUetorS
will remain constant.
Thtllncreasa of c.. with flaps extended Is shown In Fig. 3/4.

I" ~~- I'" ~lXitICCD

•
u
.~

••
~~
~~

i, ..
_ ... -..: OF "'TTiIOt - {.. _
". • •• ••Co - •
,,'$ ."':ID/T -

Fig. 314

llean be seen from Fig. 3/ 41hatforthe same T/O angle of.ttack (e. g. 16") a higher~ is
available with naps extended, than with flaps retracted. The lilt (-weight) neceaaaryfor
liftoff can therefore be generated at lower liftoff velocity V WI equaUon (1), resuttJng Ina
shorter distance to reach V for the same acceleraUon.
In reality. however. the acceleration does not stay the same, becausa extending flaps
immediately increases the drag. This reduces the excess thrust, and the acceleration
(which is a funcUon of exC&sathnJst). Howe.ver, the increase in accelet'8tiondlatance
as a fesultof this, i.s teas lhan the reduction due to the Increasing lift, such that the net
acceleration distance enda up being reduced through flap extenaion (Ag. 3/ 5) .

30
 START OF
TAKE -OFF

FLAPSO· !
ACCFI ERAT1C»ll DISTANCE
FLAPS O·

~
REIlUCIION DJE 10
---
------
I
I
I
~
ACCf1 FRAT\OII DISTANCE
FlAPS 1&-
FLAPS,..I
FiQ.3/5 ,

3.1.3 Inftuence of FIa~ng on Qlmb C..,.bliity

The climb capability at takeoff is expressed 8S a climb gradient. It is the height gained
avera certain period of lima (I, e. 1 sec) dl..,ided bylhealrdistance covered in this time,
or the tangent afthe climb angle (y) (Ag. 3/6).

~- I
,...::::::::::::::::""}r~_--
__-l_a
If--____ AI~ DISTANCE ---~.,
Fig. 316

.H (4)
Climb Gradient'"" tan y - A' D' to
Ir IS nee
Since air distance is used instead of ground distance, the wind has no influence on
climb gradient (however, the wind must be taken Into account when using flight path
gradient),
Unlike the point of liftoff, L - W is not valid for the climb. According to the definition, lift
always acta perpendicular to the flight path, in other words, perpendicularto the flow
direction of the relative wind (see fig. 3/2).
Weight. however. always acts vertically down, such that a breaking up into two eompo-
nents results In one component along and a second one perpendicular to the flight
path direction, leading to following equa lions of balance:
T-O+Wsiny (5)
L-Wcosy (6)
The lift L is therefore smaller than the wei ght W. The second weight componentW sin y
Is balanced by the thrust as seen by eqlJation (5). which means a part of the weight is
carried by the engines.

31
 Nfl. 317

The load factor, which Is defined as

L
n-- (1)
W
becomes less than 1 through equation (6)
n-cosV
As a result, the thrust which is equal to drag D during stralghland level unaccelerated
flight, has to be Increased by the amount W • sin V during climb (and decreased by
W . sin y during descent where the angle V Is negative).
From equation (5) follows :
T-D
Siny- W (8)

By &Quation (4), th8 climb gradient i8 oquat to tan y.

Since V is generally a small angle (at l88st under the assumption of an engine failure
during takeoff), sin y can be substituted by tan V(for small angles the alnus Is approx.
equal to the tangent) , So It follows lrom equation (4)
T-O
climb gracUent - tan y -
w
"the climb gradient is expressed as a percentage, then
T-D
climb gradient - W 100 % (9)

From eQuation (9) it can be seen that the excess thrust (T - D) and therefore the climb
gradient, becomes smaller with increasing drag D. The smallest value forCDandthere-
fore the drag , are obtained with retracted flaps (see righthand graph ofFIQ. 3/-4) . Thus,
the climb gradtent Is greatest with flaps retracted.

32
A summary of the influence of flapsetting on acceleration distance and on the sub-
sequent climb, is presented in Fig. 3/8.

04/; / /))))) /J)>>" n/ n)))h) nn»);S»nh) / 0 / ,h ,»»»»)h) /" n / )))) / .

Fig. 318

3.1.4 Relationship between Climb Gradient and Acceleration

The acceleration during flap retraction can be calculated through Newton·s law:
force'"" mass x acceleration
, --
acceleration ,-'.:'0,:,.0,:,0:-
mass
In horizontal flight, the force available for acceleration is equal to the excess thrust
{T - DJ. The mass of the airplane is the w09ight divided by the gravitational constant 9
(- 9.81 m/sec2 ):
W
mass--
9
The following then applies for acceleration:

b- c_T,::-;,D,,-
Wig
0'
T-D
b- g (10)
W
Both the acceleration equation (10), as well as the equation for the climb gradient (9),
contain the expression (T -D) IW. Thlsmeansthatclimbgradientand acceleration are
linearly proportional to each other:
climb gradient (%)
acceleration b - 1()0 9 (11)

Every climb gradient corresponds to a specific acceleration, and vice versa. It is also
poselble to use a part of the excess thrust for acceleration, and the rest tor the climb
(residual climb).

3.1.5 Influence of Turns on the Qlmb Grandient

In 8 rum, the centrifugal force acts as an acceleration force that apparently increases
the weight of the airplane (Fig. 3/9).

33
 L slrdl

UFT
L

Fig. 319
- W

II the bank angle is called IS. then the appa,...nt weight Is

W
w- coop
(12)

For bUance<l conditiona.l muat equal W ;

L- W (13)
cos 13
The load factor n in this case Is greater then 1 :
L 1
n--- (14)
W coop
If a tum Is flown during climb, equation (5) becomes :
T-O+Wslny
T-O+nWalny
T- D
ain., -
nW
and with climb gradient ... ,OO% aln y
T-D
climb gradient - n W 100% (15)

Under certain conditions the maximum bank angle la IImtted to 150 dunn; the takeoff
climb. The maximum value for n would then be

n- CO;150 -1.035
The necessary lift will then also be Increased by the factor n. Forequation (14) itfollows
that
L-nW (16)
At a constant speed, the IIftcan only be increased by increasing the angle of aHack (see
Fig. 3/3). An increase in angle of attack however, increases the drag D, resulting in a
reduction of excess thruat (T - D) along with a reduction in climb gradient. With a two
engine airplane the drop In climb gradient in a 15° bank is approximately 0.5 %, so that
for example instead of 3 % in a straight climb, only 2.5 % are available in a turn.

3.1.6 Wing icing

Ice formation whileontheground can result from frost, freezing moisture, rain,snowor
whined up slush and water. Even attemperatures above the freezing point, ice can fonn
in cases where rain orfog freezes on the cold surface of an aircraft after a long flight at
high altitudes.
Wing icing, especially on the upper surface, leads to a change in aerodynamic proper-
ties with the following effects:
- loss of lift
- increase in drag
- increase In stall speed (In some cases extreme 108S of stall margin)
- change in handling characteristics, suc h as pitch- and roll tendencies.
The influence of roughness resulting from icing is not linearly dependenton the height
of the roughness. Even slight roughness can already have negative eflects. Very
critical are the areas around the leading edge and the outboard wing. Corrections are
provided in the airplane flight manual.
Useofthe wing anti-Ice system to avoid wil'1g icing during flight leads toa thrust reduc-
tion, and thus to additional performance penalties.

I
d
UPf'ER SUlf',I,CE fROST

I
LUONG mGE a FORM4TION

ANGLE OF ,t.TTAOI: - ~ _
Fig. 3110

35
3.1.7 AntI Skid System
The anti skid system is the automatic brake regulator which prevents the blocking of
the brakes if the braking force is greater than the force due tothefrlctlon between tires
and ground.
Since the pilot cannot set the optimum braking force when braking by feel alone, a con-
siderable increase in stopping distance has to be taken into account for takeoff and
landing with the anti skid system inoperative (about 30-40%).

3.1.8 Runway Condition

The takeoff and landing distances in the flight manual are based on a hard. smooth, and
dry runway surface. If the runway is wet orcontaminated (standing water, snow, slush,
ice). the friction coefficients between runway and tire will be changed as well as the
rolling friction coefficient of the tires.

!
,,

REVERTED

SIi"EED -
Fig. 3111

In Fig. 3/11 the friction coefficient versus speed is shown qualitatively for several run-
way conditions. Fig. 3/11 clearly illustrates thatan increase in speed increases the risk
of insufficient runway adhesion.
The technical term for the deterioration of the friction coefficient on a wet or slush
contaminated runway is call·hydroplaninSJ~.

36
The following distinctions are made:
- viscous hydroplaning
- dynamic hydroplaning
- reverted rubber hydroplaning
With vtscous hydroplaning a thin layer of water acts as a lubricant between tire and
runway, and significantly reduces the friction coefficient even down around taxiing
speeds. This kind of hydroplaning will seldom be encountered on runways with a
grooved surface, whereas it is most likely to been countered on runways with aslippery
surface. Thetouchdownareason both sidesofthe runway have such asmooth surface
due to rubber deposits. Less braking efficiency and low tire control forces have to be
expected in this area ilthe runway is wet arcontaminated. Viscous hydroplaning is the
most common type of hydroplaning.
Dynamic hydroplaning (skidding olthe tire on the water surface, comparable to water
skiing) is encountered only under extreme conditions, i. e. il standing water, high
speeds and a smooth surface are all present at the same time.
This phenomenon rarely occurs on runways with a rough textured surface, or on
grooved runways. On airplanes with dual tandem wheels usually only the front wheels
are affected.
A complete loss of any tire friction results from dynamic hydroplaning. This leads to a
rotation of the tire independent of the airj:)lane speed (i. e. no rotation or even reverse
rotation), and may lead to a falsification of the reference signal for the anti skid system
(e.g. after a landing with hydroplaning). The speed at which dynamiC hydroplaning
might be expected can be approximated by the following formula:

V -9 ~(kt)
Vo.
P - tire pressure (psi)
P. - mass density relative 1:0 water, e. g. 0.83 tor slush
Reverted rubber hydroplaning may be encountered at speeds above 20 kts, when a
locked wheel skids over a wet runway and Is lifted by a steam pad. This kind of hydro-
planing is dangerous because it results in friction coefficients comparable to coeffi-
cients of an ice covered runway. Touchdown zones are also typical areas for the
occurrence of reverted rubber hydroplaning due to the residual rubber deposits. On
runways contaminated with ice, the tire pressing onto the ice generates a thin layer of
water which reduces the friction forces. At low speeds. the tire has got moretimeto melt
the ice. Because of this the friction coefficient decreases with decreasing speed
(Fig. 3/11).
Slanding water, snow, or slush on the runway lead to a deterioration of the airplane
acceleration due to a higher rolling resistance and the impingement of hurled-up par-
ticles on gear and fuselage. The latter drag component can be quite considerable.

3.1.9 RunWllY Slope

A runwaywlth an uphill slope can be viewed similartoaclimb, which means a partofthe
excess thrust is used to bring the airplane 10 a greater heig hI. This of course leaves less
excess thrust available for acceleration, resulting in a longer acceleration distance.
On the other hand, a downh III slope translates to an increased acceleration and shorter
acceleration distance.

37
When braking in the eventofan aborted takeoff, the situation is reversed. An uphill slop
enhances the braking effect and shortens the braking distance, while adownhil slope
hinders braking action and increases braking distance.
The accEMerate stop distance, which is the entire d istance comprised 01 acceIeraUon
and braldng, is more Innueneed by the slope in ihe acceleration pha88 than during
braking such that compared to a zero slope, the posit ive slope acta to Increase the
accelerate stop distance and, vice versa.

3.1.10 'Mnd
Wind has an Influence on takeoff- and landing distances, as well •• on the flight path
after takeoff.
Headwind shortens the acceleration d istance !lince the headwind component (HWC)
is already available from the start to the takeoff, so thai the airplane can Itft oft at a
ground speed whK:h is lower Ihan the Itftott speed (vu".) by the amount at the HWC.
WIth a taltwlnd however, the airplane has to be acceferated to agroundSlleed which is
higher than V~ by the amount of Ihe TtNC (Tailwind Component), thus Increasing the
acceleration d istance.
The braking d istance is influenced in a positive way by a headwind .. well, alnca It Is a
functlon oflhe groundspeed, which Is below!he airspeed In caseof a HWC. With a tail-
wind. the braking distance is extended accordingly.

'" • GRQN) II EED

VTAS • TM.IE .... RSPEED
Vu7. U" OW 5P'Em
H'WC: • HEAD WIND Chi CNIHT
Fig. 3/12

The influence of the head- or tailwind Is taken into account by the night manual when
determining takeoff and landing distances. Regulations state that for safety reasons,
only 50% of Ihe measured headVtlnd. or In CBee of a tailwind alleaat 150% must be
accounted for. These regulatione have been Incorporated Inlo the charts. 80 that the
actual measured and reported winds can be used withoutanv Increases or reductions.
The wind is .'so
taken Into account during tha computatk>n of the ftight profile lor
obStacle clearance verification, eSpecially Ihe tailwind whK:h results In a shallower
flight path.
As mentioned ear1ier, the wind has no influence on the climb gradient.

3.
3.2 Takeoff Speeds
During the takeoff, the following speeds Bre of importance: V,. VR• V2 •
When determining the limits forthose speeds, reference is made to the following: stall
speed, minimum control speed, minimum unstick speed, and maximum brake energy
speed. A takeoff is assumed to start frolTl a complete standstill (static takeoff).

3.2.1 Stallspeed (Vs)

If the angle of attack on an airfoil is increased (Fig. 3/13), the lift coefficient Initially in-
creases linearly. In the case of unaccel~rated level flight, this would decrease the
required speed at the sarna time, because the 11ft has to be maintained constant.
Depending on the flap setting, from a ce ltain angle of attack on the air flow starts to
separate from the airfoil. Fromthat pointe n ~ does not increase linearly any more, and
eventually reaches a final maximum Cl ..... The speed corresponding to this Cl ""'. Is
called the "stall speed".

Fig. 3113

3.2.2 Minimum Control Speed (VMCA , VMCG)

Ywca. Ihe minimum control speed on the ground, is the calibrated airspeed during the
takeoff run at which it is possible to recover control of the airplane with the use of prima-
ry aerodynamic controls alone, after the critical engine has suddenly failed while the
remmnlng engines are still on takeoff Ihl"lUst.
A distinction must be made between min imum control speed ground (V..CQ ) and mini-
mum control speed air (VWCA)' According to the regulations, VWCA must be at least 20%
above the stall speed.
In detennlnlng YWCA. a bank angle of 5° is permitted.

39
3.2.3 Minimum UMlIck Speed (V",u)
lowest calibrated airspeed at and above which the alrptane can safety lin off
VII,U is the
the ground, and continue t he takeon. The value of the minimum unstlck speed Is oot
published in the night manuals.
The same is true of the

32.4 uttotf Speed (V~0f")

Vl O6 is the speed at which the airp(aoe lifts off. VlOf depends upon theaogle of attack.
the ftap setting, Bnd the gross weight of the airplane.
The upper limit of the liftoff speed is the

3.2.5 Mllximum TIr. SPiled

This speed is determined by the strength of the tire, since they ate expo.sed to hIgh
centrilugallorces at high speed.

3.2.8 Maximum BnIu Energy Speed (V...n)

When braking, dynamic energy is transformed Into heat energy. The brakes must be
able to absorb this heat energy. The higher the speed atwhlch brakes are applied, the
higher the resulting energy.
If more heat energy is generated than the brakes are able to absorb, they will overheat
and be destroyed. Therefo re, there is a maximum speed for tull brakingt08 complete
atop. This speed is the maximum brake energy speed (VII,li ) ' V_ depends on the
takeoff weight, the ambient temperature, the ambient pressure, the runway stope, and
the wind component along the runway.
The following three speeds are the actual takeoff speeds (Ag. 3/14).

V1 VR V2
T/
LV_I I V . , I I V V .1-
-[
•
L.I.OS\l.o.~1t 1 U~YI.CIf" IU'-4cA iii V2 1
I YMCQ iii v,
I
• . l.05~oJIIN~

IVID' fi '4.,..,.. TlIEI

It2Vs ~ V,I
IV1 fi , , _ I
Fig. 3114

40
3.2.7 cnuc:.1 Engine Fellure Recclillnitlon Speed (V, )
V, Is a de<:lsion speed, and Is used to delenninewhether 10 continue or abort 8 takeoff.
Should the recognition of an engine failure occur before reaching V, then the takeoff
must be abot1ed. white recogntUon of an engine failure at or above V, means the takeoff
must be continued. A decisional VIensures either reaching the required screen height
above the end 01 the runway or a complele stop at the end of the runway. The lower Itmit
for V, is Vwc;o. and the upper limit either V... IIE or YR'

3.2.8 Rot.tion Speed (V~)

The rotation speed is the speed al which the airplane is rotaled for lift-off.
V~ may not be less than
a) V,
b) 1.05 V~
c) a speed that allows reaching V, at the required screen height above the takeoff sur-
lace aft&r an engine failure at V,
d) a speed thaI, lithe airplanels rotated atitsmaximumpracUcal rate, will reSYttin a V U )f
of not less than 1.1 V", u IrIlhe alHlnglnes-operaling condition, and not less than
1.05 Vwu in the one-englne-Inoperatlve condition.

3.2.9 Takeoft' Climb Speed (V2)

This speed has to be obtained by the time the required screen height (35 ft fordry run-
way conditions) above the runway aurface is reached, and must be maintained forthe
entire climb with takeoff flaps In the eveni of an engine failure before V2•
In an aJI-englne-takeoH, the take6H ¢Ilmb ls made with a hiah~i' ~d (10 1615 kt~
above Vt • depending on the alrpfane type).
The lower limits of V2 are
1.2 V,
t 1 V..e..

3.3 Takeoff Weight Limitation due to Runway Length

AJI performance data in the Airplane Righf Manual is based on a dry, smooth. hard
aumced runway according to the Federal Aviation Regulations (FAA) Part 25 or corres-
ponding othet" regulations. Rules for operation on wei runways are not yet lakl down in
all national civil aviation regulations. Therefore, Ihe f~lowing subehapters (3.3.1 to
3.3.3) are valid for dry runways only.

3.3.1 DetInttIoM
'Takeoff D",nce Required
The takeoff distance required 18 the long er of the following two distances:
a) the distance necessary to accelerate the airplane 10 V, • and continue to a height of
35 ft above the runway surface under the assumption of a failure of the critical
engil"le. The critical engine Is the one which has the most serious Impact on perfor-
mance and controUabiJity of the aircraft.

41
b) 115% 01the distance necessary to bring the airplane to a height of 35 fI to the a11~
englne..case.
Fig. 3/15 shows the takeoff distance determ Ined for the one-ii ngine~inoperative C8M
as defined under par. aJ. The one engine ino perative distance is nonnally limiting for a
two engine aU-craft. whereas the all-engine-dlstance is uaualty limiting lor a three Of
four engine aircmflln the Iat1Etf case the 15% aafety margin Included In the all engine8
operative takeoff distance exceeds the comparaiy low Increase In acceleration
distance caused by the failure of one engin e out of four.

T.ke-off DbtaIlCC del • ."ted b)' _ enl. \.!lOp""

(n« m an y willi 2 MIlD... lraah)

AU ....1De1

--
.- Clf*a . .
D ," 0"

All eRIlne, lcec. lc rltloo

0 I enl. Inop •• cceL_
I

Fig. 3/15
fac'M'raUIR
al VI
Take - Off Dhl&nce
--
Takeo" Run Requtred
The takooff run required is the longest of the following :
a) the d~tance neceS58ry to accelerate the.alrplaneto Vl,and underth. aeaumpUoC'l of
a laNure of the c;:rtt~' engine, continue 10 a point mktway between the lift-off point
and the point where the screen height is reached.
b) 11 5 %olthe distance necessary to bring the airplane to a point midway between the
lift-()ff point and the point where the screen height is reached Inan alHtnglne case.
Rg. 3116 shows the tskeen fun limited by an engine failure,

.2
 Take~Off Run determmed by one eng. mop. ~~

(normally with 2 eosine aircraft)

All eQgmes
operating

•
I!.. l
-J~"~ t:: ~
~'
;) Take~Off Run ,O~

L'- =+
Fig. 3116 ",J~ Recognlrion
to 35 ft
~

Accelerate Stop Distance Required

The accelerate stop distance is the distance required to accelerate the airplane to V"
and under the assumption of a failure olthe critical engine, to decelerate to acomplete
stop.
The transition phase takes into account the time needed to reach final braking configu-
ration (full brakes, lull spoilers).

®
r--All engine. accelaation - Tran- _ Braking Distance
lition

EngiJe FaUlIle lI.ecognition

at VI

Accelerate-5top Dist.ance
Fig. 3117

The presently defined distances wh ich are required forth e takeoff, and are determ ined
by the actual takeoff data, now face the available distance which depend on airport
conditions. They are listed on the following page.

43
Takeoff Run availalble
The "takeoff run available" is declared by tihe airport authorities as that part of the
takeoff surface which is free of obstacles and consisting ala surface capable otcarry-
ing the aircraft under all normal operating conditions. Thetakeoffrunavallable isequal
to the runway length available tor the takeoH.
•
Takeoff Distance available
The takeoff distance available is the runway length available tortakeoff plus any adjoin-
ing clearway.
•

aoa....,. •

The clearway is an area beyond the runway, not less than 500 ftwlde, centrally located
about the extended centerline of the runwav, and under the Jurladlctlon otthe airport
authorities. The clearway is expressed in terms of a clearway plane, extending from the
end of the runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25 percent, above which no
object or any terrain protrudes.
However, threshold tights may protude above the plane If their height above the runway
is 26 inches or less and if they are located to the side of the runway (Ag. 3/18).

"""""'"
"".
MuIz:INUll
Help_
U IlIChet
i •
r -

,• !•
•
- -- IIWN~!

,
+-•
<
",-"

Fig. 3/18
i
Accele"'" Stop [)tane. available
Is the runway length available lor acceleration and subsequent deceleration, Including
any available stopway.

44
........,
Stopway is defined as an area beyond the takeoff runway, at least U wide as the runway
and centered about the extended centerline oflhe runway. a~e to support the airplane
during an aborted takeoH, wjthout causing structural damaoe to the airplane, and
desIgnated by the airport authorities !o,.. use in deceleralJng the airplane during an
aborted takeoff.

Tekeoff Path
The takeoff path represents the actual flight path of the aIrcraft as determined by the
airplane flight manual, starting at brake release up to a point at which the aircraft is
1500 ft above the takeoff surface. or up to the point at which th e transition to the climb
configurat ion Is completed, wh ichever Is higher. assuming a fai lure of the critical
engine in both cases.

TIIboff Fl~t PMh

The takeoff flight path is that part 01 the takeoff path wh ich starts al the screen height
that marks the end of the takeoff distance (35 ft height for dry runway conditions).
The net takeoff flight path 18 the takeoff flight path reduced by the margins as required
by the airworthiness regulations.
Therefore, the takeoff path consists of U1e takeoff distance, and takeoff flight path.

FAR Field length for T.hoff

The minimum runway length for takeoff undergivenconditlons (gross wetghl. pressure
attitude, temperature, runway condition elc.), as stated by the Federal Aviation Regula-
tions.

3.3.2 Minimum Alrworthines. Certification Requirements

As an example the following requlremen ts are based on the Federal Aviation Aegula-
lions (FAA). which are used by many national Civil Aviation Auth orit ies:
An aircraft shall take off only if its actual weight does not exceed the weight for which
the following requirements are met. In accordance with the specifications in the Airline
Right Manual:
a) The accelerate-stop distance required must not exceed the acceferate-slop dis-
tance avsilBbte.
b) The takeoff d istance required must n(lt exceed the takeoff distance avai~ble.
c) The takeoff run req uired must not exceed the takeoff run available.
(The I"at co nditions need only be checked if a clearway Is Included In the takeoff
distance.)
All corrections for airport elevation, runway slope, outside air temperature, pressure
altitude, and wind components must be taken into account lo r the runway in useatthe
time of the takaoff.
The Influence of runway contamination on takeoff performance, such as snow, slush, or
standing water, must be taken into account

45
Fig. 3/19 shows the takeoff weight IImitatiol'i due to condition a) with inclusion of a
stopway.

I WIlli S1opw,y I
.
Aecelaatll~IOP OUtaDce .I....lbbla .. RIInw.I.y + SIDPW.I.Y

Ruaw.y Length
.
slOlIW:Y"
1)11.
EuglllB'Fan.e lIecopitloa
.1 VI
Aeaeler.ttI"6top OUWICe" Acoeler.le-5top Olnanoe .I....llable
Fig. 3119

Ag. 3/20 shows the takeoff distance available equal to the takeoff distance required
taking into account a short clearway, based on the all-englne-operating caM.

Take-Off Dhtallce avanable I: Runway + Clearway

____________-o1Cku •. ~_
Run wa y Length

D--------I-
1-0--- Take-Off Distance Take..()ff IUtallCC .vailable
IE ---I
Fig. 3120

Fig. 3/21 shows the same case, however, for the ona-engine-inoperailve.

~===-~T~.~'.:-~of~f DlltallCC available" Ruaway + Clearway

~ Runway Length

hgiD8 FaU.e ltecop1U_

at VI
Take-Off Dlltance '" Take-off Distance available
Fig. 3/21

If the available clearway is very long then condition c) becomes valid, which prevents
using unrealistic clearway lengths. The point of liftoff must be in an adequate distance
from the runway end. Fig. 3/22 shows the all-engine-operative case.

46
 Take-Off Distance avaHable .. Runway + Clearway

- Maximum Clearw~4
Take-Off Run available .. Runway Length~_..:J .Runwa y Length

30FT

=i.S·t •
R
Take-Off Run " Take-Off Run avalbble
:I.,.. f0>-
---:- ,...-
r ~ax1mum usable
Clearway = 1.15 5/7.

D .1
Take-off Distance< Take-Off Distance available ..
.1&:1
-
Fig. 3122

Fig. 3/23 shows the respective conditions for one-engine-inoperative.

Take-Off Distance available'" Runway + Clearwa y

Take-Off Run available = Runway I.e1l.gdJ.
CI'~=~~
t ~•
Engine faIlure at V 1
Take-Off Run" Take-Off Run available
I--..!...:ji- ...
Maximum usable
~Iearway" S/2

Take-Off Diatance<Take-Off Diltance available -

Fir;. 3123

3.3.3 ...latlon of Takeoff Distance, Accel.rate Stop Dlatance lind V1

The speed V, is decisive for the length olthe takeoff distance, and the accelerate stop
distance: The lower V, is chosen to be, the longer the takeoff distance will be, since an
engine failure ala low V, speed will result i n the need fora longer acceleration distance
10 the required screen height with the remaining operating engines. On the other hand
the accelerate stop distance will be shorter, since the braking starts at an earlier point
during the takeoff run. If a high V, is chosen, the converse is true: resulting in a short
takeoff distance or long accelerate stop distance. Consequently, V, can be chosen (for
the one-englne-Inoperative case) suclo that the takeoff distance is equal to the
accelerate stop distance. This would be referred to as ~V, balanced~ or a "balanced
takeoff condltlon~.
With a balanced V" the maximum possible takeoff weight can be achieved in those
cases, where neither clearway nor stopway exist, and the entire runway must be used
for takeoff. It must be pointed out that this is only valJd for the "one-engine-out" case,
since the takeoff distance in the -all-engine case" Is not affected by V,.
By including a clearway or stopway, the takeoff weight cen be increased.

47
Ina case where only clearway but nostopway isavailable, theselectedV1 mustbe lower
than the balanced V1, so that the takeoff dis-tance is greater than the accelerate stop
distance.
If a stopway, but no clearway is available, 1he selected V1 must be higher than the
balanced V1 to make use of the stopway. However, V1 can never be higher than VA'

No Clearway. No SlOpwayl Balanced C..,1)(i1tlons

TOW, V
1 balanced

1------ Takeoff Dhtance .. Accele.rate-SlOp Distance -_01

C!earway. No SlOpwayl U~lanced Condltiollt

v < V
1 1 balanced

Runway C1earway
!-----AcceJ.uateo.StopDista.nce -------~•.I1 I
I-----Takeoff Dittance > Accelerateo.Stop Distance •

Stopway. No Claarwayl Unbalanceo.t Conditions

TOV)oTOV 1 V, > V .
lbalallCed

I--------.y-------~+-
1---- Takeoff Distance < AcceieUlleo.SlOpDht&DCe ----I
1-_______ Aeeelerate-Stop DlIraftoCe
Fig. 3124

In case of poor braking conditions, e. g. a we-t runway, it is desirable to reduce the V1 for
salety reasons. thus increasing the distance available for aborting the takeoff.
lithe one-engine-out takeoff distance is shorter than the runway length available, this
takeoff distance can be increased by lowering the Vt. The runway length available Is the
upper limitforthis V1 reduction. lithe one-engine-out takeoff distance is already equal
to the runway length available under V1 balanced conditions. an additional safety
margin due to reduced V1 can be achieved only through takeoff weight reductions. In
these cases, the accelerate stop distance .....ill be decreased. The resulting difference
between calculated accelerate stop distance and actual runway length, representsan

46
•
additional safety margin to allow for adverse runway conditions with reduced braking
capability.

3.4 Takeoff Perfonnance when operating on a

Contaminated Runway
The presence of standing water, slush, or snow on the runway wiii result in impaired
takeoff performance. Braking effectivel'lless is reduced due to lower tire-to-runway
friction, and tire hydroplaning. The physical displacement of runway contamination, 10-
getherwith resulting impingement (slush! and water), or compression (snow), requires
energy that could have been used to accelerate the airplane. The major impact is on the
distance required to accelerate to V, speed, and subsequently to decelerate to a full
stop. The distance required to continue Ihe takeoff from V, with an engine inoperative
can also increase significantly on runways covered with standing water, slush, or snow.
Therefore, a reduction in field length and obstacle limited weights, and an adjustment
of takeoff speeds is necessary for runways contaminated by standing water, slush, or
snow.
For operation on contaminated runways, no flight tests are required by the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) and other Airworthiness Authorities. The airplane manu-
facturers primarily use analytical methods to estimate takeoff performance on slush
and water covered runways, based on NASA Convair 880 tests from 1962.

TAKEOFF WEIGHT -

t
-
>

TAKEOFF WEIGHT _
Fig. 3/25

49
The,e method, account forvarlatlona in landing gear configuration, tlfe geometry and
deflection, and tire hydroplanlng effects. Drag due to both flu id displacement on the
runway, and the implngemenl of displaced ftuid on the airplane are considered. The
runway contamination is assumed 10 be of uniform depth and density oYer the entire
runway.
Takeoff performance on snow-covered runways is based 01'1 an equivalent depth 01
slush .
The analysis model used to estimete takeoff performance on ice-covered runways Is
the same e.a that used fordry runweys, with the exception of braking capability. An Icy
runway surface does not affect the acceleration capability of an airplane, and the nor-
mal all~ngine takeoff performance Is unchanged fonn that of a dry runway. Braking
capabillty on ice, however, is severely redu ced. The distance required to accelerate to
the dry runway V1 speed and su~eQuent stop Increases significantly. Stopping dis-
lancet on tee are based on an airplane braking coefficient representative of wet Ice,
The aasumpUon and correction methods used by the different airp6ane manulacturer8
are not unique.
One method is the so called "all engine correction-, This is a weight penalty, whk:h
allows the airplane to perform the takeoff In Ih e same ru nway length on slush as on a dry
runway under the assumption of all engines operating.
lIan engine failure occurs at V" and the sll engine correction has beenapplledtodeter-
mine the takeoff weight, the lakooff cannot be completed nor be successfully aborted
within the runway leng!h available for takeoff.
To also cover the possibility of an engine fallu re at V1 speed, substantially higher weight
reductions are necessary, usually In combination with high V, speed reductions,
These corrections are based on the Iolk>wlng configurations :
- All thrust reversers are operative
- Anti·skld Is on and operative
- All Wheel brakes are operattve
- Speed brakes are operative
PeriOmlance criteria remain unchanged from FAR Part 25 requlrem."ta with the follow-
ing exceptions:
- Takeoff screen height is presently reduced from 35 ftto 15 flln cue orone engine in-
operative (except for DC10)
- Stopping distance includes the effect o' reverse thrust
Reduced thrust (assumed temperature) 0,. Improved climb procedul'H must not be
used.
Due to the lack of worldwide standardized regulations for the handllngof contaminated
- and wel- runway conditions, the methods to correct forthesa conditions differ be-
tween airlines. However, sertous efforts are being made to elaborate on existing
methods, a~ to formulate common racom mendatlons and regul8tk>ns.

3.5 Takeoff Perfonnance on a wet Runway

Despite deterioration in stopping performance due to a wet runway, there are no regu-
lationa in existince at the present time that l"8Quire any kind of corrections forwet run-
way operation. However, an increase In the eafetymargin can be achieved by lowering
Ihe V,.

50
Many aircraft manufacturers have provided correction methods to be applied to the
takeoff performance data for adry runway as published in theAFM. TheseadJustments
have included an increase in required field length thus reducing takeoff weight. The
FAA has discussed a concept with which a significant improvement in safety on a wet
runway can beachlevedwlthout any increase in field length reQuired, by allowing a 15ft
screen height (height overthe end of the r-unway) in lieu of the presently required 35ft.
However, weight reductions to account for a reduced braking coefficient may still be
necessary.
As previously mentioned in par. 3.4, new regulations for operation on wet and con·
tamlned runways are under development.

3.6 Climb Limited Takeoff Weight

Minimum climb gradients for takeoff are rElquired by FAR Part 25. These requirements
are based on the assumption of an engine failure before v 2 . The following table shows
these requirements.

Configuration Minimum Gradients

Segment~ Gears Aaps Thrust Speed Number of engines
2 3 4
1 down Takeoff Takeoff V2 iii: 1.2 Vs posl- 0.3% 0.5 %
position Thrust on live
remaining
2 "P engines
2.4% 2.7% 3.0%
3 Transition Acceleration 1.2 % 1.5 % 1.7%
Final clean Max. Cont. Anal
Thrust on Cllmbspeed
remaining iii: 1.25 Vs
engines

~ The segment numbers will be discus881:1 in the next subchapter.

3.7 Obstacle Limited Takeoff Weight

To ensure obstacle clearance after takeoff, the net flight path must be examined.
It Is the manufacturers responsibility to define the individual segments of the takeoff
flight path, and to include the respective data for the performance calculations in the
flight manual.
The following regulations must be considered:
a) critical engine failure at V, is to be assumed.
b) with the exception of gear retraction, the takeoff configuration must be maintained
up to a height of at least 400 ft.
c) the enroute configuration must be reached by the end ofthetakeoffflight path (gear
up, Ilaps up, final climb speed).
In case of an engine failure at or above V" a prescribed procedure must be strictly
adhered to, whereby the speed need not be reduced, even ila higher than prescribed
speed was reached prior to engine failur e.

51
To more clearly arrange the takeoff flight pat", it is generally subdivided into segments
(Fig. 3/26).

T.....,rr 1'>.111

I..T.hooff DlsIlI.oeo. I.SeS"'· ""---":. Sos....,It 3.Se~=~'400 fI

MloI"",,,, H •
,:.21
fIa.alS~_

loS'"" fau.. • ~
•' v I

-- -
~

:~~. One hglo, i.~p., .. ! u

, "."
~. Ta~ Re".et.d
"
.....
n.

Fig. 3126
T . . . ~rr n.
Aooelerotloo ., V
,
", -
r1apt lIe,uctw..

•" •
lie"' .......
flaai CIlmII S"",,

Segment 1: from the beginning of the takeoff flight path, 35 ft over the runway (under
dry runway conditions) up to the point where the gear is fully retracted.
Segment2: from the point where the gearl:s fully retracted up to the point at which flap
retraction is initiated, referred to as the Mlevel-off height~ (which Is dependent on
obstacles and must be at least 400 ft above- the runway)
Segment 3: from the point at which the flaps and slats are retracted, up to the point at
which the climb configuration (flaps up, final climbspeed) Is reached.
Final Segment: from the point at wh ich the climb configuration is reached, up toa point
of 1500 ft (or more if required for obstacle clearance).
The third segment is assumed to be in level flight, so that the excess thrust can be
applied for acceleration. A light weight, however, could conceivably allow an accelere-
tion to speeds above the flap placard speed. In this case, the third segment would also
consist of a shallow climb to avoid structural damage to the flaps due to excessive
speed build-up.
The ob:stacle clearance is defined In relation to the "net flight path". The term net flight
path refers to the flight path that results when the mandatory reductions as specified
by the airworthiness standard have been subtracted from the gross path actually
flown. The same applies to the terms net he ight, and net gradient
The net gradients are a result of subtracting following values from the actual (demons-
trated) gradients (gross gradients):
airplanes with 2 engines: 0.8 %
airplanes with 3 engines: 0.9 %
airplanes with 4 engines: 1.0 %
Fig. 3/27 shows the net flight path below the .gross flight path. An acceleration equival-
ent to the gradient reduction is applied to the level flight in the third segment resulting in
its extension (D) in relation to the 3rd segment of the gross flight path.

52
 -,
,;l-'"
r-r- DIS!. _. --lAMroflI !'I..IIIT "",r~
.--<~

~ I _. ,
I
I
I
I
i
~.;T
.,
1
~ MEt ;':r
,J ,-,-=I I .-----'
Fig. 3/27

The following operational regulations have been established for obstacle clearance of
the takeoff flight path:
The net flight path must clear all obstacle5 located in the departure sector by at least
35 ft.
The departure sector (Fig. 3/28) begins anhe end ofthe runway with a width of 300 ft to
both sides of the runway centerline, continuing with a divergence angleof 7.1" on both
sides (which means the sector increases by 12.5% olthe completed distance) up to a
maximum width of:
a) 1000 It (2000 ft for heading changes greater than 15,,) for visual meteorological con-
ditions (VMC) during daytime.
b) 2000 ft (3000 ft for heading changes greater than 15") du ring instrument meteorolo-
gical conditions (IMC) and \fMC at night
to both sides of the planned departure ro ute.
Some national civil aviation authorities may require other areas lor obstacle accou nta-
billty than the one described above.
Under certain circumstances, the minimum level-off height for the third segment
(- 400 ft) has to be raised due to obsta.cles. Nonnally, this height should be high
enough so that the entire 3rd segment ca n be flown within the maximum time limit for
takeoff thrust. This deflnes the maximulll normallevel-off height. If, however, max.
normallevel-off height is not sufficient due to very high obstacles, then the second
segment can be extended until reaching tile maximum T/O thrust time limit, if it can be
guaranteed that the prescribed third segment acceleration (see page 52) can bellown
with max. continuous thrust and extended flaps. Furthermore, the final segment must
be free of obstacles.

2000 ft (tMC and. VMC, Night)

Ru.3/28

53
The legal minimum height to begin a turn is 50 ft.
The influence of field elevation, temperature, and wind must be taken into account.
In case of banked flight, perfonnance reductions have to be applied aa published In the
Right Manual.

Fig. 3/29

Example (Fig. 3/29):

Obstacle height above 35 ft point: 1.000ft
Obstacle distance from 35 ft point: 26.000ft
1.000 ft
Required net gradient without bank: 26.000 ft x 100 % - 3.84 ('Ie)
Distance covered in banked flight: 14.000 ft
Gradient reduction for the bank, e.g. 0.5 '%..
0.5%o'14.000ft 70 ft
1.070 ft
Required net gradient with bank: 26.000ft x 100 "10-4.11 (%)
Required gross gradient for 4-englne airplane -5.11 %

3.8 Engine Failure Procedure

Under the assumption of a failure of the critical engine at Vt. ~Engine Failure Proce-
dures· are published to ensure obstacle clearance after liftoff.
Provided that obstacle clearance is nota problem, and the aircraft climb perfonnance
is adequate, the pilot may accept:

54
- radar vectoring by ATC
- continuing on published departure rou te
- maintaining VFR (visual flight rules) in the vicinity of the airport.
However, if obstacle clearance cannot be ensured with this basic procedure, the safe
continuation of the flight can only be guaranteed th rough compliance with the" Engine
Failure Procedure- forthat specific runway. These procedures can be incorporated in
the data base of the flight management system in modern aircraft.
- Climb straight ahead at V2 speed until the level-off height for acceleration is
reached. The level-off height depends on the maximum certified time for use of
takeoff thrust, which can be 5 or 10 minutes. For an airplane with 5 minutes takeoff
thrust, the standard level-off height may be 800 ft above airport elevation, while for
10 minutes takeoff thrust It may be 1.500 ft. In case of restrictive distant obstacle con-
ditions an Individual level-off height has to be specified for the runway concerned.
- Level offforflap retraction and turn althe same time with 15° bank to the navaid spe-
cified on the Runway Weight Chart for the takeoff runway. If not otherwise stated,
make the shortest turn to the navaid.lfa 180° turn is required, the direction of turn is
optional except if " LTto ........" or"ATto ......." is prescribed together with the navaid
on the chart.
- After flap retraction, which may be prior to or after reaching the navaid, continue
climbto disired altitude for further action (e. g. MSA, MGA, MiN HLDG ALn. MCT and
a bank angle of 25° is assumed after reaching clean maneuver speed.
- If required, enter the holding pattern above the navaid using standard entry and
holding procedures. if a navaid without a published holding pattern Is selected, a
normal holding pattern, regardless of direction, will provide adequate ground
clearance. Otherwise, direction of hoi ding and holding altitude have to be given.
Obstacle clearance has to be assured within an area of 3 NM around the holding
pattern.
Other engine failure procedures are dependent on the policies of the individual airline
and may therefore differ from those desc ribed above.

3.9 The Relationship between Takeoff Speeds and

Maximum Allowable Takeoff Weight
The takeoff speedY, and V2 are the two mo sl important means of influencing the takeoff
weight since these speeds may be varied within given ranges. The variation of the
takeoff speeds can result in higher possib Ie takeoff weights, especially when the maxi-
mum takeoff weight for fixed takeoff speeds (I. e. depending only on the takeoff weight)
Is too restrictive.
Therefore, the Influence of the takeoff sp-eeds on the different takeoff weight restric-
tions resulting from runway length, one engine out climb capability, and obstacle ciear-
ence as sellas landing gear capabilities (brakes and tires) will be discussed.
With the third takeoff speed, the rotation speed VR• the same freedom of choices does
not exist, since it is strongly coupled to V'ifJ. by the requirement that the climbspeed V2
must be established above the end of the takeoff distance. Therefore, the following dis-
cussions about the optimum takeoff speeds are related only to the takeoff decision
speed V" and the takeoff climb speed V2 .

55
3.9.1 FAA FIeld ~gth Limitlltlon
AI discussed in subchapter 3.3.3, a takeoff decision speed V, can be determined such
thai the takeoff d istance and accelerate stop distance are equal. This makes maximum
use of the runway, thus resulting in the highest possibie fieklteogth Hmlted takeoff
weight. Flg. 3/30 shows this optimum V, at the intersection point of the takeoff d istance
and accelerate stop d istance limited TOW l ines.

'10

=
§
-
~
g
, '70
-------------
0 I
'"X
~ I
:J
,eo I
I
i!: I
.
':z" >I

g 1M ~
;;:
~
~
'.0 '30 ,.0 '00 '10 '70
Fig. 3130 \l'1-kt

Takeoff climb speed V2 also influences the field length limited TOW. AI already men-
tioned in subchapter 3.2.9 the k)w8st poss.ibJe V, is 20 'lIa above the stallspeed Vs. For
sfmplffieaUon Ihe faclor KV$, the ratio of V2 10 Vs, is introduced:
KVS _ V,
V,
To Increase V2 above the m inimum value 0'1 .2 VI!, an additional acceleration distance
will be rnqulred or, jf no further distance is available, a reduction of tha takeoff weight.
Fig. 3/ 31 shows the field length limited TOW's for the KVS factors 1.20 and 1.25. The
higher KVS factor results in a longer takeoff distance and thus in 8 lower takeoff dis-
tance limited TOW. This shifts the Intersection of the takeoff distance linea with the
accelerate stop distance line to the right. resulting in a k)wer FAR field length limited
TOW and a higher optimum V"

") In Ihe case thai the Takeoff Distance contains 8 clearway, consideration must also be
given 10 the Takeoff Run limitation.

56
 180

-1CVS.!l,~ _______ _

...!<:tJ.!J,lI ____ _

140
130 1040 1110 170 180
V1-kt
Fig. 3/31

As a consequence the KVS-factor 1.2 is the optimum value when considering field
length requirement only. However, the situation changes if climb limitations on the
takeoff weight must also be taken into consideration.

3.9.2 S.cond Segment LlmltaHon

As pointed out in subchapter 3.6 the hig hestclimb gradients required by regulations
are related to the second climb segment. A TOW that fulfills these requirements is
called "second segment limited TOW".
The climb gradient during the takeoff climb normally Increases with increasing climb
speed v 2• (This topic will be discussed more thoroughly in subchapter 4.1.1.) Therefore.
with increasing V2 the second segment limited TOW also increases. The procedure that
takes advantages of this is called -improved climb procedure".
Since the field length limited TOW decreases with increasing KVS factor (as shown in
subchapter3.9.1), it Is posslbletodeterm Inean optimum KVSfactorforwhich both limi-
tations, field length and second segment limitation, give the same and therefore maxi-
mum TOWwhen looking only at the given runway length and the climb capability olthe
airplane (see Fig. 3/32).
Since V, affects only the takeoff distance and the stopping point (in case of an aborted
takeoff) It has no influence on the second segment limitation.

57
 ,eo

'10

Jl'
§
~
, ,1iO

~
0-

oJ
.eo 1O1

J
u. ,..
Fig. 3132 ""
KV<

3.9.3 Tnlllnd Umitliiition

The tlrespeed limitation represents a maximum allowable roiling apeed of the wheels to
stay within the strength limItS of the tires. The highest speed on the ground occurs at
the moment of liftoff, and Is called the Ilftotl' speed. Therefore, liftoff speed IsllmHed by
the maximum IIt.speed 88 detennined by the tire manufacturer.
Ag. 3133 shows the relationohlpa bet....n TOW, KVS ractor.and Vt- The liftoff speed is
always a few knots bek>w V"~ Sub&eQuently, IIfthe liftoff speed 1& limited to the ma:dmum
tirespeed, there willaiso be 8 maximum V,.
few knots aboveltle maximum tirespeed.
For a given weight this means a certain mudmum KVS factor. It 8 higher KVS factor Is
desirable. a decrease in lOWls necessary. lhlslsdepicted In Ag, 3/34. There Is no in-
fluence 01 VI on the tirespeed limited TOW.

58
 .00

.eo

:;
• 170
">

.eo

"'0 .ao ,IK) 200

TOW -1000",
FIg, 3133

...
Jr
e, ,eo

~
0
• ,
,•
~ ..
0
•
rr ,,.
•
MO',~~~----~,.~~----.~~------~,~~----~,.~
FIQ. 3/34
"""
59
3.'A . . . Enetgy llma.tkHI
The maximum brake energy speed V_ is I he highest speed from which a takeoff can
be aborted. Thai means it Is the highest poossible V, speed. VWIIE decreases with In-
creasing weight, since a higher weight would require more energy to be absorbed by
the brakes. When the maximum energy the brakes can absorb is reached, the initial
braking speed (which Is close to V,) must be reduced.

....
"

-•, ...
'00

~• I
". - ~~
".
n.
@:!
,I
~I-
II!
,
......
". ". ... ... ". ...
.~

•eo .eo
Fig. 3135 TON .'IOOO1ig

It a runway Is long enough to choo&e V, equal to V, _ (given In the airplane Night

manual), the Intersection (see figure 3/35) between the line for the takeoff distance
limit (marked with "V,-V, WIN·) andlhe VWIIE limit line moves to the right, defining highest
brake energy limited TOW. For shorter runways the intersection point moves left
towards lower weights since the V, must be higher than V, WIN such that the end 01 the
takeoff distance (~35-ft-POint·) ts located Over the runway end.
Furthermore. V, ..., N can be limited by the minimum control speed (ground) VMC;O.
It the KVS factor is chosen grealerthan 1.20 (I. e. 10 meet the required second segment
gradient) the V, lines move upwardS,also resulting in a lower brake energy limited Taw.

3.95 0bsC.tde Umttatloft

To keep the weight reduction due 10 an obstacle clearance requirement 88 small as
possible, It is desirable to lin off as earty as possible, thus increasing the distance be-
tween liftoff point and obstacle to a maximu m. This can be achieved with a high V,. thus
decreasing the takeoff distance. The upper limit for V, (V, .......J is the lowest of
8) rotatKln speed (V, - VII),

bJ maximum brake energy speed (V. - VIoiSel,

c) the speed for which the accelerate stop distance Is eQual to the runway length
(+ stopway if available).

60
See the relation between obstacle limited TOW and V, in Fig. 3/36.

'00

It
§ ", ,,,
-, ,,
,
~ ,
,
•"c ,00
,
:; ,
~

• <,.'
~
~,
'50 >,!,
8 >,
,
.. __.....___.....__...._...L....,
,~
1

120 130 .....0 150 1GO

V1-kt
Rr;.3136

Forobstacles located close to the runway end, even slight distance gains can result in
significant TOW-increases: thus a low V2 with a subsequent reduction in takeoff dis-
tance is desirable. However, with distant obstacles, a higher climb gradient Is more
effective and therefore a high V2 •

,,.

""

,..,

'0+-____
Fig. 3137
2.0
~~~~
3.0 •. 0
QJMaGRAOI£NT - ./.
..
,, 1>0

'"
,,.

6'
The letthand portlonot Fig. 3137 shows the TOW as 8 function 04 avalabteclmbgradl-
ent for 5 different KVS factors. The gradient required to pass over a given obstade 18
determined by the obstacles' d istance and height. Two groups of -gradient required-
curves are drawn : one group for a distant obetacle, and one group for a cloae-ln obsta-
cle, both lor the 5 chosen KVS-tactors.ln the <listant ob$tacte group the influence oltha
KVS factor on the required gradient is small. therefore the 5 lines are sltuatecl close to
each other. On the other skfe the close-in Oobstacle lines are spread over a wkte area,
which indiCates a considerebfe influence of the KVS factor on the required gradienl
The intersection points for the 6 gillen KVS 'actors on the gradient available Hnes and
the gradient required lines y ield the two curves In the righthand part of the flgure, show-
Ing obstacle limited TOW in dependence of the KVS facto r.

3,9,6 Summary Mel Example

The following fi gures give a aummaryofthis subchapter. Ag. 3/ 38 shows the Influence
of V, on the takeoff weight limitations, Fig. 3139 the Influence 0lV2, which is contained In
the KVS factor.

A c omputer calculated exampkJ shall conclude this subchaptltf (see Ag. 3/40) . The in-
puts tor Ihi! eltampJe are:
Type of aircraft : A310
Pressure altitude : Sea level
OAT + 3()<'C
Takeoff d istance available 3 ,300 m
Takeoff run available 3,300 m
Accelerate stop distance available 3,300 m
Runway slope -1.0 %
Wind 10 kt tailwind
Obstacle distance from brake release point 23000 m
Obstacle height above brake release point 1600 ft
Flaps.lslats 15115
Eng(ne airbkleds Off

Results:
Optimum KVS factor 1.344
Maximum allowable TOW 139,200 kg
V, -V_ 147 kt
V. 182 kt
V2 -1 .344 X 123.3 kt (Stallspeed) - '68 kt
The result is an optimum TOW, which Is both obstacle and maximum brake energy
limited.

62
 '00

'00

!l
~, '70

~
'00

,OO
'30 ,.e ,OO '00 '70
Fig. 3138 V1-kt

'70

1.3~
Fig. 3/39 KVO

63
 •
> i'
>
,
,,\.. ,,~
I~ \~ J ~

V
r • • ~ 3
r
i
r
r
..
~ ~ 'I
•
<0, ~
U ..
!
;

>
•

--~--------~----------~----~---+!
a. j !
"'00)1 - Mel.&.

0,," \£. :g\':\

••
 Chapter 4

Climb

6S
4. Climb
4.1 Climb Angle and Rate of Climb
When ftylng an airplane at constant speed and altitude, the thrust equals the aero-
dynamic drag. As soon as thrust Is reduced, the altitude or speed or both will drop. If
thrust is increased then the airplane must -climb and/or accelerate.
The climb performance of an airplane and its dependency on various parameters can
be expressed by the two tenns:
• Climb angle
• Rate of Climb
The climb angle, usually expressed as a climb gradient (tangent ollha climb angle), is
used as a measure of the altitude gain over a certain flight distance. The rate of climb on
the other hand, expresses the altitude gain over a period of time.
The following diagram (4/1) depicts the force relationships In simplified form.

FjolnertM.1 Flight PIIIth

Acotleratlon Fore.

........
a....

.... ..
aJ. .
""'""
w ••C

Fig. 411

Fig. 4/1 shows that In a climb the 11ft of the wing Is less than the weight
1 ~
R/C-V T-D _V_ (1)
W 9 dt
T-D 1 (tv
climb grad. - - - - - tan V (2)
W 9 dt
whereby:
V - velocity (TAS)
T -thrust
o -drag
W -weight
g -gravitational acceleration
dv I dt - airplane acceleration
V - climb angle

66
Rate of climb and climb angle are directly related to each otherlhrough velocity. As the
next chapter shows, both are influenced by different parameters.

4.1.1 Influence of Air Speed

The Illustration in Fig. 4/2 shows the relationship between rate of climb and airspeed.
There is a speed for which an airplane attains the maximum rate of climb called "best
rate ofclimb~.ln the same way, there is a s.peedfor "Best Angle of Climb" ,fonned by the
intersection of the curve with the tangent line from the origin of the graph.

ALL OTHER

t
III
PARAMETERS
CONSTANT
1:
a
1'5
• ~
i .
~
on
II
0:
on
~ ~

Fig. 412 TRUE AIR SPEED

-
When flying at "Best Angle of Climb~, the airplane reaches a specific altitude over the
shortest distance, while at "Best Rate 01 Climb" the altitude Is reached in the least
amount of time. The prescribed standard climb speeds for the takeoff climb as well as
the enroute clim b take these correlations into consideration, according to their specif-
ic requirements.
At low altitudes the change in rate of clim b around max. rate of climb is not significant
The same Is true for max. angle of climb speed. However, with a rise in altitude, the in-
creasing aerodynamic effect otthe Mach number, and loss in excess thrust results in a
narrowing of the airspeed tolerance so that exact adherence to the optimum climb
speed becomes more critical.
Fig. 4/3 shows that with decreasing climb performance, the speeds tor best angle and
best rate of climb come together and finally, in the range of negative rate of climb (in
other words during descent), the speed for best (leastl) angle is above that for best
(Iowesll) descent rate. The absolute difference between the two typical speeds
depend on various parameters that will be discussed later.

67
 >

I~
"::;
~
u
0
II
. TRUE AIR SPEED _

~ >
~
.
z

Fig. 413

4.1.2 Influence of Acceleration

Every acceleration causes an inertial force in the opposite direction ofthe acceleration
which takes additional thrust to overcome if the ftight path angle is to be maintained.
For the climb this means that a part of the- available excess thrust is needed for this
acceleration, which reduces the rate of climb. With increasing altitude this effect
becomes more pronounced, because the available thrust reduces while the neces-
sary thrust for constant acceleration stays practically equal. Increasing the weight
would not only reduce the excess thrust, but increase the necessary thrust needed for
the acceleration.
Deceleration would naturally reverse the situation, and the released kinetic energy can
be transformed into potential energy (i. e. altitude).
Accelerations occur with changes inairspeed (ground speed,ortrueairspeed) and as
such also when for example climbing at constant lAS. It Is suggested to climb at -Best
Rate of Climb" on a ·Constant lAS/MACH Climb Speed Schedule~ as will bediscussed
in the next chapter. Fig. 4/4 shows the corresponding true airspeed changes.
As a result, the actual climb rates are about 25 % below and 9 % above the theoretical
values for unaccelerated climb at constant lAS and MACH speeds respectively
(Fig. 4/5). That Is why an increase in rate of climb of up to 30 %can be observed in the
transition from constant lAS to constant Mach climb.
Bearing in mind the insignificant change in rate of climb in the area around its max.
value as a result of slight speed variations. following recommendation can be made:
It is not advisable to try recover optimum climb speed through acceleration after a
slight speed loss (max. 10-20 kts), especially at high altitude and weight (in other
words at low rate of climb). This recommendation is reversed in the case of an airspeed
overshoot of the optimum. Here it is suggested to decelerate and allow the released

66
 I I
~
5<

TRUE "IR S~O - R....TE OF CUt.4B _

Fig. 414 Fig. 415

kinetic energy from the excess airspeed to be transformed to potential energy

(altitude) for the climb.

4.1.3 Influence of AltHude

With increasing altitude the thrust decreas as at a higher rate than the drag. On aeeou nt
of this, the excess thrust and the correspo nding rate of climb drop to zero (Fig. 4/5). In
this case the absolute ceiling of the airplane is reached.
The R/C-curves of Rg. 4/6 show an Increase In the speed for best rate of climb up to a
certain altitude. The necessary acceleration corresponds to that which results from a
constant lAS at increasing altitude. Therefore, the best rate of climb speed can be
approximated very well by a constant IAS,at least uplc those altitudes at which the in-
creased speed results in the effects from the critical Mach number. At this point the
acceleration is ceased by continuing the climb at constant Mach.

4.1A Influence of Weight

Ali other factors being the same, as the weight increases, so does the drag and the
mass to be lifted, such that the rate of climb reduces. From an absolute point of view, a
certain weight difference causes the greal-est losses in climb performance at sea level.
However. in relation to the corresponding rate of climb available, the effects of a weight
difference become greater with altitude.
When looking at Fig. 4/7, one can notice a slight increase in the speed for best rate of
climb with increasing weight (approx. 1 kt lAS per percent of max. takeoff weight).
Obviously, the various parameters influenc=e each other's importance, wh ich means for
example that the conditions shown in Fig. 4/7 for different altitudes will be similar but
not identical.

69
 BEST RIC
SPEED

NORMAL CLIMB
SPEED

m
I 0-
"'",
1:
::; ~~ ~:!
u 't
~ ~ fr
..:; ------
.~
'" ti:r
~~
ALL OTHER
PARAMETERS
CONSTANT

Fig. 4/6 TRUE AIR SPEED _

LIGHT ALL OTHER

PARAMETERS
CONSTANT
t \
!
a
~
\
~
'" HEAVY

Fig. 4/7 TRUE AIR SPEED -

70
4.1.5 Influence of Temperature
Changes in temperature influence engine performance, and in some instances even
the aerodynamic perfonnance. Absolutel:!r' measured, low temperatures increase the
RIC the most at sea level, while relatively speaking, show the greatest increase at
higher altitudes. The lAS for best rate of climb is higher at low temperatures than for
high temperatures. However, the corresponding TAS can be greater at high tempera-
tures than at low temperatures, despite the low lAS at high temperatures, because the
relationship between lAS and TAS is also dependent on temperature (see chapter 1).
This effect can override the perfonnane-e effect, especially at high altitudes (see
Fig. 418).

n ALL OTHER
PARAMETERS
CONSTANT

I fi
~
~
~

~ ~
n
~

• ~~
'"'

Fip.418 INDICATED AIR SPEED FOR MAX RIC -

Additionally, one has to take into account the influence temperature has on the rela-
tionship between pressure altitude, and th e for energy considerations important geo-
metric altitude. Only under standard conditions with regard to pressure and tempera-
ture changes as a function of altitude, is pressure altitude eQual to geometric altitude.
At temperatures above fSA the geometric altitude is higher than the pressure altitude,
such thatfor example the geometric altitud e of 34,300 ft at 10° C above ISA would corre-
spond to 33,000 ft pressure attitude. In this case, the airplane mass would have to be
lifted up higher compared to standard cOl1ldltlons, and as a result would reQuire an in-
vestment of more energy. The climb rate measured In pressure altitude per unit time
would therefore decrease.

71
4.1.6 Influence of Wind
As made apparent from equation (1) and (2) in chapter 4.1, aconstantwind component
has no effect on rate of climb, climb angle, and climb gradient. However, 8 differentia-
tion must be made between ~climbangI8· and "flight path angle" which, of course, In-
creases with head wind and reduces with tail wind (Fig. 4/9), whereby a headwind can
result from crosswind compensation. Time and fuel to top of climb always remains the
same, while the distance over the ground depends on the wind.
If, however, the wind components change with altitude, which is more the rule than the
exception, then the wind will also have an influence on rate of climb and climb angle.
Should, for example, the head wind component increase with altitude, then the ground
speed (which is decisive forthe kinetic ene..gy) increases at a slower rate than itwould
at constant component or no wind. Since that would require less energy for the acce-
leration of the airplane, more is available fo .. the actual climb, resulting in a higher rate
of climb.

HEAD
WIND

Fig. 419

4.1.7 Influence of Drag and Thrust

Every increase in drag (through airbrakes, flaps, gear, and in this case especially
lowering and retracting the gear which Involves additional drag from gear doors and
wheel wells) and every decrease in thrust, r-educes climb performance. Every change
in thrust, with the exception of the influence of temperature and pressure, results from
a change in power setting (including the drawing of bleed air) orenginefailure. Aneran
engine failure, not only tAe thrust loss is co nsidered, but also Ihe additional drag from
the inoperative engine (either windmilling or blocked) and the trim drag from the yaw
moment compensation.
In any case, the speed for best rate of climb, and to a lesser extent, the speed for best
angle of climb, will drop. The reduction ofthe latter is sosmall aneran engine failure that
it can be considered constant.

72
4.2 Climb Speed
After the effects of various parameters on the climb performance of an airplane are
known, focus is directed towards finding the best climb procedures for daily oper~
ations. Several viewpoints can be taken into consideration, each leading to a different
result. The most important of these aspects are:
1. shortest time to reach cruise altitude (best rate of climb)
2. shortest total flight time
3. lowest fuel consumption for the entire flight
4. lowest operating costs
5. highest climb angle (clearing of obstacles, compliance with air traffic control, and
noise abatement)
6. simplicity of flight operation
The specific conditions aflertakeoff requ ire a steep clim bangle; as such the speed for
the initial part of the climb is easy to defi.ne.
The establishing of the best enroute cllmlb procedure Is dominated by economic con-
siderations, that is to say short flight times,low costs, and low fuel consumption. One
can plot climb fuel and climb time for various speeds, as shown in Fig. 4/10 a) and b).
The diagrams, however, do not give conclusive infonnation since climb and cruise
flight must be viewed in relation to each other. A short climb distance for example
extends the cruise distance, a low climb speed requires more acceleration to cruise
speed at an unfavourable high altitude. One has therefore to consider sectors that
cover acceleration to climb speed, climb, acceleration to cruise speed and a small por-
tion of the cruise (Fig. 4/11). Thediagrams 4/10 c) and d) as well as Ftg.4/12 allowacom-
parison of the effects of dlfferenct climb :speeds on the entire flight.

73
r

SECTOR
Fig. 4111

ECONOMIC CLIMB SPEED A310

44.0
250/.71
43.5
.-c 43.0 ~
E ,.(

.E 42.5

42.0 - / ~
i= 1'(.~/.79
...
-
eLi 's~
41.5
0

~ 41.0
VI
40.5 - fK"\ 350/.79

40 .0 -~\
"650 ...,00 4750 4800
Fig. 4112 Sector fuel - kg

The speed tor the lowest direct oper$ting costs (minimum cost, or economic speed)
can be obtained graphically by placing the tangent line, whoae slope represents
the relation of time and fuel costs, on the curve (assuming time related costs of
600 unltsl hr. fuel costs of 900 units/ton, which means 1 min -10 units -11.1 kg).
For almplification, flight planning Is often basad on a fixed standard climb speed sched-
ule which corresponds to the min. cost cUm b for a typical average gross weight In flight
however, more precise speeds depending on the current actual gross weight should
be applied.

74
ChapterS

Cruise

75
5. Cruise
5.1 General
5.1.1 Drag Pol."
The drag polars 01 an airplane describe the relationship between 11ft and drag, in other
terms, the lift coefficient C L versus drag coefficients C Il (reI. chapt. 3.1).
While extended flaps and gear playa role in the k)w-speed range (takeoff and Lending)
(Fig. 511), compressibility of the air becomes a critical tac lor in the high-speed range, in
such 8 way that above a specific speed (the ·critical" Mach number) the drag coeffi-
cient for a given 11ft coefficient increases exponentially (fig. 5/2) ,

Fig. 511 Fig. 512

This effect is explained through the airflow around a wing.

To attain lift, a wing must pass through the elf in such 8 way as to create low preSStJre
over the wing relative to the surrounding pressure, resulting In upward suctk>n. To
ereBile this low-pressure, Bernoulli's law is applied by accefer&ting the air on top of the
wing 10 a speed which is higher than Ihe a Ir passing under the lower wing surface.
Airspeed over the wing can exceed the speed of sound (M- 11 although the airplane's
speed is actually stili subsonic.
The deceleration of the airflow from super$Onlc to subsonic In direction olthe trailing
edge does nollake place continuously b\JI occurs atone instant as the result ala drag
inducing shockwave. Fig. 513 shows the pressure d istribuUon (wt1~h can also be
understood 10 represent airspeed distribution) around an airloll section under sub·
and supersonic conditions.
Through various deSign measures, the exponential increase of drag can bedelayedto
higher airspeeds, however, only under the penalty of introducing other disadvantages.
A reduction in airfoil th Ickness for example r esults In reduction 01 tank volume, while in·
creased wing sweep Increases the weight olthe wing and reduces maximum lift capa·
bility. As such, every wing represents a compromise lor its specifiC application.
The development and introduction of the supercritica'- wfng or transsonk: airfoil has
8

shown a significant Improvement toward s the previouVi mentioned design point.

76
 LOWSPEED HIGHSPEED

L
U ~
••
• ••
~
"~ §
U U
••
~ I
~
M., i

Fig. 513

Three chal8clerisHc trademarks of the transsonic p rofile distinguish ;t from the classic
profile
• larger leading edge radius
• reduced upper camber
• ~S· curvature towards the trailing edge
The aerodynamic differences become Immediately apparent when viewing the pres·
sure distribution In Fig. 5/ 4.

COHYEHl IONAl AIRFOil lRANSSON IC AIRFOIL

_ON . ...,. . .
-<
,
,,~ :,
. .....- ~~G
. ~'" '"
£ ;1;,:;,1':
IItIOCII; WAVE

~.
~. ..
,-.'!Pjljr',
'.
·~i.·;·r.;:r4~··
,~,
··
·.
"
..
;
, .
.,
C'AA
,
~-~

c I
- ...
.. • ~
L

--S:
.--, -"""'ii 1-0--- '-
", r- -
•• "' :>\
,
'

I• . , I
, '- .... ........ .
• • -~• \~.'"'.,
..- - - - - - ...
\
101<1

••>
r•
II--...... UMO - , .
--'
I ', ......-~)

Fig. 514

77
Through appropriate changes In the profll e contour of the transsonle proftle, the
supersonic airflow forms only a weakshockwave. By these means the exponetial drag
Increase Is not established until higher spe eds. In addition, the ·8· curvature of the
lower side Is Included In produclng 11ft. As a result. the effective lin ~fftclent Is in.
creased at htgh subsonic speeds and one can manage with a comparatively amaner
wing (Flg. 5/ 5) .

CL AT INITIAL I!IUR"ET

• 0

\'

Fig. 5/ 5

The e,gvlntages of th' trllnlSonic wi n9 are aimed at building wings with I,.. sweep Dnd
thicker profiles, not hOwever to achieve higtler cruise speeds. AU el,. remaining the
same. this results in Ilghtor wings with larger tank voklme.
One can also obtain the glide ratio from Ihe drag polar by forming the c,./Cu relation--
ship. Th is expresses the airplane's ability to glide without propulsion. The c..lC D rela·
tionshlp for best glide Is represented by the slope of a line from the origin to the point
tangent on the first curve (Fig. 5/2) .
The best glide f8ti08 of modem Jels reach values between 15 and 21, wtdch would mean
Ihey could glide 150 to 210 km out of a heigh1 01 10 km without propulsion. The neees·
sary thrust at cruise can also be derlved from the glide ratio, since in level and unacce·
lerated flight thrust equals drag . If weight an d glide ratio of an airplane are known, the
drag and the thrust respectively - weighUg.lide ratio.

5.1.2 Drlig
un and drag can be calculated from the lift and drag coefficients. After same rearsng·
ing of the equations In chapter .3.1 the following axpreaslons are obtained :
o
Drag : 6-KCoM~ S

L
lift : 6"-KCtM2S

K-constant
6 - p/ po - the ratIO of static pressure at alt itude to that at S&8 level. For
high altitudes this would correspond to a small/l. This trlckofrelatlng an
forces (11ft. drag, weight) to /I hea the advantage 01 being able to depict
relationships an a single diagram tor all altltud88. e. g. Ag . 5/6.

78
It becomes immediately apparent that at constant Mach these two forces are a function
olthelr corresponding coefficients CL or Co, the wing area $, and altitude (through the
use of the pressure ratio). The temperatur e and thus density altitude have no influence!
As such, drag can be depicted as a fundlon of the Mach number for various gross
weights (Fig. 5/6).

FlQ.516 MACHNUMBER _

For every altitude and weight there is a corresponding airspeed that results in the
lowest drag. Since 11ft and drag are equal in level unaccelerated flight, the pOint of mini-
mum drag gives you the higheslvalue fo r UD, which means best glide ratio.
With decreasing airspeed, the lift coefficient CL has to increase to maintain the neces-
sary 11ft. However, a higher Ct. (obtained by increasing the angle of attack, or extending
flaps) Intensifies wake turbulence from the wing, and wing tip vortices. Since the ener-
gy necessaryforthe formation ofthis turb ulence manifests itself as socaJled ~induced·
drag, this induced drag increases rapidly~ and with itthe entire drag belowtheairspeed
for minimum drag.
The effect of the critical Mach number becomes apparentat high speed, also leading 10
an increase in drag. Remarkable is the fact at high W/fJ values, that is to say at high
weight and low i5 for high altitudes, the range for low drag becomes narrower.

79
5.1.3 Throat
As previously mentioned, in straight and level unaccelerated flight, the thrust, or more
precisely the component of thrust in the direction of the flight path, must be equal to
drag. Chapter 2 showed how thrust varies. The following graph is obtained when
superimposing the th rust curve of Fig. 2/7 from chapt. 2, onto th e drag curve in Fig. 517.

i _~J.i.---- --
Fig. 517 MACHNUM8ER _ ....
In this example the jet engines deliver just enough thrust to maintain M -0.84.

5.1.4 Airspeed Stability •

An airplane is flying with a constant M-O.84. Somehow, a disturbance (I. e. a gust of
wind) causes a small change in airspeed.lfthe airplane is accelerated by an increment

t
......
THRUST,
•

--- --- --
+4T
•

----
••T •
OM AM

•
Fig. 518

80
,
!J. M, then the thrust deffcit would return it to the original speed (Fig. 5/8). Conversely, a
deceleration of!J. M would force the excess thrust to bring the airplane back up to the
original airspeed ofM -0.84. With regard t-oairspeedtheairplane is considered to bein
a stable state.
The comparison between (1) and (2) clearly shows: the bigger the intercept angle be-
tween thrust and drag curve, the greater t he tendency to return to the stable position.
Naturally, this effect can be viewed from the oppOSite end: the same thrust changes,
e. g. dueto a change in outside airtemperature, will result in lessofanairspeed change
at a higher Mach number than at a lower Mach number. This relationship reverses on
the so-called ~back-side of the power curve". Example (3) shows that deceleration
results in a thrust deficit while acceleration results in excess thrust. Any disturbance
would cause a deviation from the target speed. A shift of the thrust curve down to the
point tangent to the bottom of the drag cllrve gives you the speed for neutral stability
(MN): small changes in airspeed do notch:angethrustappreciably and will not result in
a return to the target speed. The neutral speed (MN) is located at or slightly above the
point of minimum drag depending on the shape of the thrust curves.

5.1.5 Maximum Speed

Based on the assumption that Fig. 5/7 depicts the maximum possible thrustas a func-
tion of altitude, temperature, and airspeed, then the intersection of thrust and drag
curve for a given WI is represents the maximum attainable airspeed. These maximum
speeds can be welt depicted as in Fig. 5/9.

MA04NUMBER lISA-Temp.
HIGH
I
I
I
I
t ;:l:;__ ~L

~
5
•
MMO
VMO
l MAX. OPERA-
lING SPEED

Fig. 519 TRUE ....R SPEED _

81
5.1.6 Maximum Altitude
For a given speed and any weight, one can determine the altitude at which straight and
level flight Is stili barely possible from Ag. 5/9. This -maximum altitude- exists for max.
cruise thrust and max. continuous thrust ('or flight in an engine out condition). Under
consideration ofvarious temperatures, the presentation of the max. altitudes Is devel-
oped (Ag. 5/10).

Const Mach

H,
Fig. 5110 - GROSS WEIGHT

For high temperatures ataconstantMach rlumber, two -max. altitudes- (H,and Ht) may
exist.
In this case the desired speed can only be maintained in the altitude range between H,
and H2. The cause of this effect lies In the fact at the mentioned limit conditions, thedrag
increases with decreasing altitude at a higher rate than the thrust, due to the rise in
density and TAS, allowing the drag to catch up, and under certain circumstances even
exceed the thrust level.

Fig. 5111 THRUST. DRAG _

82
5.1.7 Buffet Boundllrles
Airflow separation at the wing or tail unit causes shaking, referred to as ~Buf1et~. One
differentiates between low speed and high speed buffet.
With decreasing airspeed,the angle of attack olthe wing has to be increased to main-
tain the lift. This could lead to anglesofatlackthatwould make itimpossibleforthe rela-
tively energypoor boundary layer to ove-reome the adverse pressure gradient after
passing through the pressure minimum of the upper wing surface. Row separation
ahead of the trailing edge Is the result as seen in Rg. 5/12.

Fig. 5/12

The unstable separation pointfluctuates rapidly back and forth in a certain range. This
changes the pressure distribution constantly, and with it the resulting position and
magnitude of the lift. This effect, and for some airplanes the fact that their horizontal sta-
bilizer is situated in the turbulent separation wake, produces the previously mentioned
buffet.
With continued increase of the angle 01 attack, the separation point moves further
ahead until total flow separation of the upper surface Is achieved, and with It an almost
complete collapse of tift.
High speed buffet develops in much the same way. As soon as sufficiently high pres-
sure changes are generated by the shockwaves above the critical Mach number (see
Chapter 5.1.1) separation will form at the shockwave (Fig. 5/13) on the upper wing
surface.

Fig. 5113

With a high enough Mach number, and depending on the wing profile and angie of
aHack, a shockwave may also be formed on the lower surface of the wing. Since the

83
location of the shockwaves Is unstable, the oscillating lift changes result In the same
type of buffet as encountered in the low speed case.
While speed reduction at low speed buffet (buffet at high CLl results in 8 totallossoflift
(stall), no such thing occurs when increasing speed above that for initial high speed
buffet (buffet at low CLl. The... is no high speed stalliThe shock waves wandertowards
the rear, the separation effects become stronger, however, boundary layer contact is
maintained overthe majority althe profile! Agure 5/14 shows that the lift coefficient at
which buffet occurs decreases rapidly with increasing speed, but that maximum lift
coefficient in the upper speed ranges stays Quite constant.

I
CL FOR
INITIAL BUFFET

AR.... OF
NORMAL F\.IGHT

M.c:HNUMBER _
Fig. 5114

During normal cruise the lift coefficient stays within the shaded area, dependent on
altitude and weight, or, expressed In better terms, the necessary lift The lifthas to carry
an apparent weight (equivalent to 1 g gross weight) comprised of:
a) actual weight
b) the lift of the horizontal stabilizer necessary for trim (usually downward directed)
c) inertial forces through vertical accelerations
d) centrifugal forces (turns, recovery, etc.)
If the initial buffet speed for various param eters is known, then the following diagram
can be drawn (5/15) assuming the worst case configurat Ion offolWard center of gravity.
For a given altitude and assumed weight, ttle speeds for low and high speed buffet (1
and 2) as well as the max. altitude for initial b uffet(s) can be read. The peak of each curve
is called the -aerodynamic ceiling~. Iffor a given altitude and Mach number the ~equi­
valent 1 g gross weight~ is found, then the ratio of this to the actual weight would form
the allowable loading expressed as either a g-Ioad or a bank angle.
1
bank angle ~ - arc cos _c'-~
g-Ioad
Each airplane has a set speed which, for all other things being normal, provides
sufficient margin to the buffet boundaries and structural limits of the airframe during
turbulence penetration. When tending to higher turbulence penetration speeds, the
passenger comfort should not be neglected!

84
 ---(b--

---G--

Fig. 5115 EQUIVALENT lG GROSS WEIGHT •

5.1.8 IIIIxlmum Endul'llnce

Linesofconstantfuel flow (WF) can beadded to Fig. 5/6 under consideration of the a Iti-
tude (~) and temperature (0) resulting in Fig. 5/16.
From this, a fuel flow can be determined fa .. every weight-altitude combination (W lli).
The tangency point of each curve group Ie-cate the value for minimum fuel flow. Althe
same time, these points represent the speed at which the airplane will remain airborne
the longest, referred to as "maximum endurance speed. Due to the tendency of the
R

fuel flow curves to slope off to the right, the speeds for max. endurance wilt always be on
the -backside althe power curve-, As a result, the holding speed is chosen to be that
for min. drag or neutral speed stability.

85
 DRAG

FUEL
FIDN

Fig. 5116 MACH NUMBER -

5.1.9 Maximum Range

Similar to fuel flow, specific range (see chaJlt. 5.2) can be included inthedrag-diagram
with consideration to altitude (5) as in Fig. 5/17.

DRAG

SPEC.
RANGE

Fig. 5117 MACHNUMBER

8.
The tangency points of both curve groups locate the speed schedule for maximum
range underthe appropriate conditions. TIle long range curve (see chapt. 5.2) can also
be Included. The resulting diagram shows ali the essential cruise parameters in
relation to each other. Although th is diagram in its entirety may atfirst glance seem con-
fusing, because of Its Importance and the statement it makes, Fig. 5/16 is presented
without further comment.

Fig. 5/18 MACMNUMKR_

5.2 Specific Range

In any flight performance problem involving fuel consumption, the engine and the air-
frame have to be regarded in relation to ea-ch other. Engine per10rmanceand the aero-

87
dynamic behaviour of an airplane Is determined by numerous conditions that not only
influence the final results, but also affect each other's significance.
The partially complex correlations involved in the computation of cruise pertormance
can be Illustrated by just one term, the ~specific range". While fuel flow itself is only an
indication of how long an airplane can remain airborne with a certain amount of fuel,
specific range supplies information on how far the airplane can fly.
Therefore, specific range is understood to mean flight distance per fuel quantity, result-
ing in:
Still air distance
Specific Range (SA) -
fuel quantity
or after division by time
SA _ True airspeed NAM/h]
fuel flow [ Ilg/h
The stili air distance (nautical airmiles, NAM) can easily be calculated from the ground
distance (nautical miles, NM) through the Simple equation
TAS
NAM-NM TAS+WC
Contrary to takeoff, cruise considers tailwinds positive and headwind negative.
Fig. 5/19 is the most commonly used form of showing specific range as a function of
weight and airspeed at constant altitude. If you take a specific cruise procedure
(e. g. constant Mach) as the constant para meter and vary the altitude, the result will be
Fig. 5/20. From these two illustrations it is possible to read off all variations possible to
influence the specific range in particular to improve it.

'30
•
IALTITUDE. const I
,'"
t 110

!l"
§ '00

,-• ,.,
•z 00

w 80
0
z
••
u '"
•
"
w
~
.0

00

.o~--~------~------~------~------~---
0.' 0.7 0.0 0 .•
Fig. 5119 MACH. NUMBER _

88
 Fig. 5120

5.2.1 Inttuenc. or TemP«1ltu,.

Fuel flow and Itue airspeed are dependent on temperature in an almost Idenlical way.
The Influence of temperature cancels when the relationship TASIFF is formed. There·
lore, by neglecting a small error, it is safe to say that specific range is independent 01
temperature. This errordependsonthetypeof engine. H isapprox. 2 %wilh a tempera-
ture change of SOOC lor a high bypass engine, while being practically zero for a low
bypass engine.

5.2.2 Infhlence of Weight

Fig. 5/19 and 5/20 confirm the well known fact that high weights decrease range orin
other words. with decreasing infllght weight the specific range increases. Less known,
however, Is the fact thatwelghl has a very strong effect at low speeds and ospeclally at
high altitudes. As seen In Fig. 5/20, a weight reduction from 140 tons to 100 Ions
improves the specific range by 14 %at 25000ft (a), along the optimum altitude however
by 38 % (b).

89
5.2.3 Inf..... nce of Airspeed
For each weight there exists one speed with wh ich max. range can be achWied (max.
range cnJtse - MAC).
For practical flight operaUons, however, a long-mnglrCruise procedure waa defined
whiCh gains a significant increase In speed compared 10 MRC with only a 1 '" loasln
specific range. Like the MRC-speed, the LRC sp99d also decreases with decreasing
weight, at constant altitude. Fig. 5121 shows howthe LRC speed Increu.. with altitude
for a constant weight It Is also clearfrom th Is diag ram that the LRC speed remains con-
stanl if the weight and altitude correspond to optimum altitude conditions. Forthis rea-
son is would be possible to fly aconstant Mach procedure instead otthevarlable LRC-
speed procedure. This Is especially recommendable for flight planning, since LRC as
weN as a constant Mach procedure should be planned for the optimum altitude. tf, on
the other hand, LRC has to be flown ata constant and posslbly lowaltltuM or to save
fuel after an engine failure, then the exact LAC speed should be maintained. The rela-
tiOflShip between LAC and economc fllghl operaUon is di.acuaeed In chapt8\" 5.4.

Rg. SI21 MotOiN\.tern _

When flying above max. range cruise speed, the specific range decreases with In-
creasing airspeed. After reaching the crilical Mach number, the exponential Increase
in drag results In a rapid drop In specific range. Therefore, this range should baavoid-
ed.

'"
5..2.-' Influence of AItttudeo
For every weight there Is an altitude for maximum range, the ao.called (range-) opti-
mum attJtude (Ag. 5/20). M is the case wtth specHic range, optimum attitude la forlhe
most part independent of l&mpflnlture.
The influence of airspeed on optimum aHitude is negliglbty small in the range of normal
c ru ise speeds. Since the range optimum altitude closely matches the minimum c ost
altitude, every effort should be made In flight p lanning and during the flight to attain th is
altitude. Due to air traffic control, a ·climblng cruise- along the optimum altitude Is nol
possible, so that stepclimbaahould be performed around the optimum altitude, within
the 1% range loss lines if possible. In general, largeovershOOI$ of the optimum altitude
sho uld be avoided since the maximum altitude is high enough to allow tor a good alti-
tude seloction.
A.nother effect Is shown In AG. 5/ 20: A..,.elflc ...... difference cto.. not .IIIII.~
COl, •• pond to the , TIe .... ga .... The 2.3 'It range Iosa due to flying al FL 290 as
opposed to A... 330 (c) may seem 8Ce8ptable, and lead to the ch~e of a lower a.Utude.
However. after a 40 Ion fuel bum the range ktaa is already 8.6 "!it (d) , When making this
type of 8 decision, whether by specific nmge or by the ~ accurate parameter fuel
flow, an average weight for the cruile segment under consideration sho uld be used.

5.2..5 Influence of WInd

With units of NAM/kg, specific range II by definition independent of w ind. However, if
you plot NM/ kg versus airspeed, you wiN obtain a diagram corresponding to Fig. 5/22 :
sptclfte range over ground decreases with Increasing head wind, while the speed for
max. range increases. In the area to the right of the max... spec lflc range line, ranga
101"' due to hHd winds can ~ compfetely or partially com~a n saled lor by an wr-
speed reduction. The higher the original ai~, the more appllcabte this is. How-
ever, ftying belowthe LRC speed defined lo rno wlndonlY,ls 01no significant advantage.
For one thing , you risk dropping bekJw th e.speed tor max. range, moreover, you might
fall into the instable speed range (see 5.1.4). Beyond a c ertain headwind component,
a reduction in airspeed will not Improve the specific range over ground . At slow initial
speed (e. g . LAC) and very stro ng headwinds, a speed increase might even prove to be
of advantage.
Ag. 5/22 shows that for the given Initial conditions, a headwind component of 40 kts
can be c ompensated for by redUCing the speed from Mach 0.84 to LAC.
The Influenca of wind is In this c ase applied to range, which Is In numerous cases the
sote Indicator of how economlca flight Is. The other infl uence of wind on the economic
Mach number Is descrlbed In chapter 5.4 .
Loaa of .pecftIc range with decreasing altitude can be compensated for by favourable
winds, more tailwind and leu headwind, at lower attitudes.. DiaGram. like Fig. 5/23
ahCM the necessary wind Improvements Cln this exampreliWC -15 kt) to justify a lowp.r
fHghlleYe l. Again, the ch oice of atti tude for a specifIC cruise segment requires the use
of the average weight.

91
 Fig. 5122

Fig. 5123

92
5.3 Integrated Range
A specific cruise speed (lRC or Inlhls IlXsmple canst Mach) Is entered Into the dia-
gram for speclflc range fAg , 5124). Every weight interval on Ihts speed line corre-
sponds to an average specific range (SR.), which when multlptted with.a GW gives a
d Istance IntervallJ. NAM.ln otherWOl'ds : the airplane can tty the distance l!. NAM with the
fuel quantlty!J. GW.
By summing up or integrating the distance intervals resulting from various !J. GWs
one obtains in the "integrated range~ curve (Fig. 5/25).
This curve can also be transformed Into tabular form for various altitudes. Since the
change In performanc98s8 function of weight is incorporated In the curve, anyweight
Interval forthecorrespondlng fuel consumption can beapplled. With this, the rangelor
8 specific quantity of luel, FIg. 5/26, or the necessary fuel for a specific distance,
Fig. 5127, can be detennlned.

ICONST ALTITUDE I

I 4NAM • SR m ' 4.GW

FIQ. 5124

I
~

~ ~ , t - - - - - " ' l....

~ .. ,1--_ _ _+---"'........

I
STIli. AIR DlST.4NCE (HAM) -
Fig. 5125

93
 DlSTANCI[
Fig. 5126 Fig. 5127

The integrated range curves and tables notOfllymake flight planning easlar, butcan be
used quickly and safely lor Infllght planning, to compare attitude and distances for
reclearance calculations, and for Inflight dNersion planning. Furthennore, the Influ·
ence of various cruise regimes can be compared by checking the graphsorta~s fof
the two differeot speeds under the same weight and attitude condlHona.

5.4 The Economic Speed

lodetermlne theeconomk: fflghtspeed, the fuel pr\cesand fUghtUmecoatshave to be
taken inloaccounl. Averagevalues are used for fuel cosls, whlefilght time costa con-
sider primarily those that are Influenced by flight procedures (speed schedules),
especially malnlenance c081s. For a given combination of altitude, weight and wind, the
two cost components and their 8um can be plotted against elrspeed (Ag. 5128) .
A cost minimum resuhs at • specific Mach number. For normal tught pe.I'8met8t8. a
Mach number for the lowest operating costs can be established. the ~economtccrujse
Mach number".

COST
.Q!i
NAM

MN:.HNIJtow1BER -
Flf},5128

.
The prescribed standard cruise speed for every airplane type should come as close to
the economic Mach numberasposslble.Ascan beseen from Ag. 5/19, theLRCspeeds
aregenerallyhigherthantheminimumccstspeedsandareasaresuIt unfavourable for
both operating costs and range. As suc h, LAC has lost practical meaning In normal
operations unless fuel consumption has absolute priority.
It has been shown that favourable altitude with regard to costs is almost identical to the
altitude favored for range, which means -range optimum altitude- has become ·opti-
mum altltude-.

5.5 Flight Parfonnance with Engine out

Flight performance gets worse wfth an engine failure because
• the available thrust Is less
• the drag (windmilling and yaw drag) is. greater

5.5.1 Altitude and Range

The maximum altitude drops even though the higher max. continuous thrust Is now
used instead of max. cruise (see chapt. 1).3).
Although the optimum altitude drops too, it isatill usually higher than the new max. atti-
tude and as such loses all practical meaning. As a rule, the specific range also gets
worse, whereby the speeds formax. rang e and long range cruise respectively are low-
erthan In the normal case. Forthis reason, It Is recommended neverto flyfasterthan the
applicable englne-out LAC speed.
The possibility of making full use of the interplay between specific range and attitude
results in the application ofthe so called "Climbing Cruise- when 50 %or more of thrust
Is lost. Ag. 5/29 depicts a cross plot slmlilarto fig. 5/19, where weight is held constant
while altitude is varied.

Fig. 5/29 MACHNUMBER -

95
By giving up speed, a higher altitude can be reached and a better specific range
attained with max. continuous thrust, although itls slowerthan MRC.This procedure is
optimized to the point where the greatest range is obtained for the reminder of the
flight.
If range is not a problem after having lost one or more engines, however, the highest
possible altitude must be maintained to clear obstacles (mountains), then speeds
round minimum drag are recommended whe rethe ratio of lift to drag isatamaximumto
ensure highest altitude while giving up maximum range. This procedure is closely tied
to the drift down procedure which is discuS$ed in chapter 6.3.

5.5.2 Point of Equal Tim., Pohtt of No Return, Point of S.fe Return

In the event of an emergency on a flight between two poi nts with no airports for an inter-
mediate landing enroute, the following terms will help the pilot reach a decision on
whether 10 continue or turn around:
• the ·point of equal time~ PET
• the ·point of safe return~ PSR
• the ·point of no return~ PNR
The PET is the point from which the flight time (and fuel consumption) back to the air-
port of departure (or a suitable alternate airport~ is the same as continuing to the destl-
natlon. The PET-calculations are generally based on the assumption of an engine fai-
lure, or In the case of some airline policy's, a continuation of Ihe flight with a loss of
cabin pressure.
For the calculation of PET it is presumed thai with the exeplion of wind, the flight from
PETta the pOintofdeparture is subjecttothe-same conditlonsas from PETtothedestl-
nation (see Fig. 5/30). The equation
NAM-NM TAS
TAS+WC
with a few modifications, results in the simp~e equation:
a D TAS+WC IN"'I
- 2TAS

PET PHR

A 8

.--~-l

r---- b
~-----------D-------~-l
Fig. 5130

96
we is the average wind component overthe distance D, at the altitude necessary after
engine lailure or decompression (usually 14,000 tt).
The wind in the PET calculations is referenced to the PET, in other words, a wind com-
ponent from PET in the direction of A Is considered a tailwind and is entered into the
equation as a positive value.
The calculation althe ~pointof no return~ is more difficult, because flight from A to PNR
is under normal conditions, while the return from PNR 10 A (ora suitable alternate) with
remaining fuel has totakea technical malfunction into consideration (engine failure or
decompression). Fig. 5/31 shows howan integrated range curve can help take all these
considerations into account.

•
o

Fig. 5/31
• PN" DISTANCE (NM' -

For a given takeoff weight an integrated range curve Is plotted (if possible against
ground distance directly), starting with fuel consumption - O. After fixing the max.
usable fual, a second cu rve Is drawn ~flying backwards~ to the assumed landing weight
with the chosen critical parameters. The intersection of the curves gives both distance
b forthe Point of No Return. and fuel consumed to the PNR.
Since the PET results not only in the sameilighl time, but also the same fuel consump-
tion to A or B, the PNR relative to A can never lay before the PET provided the required
minimum fualload was on board.
The Point of Safe Return (PSR) Is calculated exactly as the PNR, however, under the
assumption that after the return to the point ot departure, a Minimum Diversion Fuel 1$
still available.

97
 Chapter 6

The Descent

99
6. The Descent
6.1 Descent Speed, Glide AnlIIe Inlluence Faclots
While exee" ttlrust results in acceleration and/or climb, thrust reduction causes
deceleration and/or descent Climb and descent can be regarded In much the same
way, 118 few of the signs are changed. Figure 6/1 shows the force relalionships during
the descent.

..•
,~
•

Ro. 611

Simpfe equaOOns for '"mte of descent- and '"angle of descenr- can be dertved from this
diagram.

1. Rate 01' descent: RlO-Y O-T +~ dV

W • <It
O-T 1 dY
2. Angle of descent: Siny- +---
W 9 dt
RIO
siny- V

RID -ruteofdescent
V -true air speed
o -dreg
T -thrust
W -wet5jht
9 - grnvitatiOnal acceleration constant
dv J dt - flight path acceleration
V - angle of descent

8.1.1 Influence of Acceleration

Additional energy during a descent with constant thrust can only be obtained by in-
creasing the rale- and angle of descent respectively: more potential energy Is convert-
ed to lUnatic energy per unittlme.1he use of constant Mach numberor lAS during nor-
mal descent operations results In acc~eration and dttcfieration phases of the true air-
speed with comtSponding eftects on rale- Bnd angle of descenl Ag. 6/2 shows this In-
ftuence, which in thb case however, does nol have Ihe same Importance as In cUmbo

100
 t 1----1---.-"""--- u---'<---------l
! ----~-------
5;
RATE ' " ~NT _
Fig, 6/2

6.1.2 ~ofv.lodty

A8 was the case with climb, the rate of descent can be ploHetagainstvelocity in thelol·
lowing diagram -(Fig. 6/3),

-- TRUE AIIil SPEED -

aI!f to
;I
~

'.~" Conat Altiwde

~
Jdle. Thrust
I
FiQ.6/3

If the correction for acceleration is neglected, end the assumption that lift is approxi-
mately equal to weight Is made, then the equation for siny can be reformed 10:
Drag Thrust
slnv - Lift Weight
The Ide thrust change wtth velocity Is small. Therefore, the smallest glide angle Is
obtained at 8 sp&edwhere Ihe 11ft todrag ratio reaches its htghesl value. Thisspeed,lhe
minimum drag speed, Is familiar from chapler ... Although the exact values I~ those
drag polars and the associated V....N MAG are valid for the level flight only. they can be
used with sufficient accuracy for normal climb and descent.

101
The tangentfrom the origin to the RID curves in Fig. 6/3 designates the minimum angle
of descent, which is almost identical for aU weights. The speed lor best glide angle,
however, increases with increased weight and altitude.
For the normal flight envelope and a given weight, rate and angle of descent Increase
with velocity. Maximum rate of descent, ther-elore, is reached at max. allowable speed.

6.1.3 Influence of Weight

The influence of weight can already be derived from Fig. 6/3. Byadheringtotherespec-
tive best glide speed for a specific weight, the glide angle remains virtually Indepen-
dent of weight. The rate of descent, however~ increases with increasing weight, in other
words, a descent at high weight requires the same distance, but less tlmethan at lower
weight. II a specific descent speed is given, then the Influence of weight on the glide
angle varies depending on whether the speed for the shallowest angle Y (YMINOAAG) for
the given weight is lower or higher than the descent speed.
a) If VioliN DRAG is greater than the descent speed, then a higher weight will result in a
higher descent rate and a steeper glide angle.
b) If VioliN DRAG is less than the descent speed, then a higher weight decreases the des-
cent rate and improves glide angle.

6.1.4 Influence of Thru.t and Drag

The equations Irom chapter 6.1 show: the lower the thrust and higher the drag, the
steeper the descent. The highest descent rate is, therefore, obtained by lowering the
gear and spoilers with idle power at the highest allowable speed. lowering olthe llaps
is not recommended because of the low max. speed associated with them. With most
altitude and airspeed combinations the Idle "'thrust" is negative, which means it has the
same effect as aerodynamic drag.
At high altitudes the cabin pressurization of some airplane types requires engine
power that is slightly above idle.

6.1.5 Influence of Altitude

Altitude influences the idle thrust and speed changes 01 the airplane (see Fig. 6/2), and
with that the rate of descent. Furthermore, the aerodynamic behaviour 01 an airplane
changes with altitude. As a rule, the rate 01 descent reduces with decreasing altitude
due to the increase in idle thrust and the weakening ofthe Mach number effects. In any
case, the altitude does not have nearly the same significance with rate 01 descent as it
has with rate of climb, since idle thrust plavs only a secondary role.

6.1.6 Influence of Wind

As is the case with climb, a constant wind component independent of altitude has no in-
fluence on rate and angle 01 descent. The flight path, however, gets shallower with a tail-
wind and sleeper with a headwind. The rate and angle or descent gets bigger during a
descent with decreasing headwind, and smaller with decreasing tailwind (see chap-
ter 4.1.6).

102
 FiQ.614
< ,..---'.I~~DD
-~

8.1.7 Influence of Tempeqtu,..

The direct Inftuence of temperature on descent is negNglbl•. Only the changing TAS 8S
• result of temperature forms a relationship between temperature and descent per-
formance.

8.2 Descent S~
Conform wtth climb and cruise speeds. deacentspeeds are established based prlmar-
ltv on economic crHena This would Include ~hl and wind dependent optimum
speeds, whereby considerations such as
• passenger comfort
• turbulence penetration
• cabin pressurization
must also be taken into account.
Asia donawllh climb, a fixed descent speed is defined foreveryairplanetype, which Is
20-30 kI hlghertha" the minimum costeconomicdescentspead, and Is used for plan-
nina purposes only. As 8 result, this speed Is on the conservative &Ide, which means the
planned fuel consumption Is higher than WQulb be the case when maintaining mini-
mum cost Of economic descent speeds. This would cover the fuel aapect of any air
trattlc control speed requirements.
Th. economic descent speed 1& determined similar to the climb, which means con-
sumption and costs for vanous speeds a re viewed over a sector.
The profiles A, Band C in Fig. 6/5 result from a variation of the descent speeds at idle
power, I. e. fromAetV...1NORAII 10 CaIV...o. With that,A has the longest, Ctheshortestflight
time. The economical descent speed Is about 20-40 kt lAS above V...1N DIIAII, while the
descent with minimal consumption Is about·10 kt above V"I~~'
In principle, a descent is more economical the lower the thrust level and subsequent
fuel flow la, even If the thrust beComes negative, thus increasing the drag of the air-
plane. This point can be inustrated by vl&wlng the drag balance during descent:

103
 SECTOR

Fig. 615

A thrust- and subsequent fuel flow increase does not reduce the total drag of the- air-
plane (D - 1) to the same extent as the fuel flow rises, which means the consumption
per unit distance is increased.
That results in the engine manufacturers' efforts to reach the lowest possible idle-
thrust and fuel flow level. However, since certain specified ·spool-up" times from id Ie to
max. thrust (Go-around) must not be exceeded, high bypass engines (which are most
seriously effected), have had two idle rating-s built intothem.Asa result, when lowering
the flaps andlor the gear, an automatic switch is made from the economical low Idle to
the high idle.
From Fig. 6/5 can be seen thatth e descent gradient, and with it the profile, can be varied
with the descent speed. This leads to the recommendation that necessary corrections
tothe planned profile, forexampleshiftsasa resultotwlnd, should be made with speed
variation, whereby starting from minimum cost or economic descent speed, V...IN DRAa on
the low side and V...e, orM...o on the high side respectively limit the choice. The dynamic
effects of deceleration and acceleration act supportively under these circumstances,
additionally improving the gradient during deceleration for example, by transforming
kinetic into potential energy.
For descent planning and execution this would mean that in the case of unpredictable
winds, the descent should be initiated a little iater, with the descent profile then being
corrected through speed variation. This wou Id avoid the adverse situation of regaining
the planned descent profile by Madding power".

6.3 Drift Down

After the loss of one or two engines, the airplane is usually not able to maintain the
assig ned altitude, despite the availability of max. continu ous thrust forthe remainderof
the flight. The speed for the necessary descent should be chosen so as to ensure:
• safe clearance of obstacles
• sufficient range
Regulations require amongst other things, that the ·En-route net flight p8th~ aftar an
engine failure, clears obstacles by at least 600 m (2,000 tt) within 8 km to each side of
the planned route. The net flight path is determined In the following manner: the gross
climb gradient (which is negative for driftd own) is calculated, and from the following
table the appropriate value is substracted, resulting in the net climb gradient. The net
flight path can then be established from th is net climb gradient.

104
 Number of Engines Failed Engines
1 2
4 1.6% 0.5%
3 L4% 0.3%
2 1.1% -

If a descent to a lower altitude due to engine failure becomes necessary and obstacle
clearance and/or range becomecritieal, then the flight path should be kept asshallow
as possible. To do this, the airplane must first be allowed to decelerate to the minimum
drag speed (which changes with attitude andwelght),and descend at that speed tothe
Level Off Altitude. If the level off altitude liS not sufficient to clear obstacles safely, then
the weight must be reduced by dumping fuel during the drift down to ensure a higher
level off altitude. The earlier the dumping is started the greater the achievable range.
The following example (Fig. 6.6) Illustrates this:
The gross weig ht at the tlmeof englnefalllJre Is 190 tonS.lfdrlftdown Is commenced with
this starting weight, the resulting level off altitude will be lower than the required alti-
tude. The required altitude can only be maintained with a level off weight of 170 tons.
Therefore, approximately 18 tons of fuel must be dumped just prior to reaching the
required altitude (case Al.
II however 11 tons are dumped before beginning the drlftdown (case B) the required
altitude will be reached with the necessary 170 tons level off weight with a much
shallower descent profile and "- much g.-eater distance covered until level off.

OUtootP'1H

..!!m.'!!!llt_"
ALTITUDE
•

Fig. 616

105
Chapter 7

107
7. Landing
7.1 Climb Limited Landing Weight
In case 01 a go-around, certain minimum ell mb gradients are requ ired by regulations.
Distinctions must be made between a go-around
a) in Approach Configuration
b) in landing Configuration
The minimum gradients. and the definitions of both configurations are given in the
tabulation below:

eonftg\lralion Minimum Gradients

Gear Flaps Thrust Speed Number of engines
2 3 4
Approach '0 Approach 1 engine 1.5 V, 2.1 % 2.<4 % 2.7 'Yo
position inoperative
T10 ThI'\6Sl
on rema ining
engines
Landing down landing TIO Thrust 1.3 Va 3.2% 3 .2% 3.2%
position on all
engines

The approach flap setting is defined by the stall speed Va forthatspeclfic conffguratlon.
The Vs for the approach configuration may not exceed 110 percent of the V. for the
landing configuration.
The takeoff thrust in landing configuration Ia that thrust wh ich Is 8vailabkt 8 sec after
throttle advancement from tdle to full takeoff power.

7.2 FAR Field Length Limited Landing Weight

7.2.1 o.fWtion.
Demonslrar&d LMKling Distance
The distance reQl.'ired to tand, and bringtha elrplanetoacompletestopfrom a heightof
50 ft above the runway. Th is distance was detennlned for various weights. airport
elevations, and wind components under tn.a following conditions :
a) dry runway
b) ISA-temperature
c) reference speed -1.3 VI down to a halaht of 50 ft above the runway.

Landing Distance available

The fie ld surface designated by the airport authorities 8S usable 101" landing and roil ing
in 8 certain direction, lree of obstacles, and able 10 carry the aircraft weight

108
Landing Reference Speed (VM.') resp. Threshold Speed (VTtJ
The target speed in landing configuraUon at a hefghl ofSO tt above the runway tor a nor-
mal landing
VPiU - \In. -1.3 V.
Vs - stall speed in landing configuration

7.2.2 RegLl..tlons
The demonstrated landing distance (without reversers) based on the landing weight
estimated from normal fuel consumption, may not exceed 60 % 01 the available landing
di&tance. In other words, the required landing distance must be at least 1.67 times the
demonstrated landing distance (Ag. 711),

"""tn..g DlNeaa naiLible. Jlllll¥ly Leopo - - -- -- --

t----,..... --1
LiDlilag Dtstaoc:c ~.l''''' o;oro._... lda. Dl.n&ttco --1

D$IIIOtIIUI* LanclI1I8 DI.rlaDCO ----I

Fig. 711 (Dry ~wly)

Foffl~ht ~nnl ng purposes. the required runway length mustbe Increased by15 per-
ceot H the runway is wet (with the excep1ion of attemate airports).

fo-- - - - - LalldI.a.S DINQCe Il'ailab.· llla!wly ~ --------1

'.p
1------- ....ltiillg Dhlatll:& nqulred (Dfy) - - - - - - . . ,

Fig. 712

The margin can be reduced if the airplane manufacturer can damonstrate that the air-
plane Is able to land on a wat runway with a lesser margin. This was for example suc-
cessfully demonstrated for the Boeing 727,
In this case the runway length required for a wet I1.mway is 1,15 times the demonstrated
distance on 8 wet runway, but no less than the required distance on a dry runway:
landing Distance Required (Wet) -115 % of demonstrated Landing Distance (Wet)
LandinliJ Distance Required (Wet) iii:; Landing Distance Required (Ory)

109
7.3 Brake Energy Umiled landing Weight
Under the assumption that lull braking action Is applied, and the spoilers are fully
extended (no reverse thrust applied), the brakes convert so much kinetic energy Into
thermal energy that the fuse plugs might melteflera certain time period. This olcourse
happens only under extremely unfavourable conditions (high landing weight. high air-
port elevations and outstde temperatures, lOw flap settings, and downhill skip.). The
required quiet< lum-around time or the maximum allowed brake temperature to avoid
fUSB plug melting, can be obtained from the night manuals published by the airplane
manufacturer.

7.4 Overweight landing

Technical reasons may force the retum of a flight, thus requiring fuel to be dUmped to
avoid exceeding the maximum structural landing weight.
Considering the aspects 01 energy shortage~ , Increasing fuel prices, and the ecologi-
cal point of view. overweight landings may be allowed by the nHvtlntauthormis under
certain condttlons. However; these exceptions are restricted to only those C88es
where an unexpected probklm occurs (t~hnlcal oroperatklnal), and a landing with a
higher than certified structural landing weight would not prNent a safety hazard
(otherwise fuel would have to be dumped) . Planning of an overweight landing is not
parmitted.
The following aspects mU:!lt be laken into account for an overweight landing.

704.1 Ft.p PlKllrd Sp.ed

An overweight Ian ding may result in an axceedance of them8l\lmum inti ighl weights for
landing flaps. Since aerodynamic flap Ioad~ ara primarily a function of airspeed, and in- •
dependent of wetght, overstressing the flaps ls not possible as long sa thea6rapeed Is
below the nap placard speed.
Additional stress to tha wing structu ra due to the higher landing weight can be r~uced
by limiting tha bank angla to 30", I. e. by reducing the g-Ioad factor.

7.4.2 i.Mtd1ng Di8tMca fta;qutr.d

For an overweight landing. the landing di stance raqulred (dry and wet) must be
accounted for.
In cases where braking efficiency or spOiler deflection Is impaired, such 88 on contami-
nated runways, an overweight landing should not be attempted, even If an additional
margin of safety is availabla through thrust reversers.

110
 FLAP SPEED MARGINS

Fig. 713 GROSS WEIGHT •

LANDING DISTANCE MARGIN

LANDING DISTA C AVAILABL

NO REVERSE
THRUST

GROSS WEIGHT -~••

Fig. 714

111
1.4.3 Approech lind landing Climb LImit
In addillon to the "Landing Field length limit", the" Approach and landing Climb limit"
must alSo be considered In an overwtlighl landing.

CLIMB PERFORMANCE MARGINS

!
a

Fig. 715 GROSS W£IGHT -~••

7".4 I!Inke Energy Limit

The brakes may have to absorb so much heat energy during an overweight landing that
the fuse plugs could melt after a certain period of time. ConSidering possible residual
heat energy from braking during a previous landing, and further energy ab80rbtlon
from taxiing, the "Fuse Plug Llmit~ must be observed to avoid the risk of tire deflation
after an overweight landing. Since the "Fuse Plug Limtt~ i8 a function of brake- and
spoiler application, but not reverse thrust, landing with higherwelghtaon long runways
would be possible with the use of reversers since they may compensate fortheadditi-
onal increase in kinetic energy. Appropriate information ls given in the flight manuals.

7.4.5 A8teofDescent
The normal rate of descent fOl' a landing is approximately 120 ttfmln.
Airplanes ere, however, certified to 360 ttfmin formax. structural takeotfweight, and to
600 ttfmln for max. structural landing weight. Therefore, it i8 possible to perform an
overweight landing with a rate of descent of less than 360 ttfmln, without risk of
damage.

112
 BRAKE ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS

NO REVERSE tHRUST

Fig. 716 GROSS WEIGHT -~.~

704.6 OVe....lght Inspections

If an overweight landing is made, the necessary inspections in accordance with the
maintenance manual have to be made, regardless of how smooth the alrplanetouched
down.

113
 Chapter 8

Noise Problems

115
8. Aircraft Noise Problems
8.1 General/Introduction
Although each new aircraft type put into service during the last years was quieterthan
its predecessors, the noise problem in the lIicinity althe airports has not decreased, it
has often becom~ even more critical. This is primarily duelo increased operational fre-
quency, growth,of residential areas near airports, and increased sensitivity and public
awareness of environmental problems. Sin.ce a significant impact on noise reduction
throug h the operation of qu iet airplanes cannot be expected within such a short period
of lime, the following are some measures to reduce the noise emission through aircraft
operation procedures.

8.2 Noise-Measurement (and Description)

In Europe, it is generally accepted to describe sound by measuring the A-weighted
sound pressure level in dB(A). The International Standardization Organization (ISO)
decided atthe beginning of the 60's to reco mmend this measurement unit which gives
greater emphasis to the medium and high frequencies in accord with the sensitivity of
the human ear. The dB(A) measure was at that time the most usual one for measuring
equipment. However, because aircraft nois-e contains a lot of high frequencies (which

'r:a'
;'0, 30
c:
-0
()
(IJ
~
~
20

10
0
U
Ol 0
-
.-c:
.<:::
Ol
Q)
-10 '"
~ -20
Q)

--.,
>
(IJ
a:
-30

100 1000 10000

Fig. 811 Frequency Band [Hz]

116
are especially annoying), a measure was introduced which weighs this part of the
spectrum more heavily: The so-called Perceived Noise Level (PNL) in PNdB. Forcertifi-
cation of aircraft the measure EPNdB (Effective PNdB) is used. It accounts for pure
tones and the duration of sound.
In Ag. 8/1 the different weighing of the frequency spectrum according to dB(A) and
PNdB is shown.

B.3 Noise Abatement Takeoff Procedures

In recent years, different takeoff/departure procedures have been studied andlor are
in use to reduce noise over populated areas near airports. Because each airline may
base its choice fora procedure on special requirements, the following shows 2 proce-
dures which are used by Lufthansa.

8.3.1 Standard Takeoff Procedure

This procedure is based on the noise abatement procedure introduced in the USA in
1978, and is used by Lufthansa whenever a nonpopulated area is overflown near the
airport
For this procedure the aircraft climbs with Takeoff Flapseuing and Takeoff Thrust at
V2 + 10 to 20 kts, until reaching 1000 ft above ground. Thereafter, pitch is reduced and
climb power is set. The airplane accelerates while climbing with a rate of climb of appro-
ximately 500 to 1000 FPM, and flaps are retracted according to the flap speed schedule

EPNdB

dBtAl

t:~~~_~m
g.~
•
·~ :'II~lillfllfl!iilillll!lIlIlIlI!!I!lliillililllll!lIlIlIlIlI
DIST. filION OR,'" RELEASE (krnl
Fig. 8/2

117
defined in the respective operations manua I. After reaching 250 KlAS or Vz~, enrotJte
climb is initiated.
This procedure is the most economical one for Lufthansa, because the high drag take-
off configuration is sustained for the shortest possible time. This results In leas fuel
used and a gain in time over other procedures. Asshown in Fig. 8/2the peak perceived
noise levels under the flight path are high un-til the aircraft has reached approximately
2,500 ft, and may result in infringements wh en measured in this area.

8.3.2 lATA-Noise Abatement PtCkAdure

To avoid the previously mentioned noise disadvantages of the standard takeoff proce-
dure, and also to prevent possible operational restrictions (nlghtcur1ew, preferential
runways with long taxiways andlor tailwind and crosswind takeoffs) the IATA-airlines
agreed to a single noise abatement procedure (in the mid 70's).
The adoption of this procedure calmed the reactions of the residents In the vicinity of
the airport towards aircraft noise, dominat~d in those days primarily by low bypass
ratio turbojet engines.
With this procedure takeoff flap setting is maintained ata speed ofV:z+l0t020 ktsupto
3,000 ft above airport elevation. Atl,500 ft thrust is reduced to climb thrust and accele-
ration is initiated with a rate of climb of 500-1000 ft per minute.
This procedure is especially effective with 2nd generation low bypass ratio engines for
reducing noise emission in the immediate vicinity of the airport as measured by peak
noise levels in dB(A). However, this change is less dramatic when measured In Itsener-
gy equivalent levels of EPNdB when compared to the standard procedure, due to the

, _._r:....... ~,

• _ • • • 1IiIP_ Coo ..... IVt 2

,
~ , --- --- -- --- --- --
",•z •
.... -- -- -- ---
~
0• -,
• -, ., "'
-.
-,

~=~
E ,
",•z
~
• ,
* ~
DIST. FROM .II.... KE RELEASE IkmJ
Fig. 813

118
shorter duration of the event as perceived by a stationary observer (see Fig. 8/2). In
several areas to the side of the departure route, the noise relations are shifted in favour
of the standard procedure (ATC proc.). Fig. S/3 compares footprints (lines of constant
noise level, i. e. S5 dB(A) or 85 EPNdB) for both procedures.
When comparing the 85 EPNdB contours, it becomes apparent that the narrowerwidth
of the slandard procedure indicated a noise advantage. However, this trend is reversed
forth e 85 dB{A) footprlnl comparison, givi ng th e lATA abatement procedure the advan-
tage. This emphasizes the fact that It has better noise reduction under the departure
flight path in the immediale vicinity of the- airport, while the standard procedure has a
general advantage over a longer distance.
This difference becomes less pronounced as the bypass ratios of the engines in-
crease, resulting In lower peak levels for aircraft such as the A300, A3fO, OCfO, 747,
737-300, and other new generation models.
The longer flight time through the lATA procedure and the subsequent increase in fuel
burned puts a further strain on the environment through added air pollution.
The following table illustrates the additional fuel required through the lATA procedure,
in comparison with the standard, as shown for various different aircraft types.

Type of Aircraft 747 A310 727

Engines CF6-50E2 CF6-50C2 CF6-S0A3 JTSO-15QN
TOW (I) 320 210 110 70
Additional Fuel Consumption (kg) 300 200 80 60
The fuel differences are primarily the result of earlier flap retraction for the clean con-
figuration with the standard takeoff procedure.
Ag. 8/4 on the following page shows the speed progress of both procedures for an
A310 with 13S.6 tons at takeoff.
A new understanding in the area of aircraft noise and sound propagation has resulted
in a re-evaluation of the steep climboul procedure, which for many years was consid-
ered noise optimal. The following long since neglected influence factors have led to
thIs:
• the influence of aircraft velocity on exllaust-stream noise
• the Influence of pitch attitude on sound emission
• the time evaluated sound level is better suited than peak sound levels for the
assessment of annoyance
Beyond that, todays increased EDP (ElectroniC Data Processing) capacity makes finer
and more exact Simulation calculations possible, and allows evaluation of alternate
departure procedures with the help of noise footprint comparisons. In previous stu-
dies, noise quality was usually judged based onlyon the noise level progression below
the departure route.

8.4 Reduced or Derated T10 Tbrust

The frequent use of Reduced-Takeoff-Thrust or Derated T/O Thrust reduces not only
the overflight height, but also the noise emission otthe powerplants. For the evaluation
of the resulting noise emission on the ground it is vital to know the level to which the
thrust will be reduced, as well as the model and powerplant configuration of the aircraft
under consideration. As a matter of princi pie there will be an increase in noise directly
beneath a departing aircraft. This noise Increase is generally small, if you exclude the
areas of overflight with climbpower already set after cutback from full T/O power, and

119
 I I

100.0

Fig. 814
.. ..,
DIST. FROM 8RAKE RELEASE Dunl

the other case, areas of overflight with derated TIO thrust and lower altitude. This
increase does not however take place in thoe same manner, if the climb thrust is greater
than reduced thrust. The noise level progression below the departure route of a 8747
with a TOW of 300 tons is shown in Fig. 8/5, fortakeoffs with Rating I and II respectively.
Examining the resulting -footprint- (Fig. 8/113) reveils a constriction of the contourlines
on the side, and a slight lengthening as a ..esult ota TIO with less thrust (Rating II).

8.5 Noise Limited TOWs

Besides adhering to the noise reduction profiles above, many current SID's are simul-
taneously noise abatement departure routes. For acoustic monitoring, and to check
that set goals are achieved, many airports have noise monitoring with the help of
numerous noise measurement stations whose microphones are located near the
departure routes. Ag. 817 shows the situation In Frankfurt with 17 numbered noise
measurement stations.
Additionally, a number of airports (i. e. JFK, LHR, CPH) have prescribed fixed maximum
noise levels. This results in noise limited row's in the RWY-Weight charts.

120
 8747·200
CF._IOEa SEA L.E:VEl
TOW_ JOOt Oo\T.l!j"C
...... m WINO·OIIt

,
!
•
I

-RATINGI ----RATING u:
Fig. 815

.
... -__ ...... ,

I
!:•
..
•
.... _,- • •
I
I:
• ..
Fig. 816 -RATING I ---- RATING I

The calculations of the max. allowable ta keoft weight is based on adherance to the
SID's. However, one must not forget that unusual meteorological constellations (I. e.
temperature Inversion etc.) may lead to e:c:ceedances despite exact adherence to the
departure route.

121
122
8.6 Approach and Landing Noise
The efforts to reduce approach noise go back to the 1970's, and were triggered by the
high noise levels of the nightly postal fliQlht8 on approach to Frankfurt airport.
At that time, following essentall measures were discussed during the Investigations
and deliberations to reduce noise:
• increasing the glideclope angle
• increasing the intermediate ievel~ff
• delayed extension of flaps and gear
• a "Two-Segment"·Approach.
The result of the research led to the Frankfurt approach procedure that became known
as the Low Power/Low Drag Approach or Noise Abatement ILS-procedure. This proce-
dure is a general standard today. This favourable Improvement on the effect of
approach noise was attained through low powersettings, higher overflight heights,
and greater approach speeds. Althe same time, this leads to time and fuel savings. On
thewhole, these results are better than those of the 2-Segment-Approach whose sole
noise reducing factor lay in the increased overflight height.

B 737-200 adv.
JT80 -1~QN +MI_r SEA LEVEL
lJIJN· 43t OAT.1&"C
FLAPS 30 WIND·Okt

•• fSffi
00

e.

. 4000

..
10

" -.- •
~
""" x

o
o • 4 e a 101214 15'18202224aG283032
DlSTANZ 815 TClUCHOOWN [krill
Fig. 818

123
Ass turtherdeYelopmentotthe LP/LD--AeIPro.ch procedurefor' noiMI nductIon. and to
.speed upths approach, aConlInuoue Oeac.ntApproach (COA) haa been Implement-
ed lit nurnaroue airpoIta. 'NIh tt, ttM hOri:toi IbM approach OOIRPQMflt 1I kcIpI tit .. mW-
mum. UndarkSMI condIIona, the m"cwtty of the approach can beftOwn wtth kIa thrust
untl reecNng lIInd'"oconf9,l~ Thelrnprovementln nofw redUction as ClOn'II*ed
to thalPllD procedure .. limited to umall region. Ag. 81B ahowa thla rl' "' .... U81ngtha
B737 .a an example.

124
 Chapter 9

Weight and Balance

125
9. Weight and Balance
9.1 Forces and Moments
To determine the equilibrium of the aircraft about the lateral axis, It Is generally suffl·
clenl to examine the vertical forces, especially the weight and 11ft of both the wing and
stabilizer.

' .1.1 Qron Wel"ht

The gross weight Is the sum of the Dry ()perallon Weight (DOW), payload and fuel. The
DOW Itself consists of the Manufacturers Empty Weight (MEW) as well as the weights
for the crew with their baggage, the removable cabin equipment, catering material,
lubricants, and unusable fuel. The resultant of the single weights, namely the gross
weight, acts as one force through the Center 01 Gravity (CO) of the aircraft.

'.1.2 lift of the wh~

The lift of the wing Is alsoB single force , which results from the Integration oftheentlra
pressure distribution over the wing.
Examining a single wing section, the 11ft of this section acts through the so-called Cen·
ter of Pressure (CPl , whose location Is expr(lssed as a percentlge olthe chord lenljllh
as measured from Ih e leading edge. Since a rectangularwlng conalm of identical wing
sections, the location at the totallitt resultant Is known.

LIFT
..........
CENTER OF

1------ CHORD

FIQ. 911

A sweptback wing has sections that differ In size, and frequently In profile shape.
However, there e;dsts a representative segment on each wing half, whoseaerodynam·
Ie characteristics reflect the average of the entire wing hatt, th us localizing the centerof
pressure. The chord line of this particular profile is called the Mean Aerodynamic
Chord Of abrev~ted MAC. The position ollhe totallifl force (:II) and oltha centero' grav·
ity Is gWen in percent MAC, from the MAC.aeading edge.

126
 ..,.

Ro. 912

1.1.3 LIft of the Staha"",

The -1Itt- of the stabilizer can be directed up- or downwards depending on flight con-
dition (normally downwards) . The foree generated by the stabilizer controls the air-
plane about the pitch axis, 85 welt 88 trim the aircraft for center of gravity/CG- and
speed variations.
Additionally, the stabilizer is used 10 eom pan sate for th rust forces of engines nolaCiing
through the CG, e. g. the center engine of 8 OCW.

8.1." CoMmon. for EquHlbrtum

Straight and level Hight is only possible lIthe vertical forcesar. balanced, tt\al is if their
sum II equal to zero (Hg. 9/3). Fur1hermore, the moments genef81ed by each torce
aboUt any axis of rotation (here acting on Cp) must be balanced 100.
In fig. 9/3 the torees are so located that balance is given.
Forces : 100-90-10-0
Moments: 1 x 90 - 9 x 10
Generally. the moments are not related to 1he center of pressure (CP), but to a certain
bfllenceatatlon whose units are (in x kg) . This howeverresultaln large numbers thatars
then transformed to more workable figures through division and addition 01 constants.
The reaun: no longer has the units (in x kg), but is slJN a moment and is referred to as Dry
Operating Index (DOl) .
Rxthe 8747 e. g. the momenta are related to the balance statton 1305 and modiliedwith
the fottowlng formula:

127
 L.IFT
100"

CG Cf'

~ ____ 'm ______ ~

WEIGHT
Fig. 913 0010

001- M(1305) +30

200,000
(200,000 and 30 are constants)

9.2 The Center of Gravity Limits

With the help of the "Balance Chart" it is possible to determine the overall center of
gravity of the airplane, taking into account the center of gravity (00) of the empty aIr-
craft, the fuel distribution in the tanks, and the distribution ofthe payload, and from that,
the resulting moment as an Index number. It must be ensured that the CG is within the
allowable range referred to as CG-envelope.

9.2.1 Forward Limit of the Center of Gravity

Thevertical force (upwards or downwards) generated by the stabilizer Is limited by the
design of the stabilizer. The force is least at low takeoff-and landing speeds. However, it
is at this configu ration that the aircraft requires high angles of attack which can only be
established by a sufficient control momen1.
Supposing In Fig. 9/4 the maximum control force Is 20 tons, then the center of gravity
for that given weight is located too far ahead. In this case the CO must be located less
than 4 m ahead of the reference point olthe moment (in Fig. 9/4, it is the point ofapplica-
tion of the lift) for the aircraft to remain controllable.
Thus, the ma:ll:imum allowable forward CG-position is dictated by the controllability of
the aircraft.

9.2.2 Aft Umit of the Center of Gravrty

Analogous tothe forward CG limit, there is an sfteG limitwhich in most cases depends
on the ma:ll:imum possible upward directed lift force that the horizontal stabilizer can
generate. Apart from this static aspect, there is also a dynamic criterion:

128
 UFT
'20"
c

l--'m~+------20m - - - - -- -1
STABlUZER
WEIGHT FORCE
1COto
FIg, 9U

The aircraft shouk:! fly stablllzed.l • . after an external d isturbance the airc raft should
return to the fonner flight condltkm without any intervention from the pilot. It fOf
example the aircraft is hit by a guat, the eng Ie of attack is inc reased lor a sho rt time. The
IIttforcea on the wings and the stabilizer c h engs linearly with the angle of attac k, butto
different extents.

{~
li",-.. ,
• &l ' 10
l . llI .
"""'
, ai... \
• • l l ..
l · I H ..

QI CI' , . ..
I" "
1-___... _ _ _ -1.1'::::.- _ ..I~-~--".----IJ=-
w.'Ga ••
•• 10110

Fig. 915 Fig. 916

To grant longitudinal stability a clearly del lned restoring moment A M Is required. For
this example it ia assumed to be > 30 mto-.
From fig. 9/ 5 it can be seen that the restoring moment of 32 mla. ts sufficienllo return
the aircraft to equilibrium, whereas the re:storing moment in Ag, 9/ 6ls nol, stnce it is
less than required 30 mla.
On the contrary ; the angle of attack keeps inc reasing, aggravating the situation even
more.
The further the CG moves backwards the less the restoring moment will be. If !J. M
becomes zero there will be no tendency forthe airplane to either return to equilibrium
or diverge from it. The airplane Is thus neutrally stable and is said to h8ve reached its
"neutral point".
For manual fl ight, commercial airtranspof18irclllft must he."e posit ive stability to main-
tain a stability margin. The amo unt of margin required Is a function of a number of
varlabtes and wli generally differ from one airplane type to another.

'29
The maximum permissible aft limit otthe center of gravity Is therebydefl ned bythecon-
trollabillty or the static Inherent stabUity of tile aircraft.
NaturaUy. changaaln poattlon and Intensity of aerodynamic forces during variations In
angle of attack will be taken Into consideration for the calculation of the CG limit
The CG limits on the Balance Chart are shown with certain safety margins (certified
IImlVoperaUonallimit) to cover Inaccuracies In loading and CG shifts resulting from In-
night movement of passengers.

130
 Chapter 10

Flight Planning

131
10. Right Planning
10.1 The Fuel Policy
For each flight, a flight plan based on the relevant performance data has to be calcu-
lated. Apart from other pertinent informalio n, it provides the required amount of fuel
needed to perlorm a safe flight along the planned route, including any necessary fuel
reserves.
Basisand guideline for a regular calculation olall flight plans is the so-caliedcompBny
fuel policy. This policy is based on the legal requirements for the minimum fuel at
takeoff. The legal requirements are stipulated by the national Civil Aviation Authority
and freQuently stem from recommendations as issued through the ICAO Annex 6.
Generally, the minimum fuel for a flight consists of:
aJ trip fuel, to complete a flight from the departure to the destination airport.
b) alternate fuel, which includes a missed approach at the destination airport, sub-
sequent continuation to, and a missed approach at an alternate airport.
cJ holding fuel, to allow for holding at the alternate airport for a certain period of time.
d) contingency fuel, which co ....ers any unforeseen deviations from original planned
conditions.

10.2 Planning Method

The fi rst possible method that offers itselfto the calculation of a flight plan, is to theoreti-
cally fly the actual flight course on paper ahead of time.
Ttle fuel, time, and distance Is calculated forthe takeoH, and climb, then forthe cruise
including any possible step climbs, and finally for the descent and landing (Fig. 1011).
For flight to alternate airport, and for hoidilllg, standard diagrams are developed and
used.
This procedure is the most exact one, howe....er It requires the most time and effort in its
calculations, especially when done manually.

.......
Rf! E'SE
Fig. 10/1
_N
rouc><

Another option, which is far less demanding, is the Overhead-Overhead-method

(Fig. 10/2). Here the entire flight is assumed to be in cruise and Is calculated tor the
chosen cruise altitude. The resulting errors in flight time and fuel consumption with

132
regard to climb, step-<:Iimb, and descent, are compen&ated tor by -ctimb edditionats,
step c limb additionals, and descent corrections·. This procedure is also easily applied
when done manuany and has advantages even when used with a computer.
.
The disadvantage of this procedure is Its. lac k of fleXibility, and the resulting necessity
of conservativeness. For that reason, and,with the advent 01more powerful computers,
the first and most exact method is normally used so that a rTIOfe flexible and preclse
planning ts availab6e.

r-______~c~..~,u,______~(~~='1n~3OH)
(~~) i I
I .,...".... I
I"''''.....
,-' ACDIflCHAL DESCEHf
ACDIflONAL
I
I
1
......
A 1
ftlUCM
JI(I£&'l:

Fig. 1012
""""
A third, and even more coneervative proc edure is based on fuel calculations for stand·
ard weights. which means the aclUet ~ht Is not taken into account, and is replaced
by a conservative fixed value. In conJul'ICtion with standard-altitudes. and standard
flight times, this methods lends itself esJ)&Clally well to short distance fl ight planning.
Together with the necessary route date. this procedure forms the basis lor the so·
called Standard-Rightplane. Anyaddltlona need only be made if already incorporated
conservatlsms are exceeded.
The h~ prke at fuel no kmgec allows thEil westing ottuel entailed in conservatism. Fur-
th8fmOfe. Improvements in weather and wind predictions conbibute to more precise
and reliable fl ight planning.

133
11. Definitions
• speed of sound
b acceferatlon
C, drag coefficient
C, lift coefficient
c,_. maximum lift coefficient
CAS calibrated airspeed
CO c enter of gravity
COAT corrected outside air temperature
CP center of pressure
0 ."'11
DOt dry operating index
DOW dry operating weight
dv/dt flightpath acceleration
EAS equivalent airspeed
eOT exhaust gas temperature
EPfI engine pressure ratio
F, Inertia force
FAR
Ff
Fl.
F,
--
Federal Aviation Regulation

flight level
glOSS thrust
F. net thrust
F, ram drag
lAS indicated airspeed
ICAO international Civil Avl«Uon Orga.nization
!Me nttnnent meteorotogk:al condtttons
ISA international standBfd atmosptyere
L 11ft
LRC lDnge Range Cruise
riI messflow
mach number
" critical Mach number
"''''"
... ~ maximum operating Mach number
MAC Maximum Range CruISe
n toed taclor

138
OAT outside air temperature

•
Po
air pressure
standard U prll. ute
PA pressure attHucle
PET po;nt of equal tima
PHR point of no return
PSR point of safe return
q dynamic preaeure
R rolling realsil.nce
RAT ram air ternperabn
RIC rate of clknb
RIO nate of deacent
S wing aree.
SAT static air temperllture
SR specific range
T temperature
T thrust
T.
TIO
TAS
TAT
...-
standard temperature

true airspeed
totaJ air temperature
TIT turbine Inlet temperature
TOW takeoff weight
TSFC thrust specific fuel coneumptlon

-
lWC tailwind component
V
V, groundspeed
V~ lftoO_
V~ "*-I meteorological conditions
V_ _
maximum tire speed
V_ maximum b~ke energy speed
V_ minimum control speed air
V~. minimum control speed ground
V~ maximum operating speed
Vw minimum unstlck speed
V_ landing reference &pHd
V, hydroplaning _

137
V, i otMkN'IlIP II II

V. "81:11111
V'M tNe~ .. cI

V, critical enol" failure apeed

V, . . oft' cimb ICIlid
W ••Ig,'it

.... -
W' .,.,.... Wllght

'No
w,
--
wkM:t component
• ..... "'.-. . ,,

-- ..
~ t.nkanQie
, climb angle, de .cent angM
•
, , ' ..

_AI . .
6 preuurerado • ".Ilt·"'. ·
6 OElTA Incremental chana. of a variable .rs. ::lj".,!~.
" ..'
9 "'ETA r .k..;.....-: . ,,-
. (. :r-;.- . '.

• mQ roUlng friction coefficient

....denltty
p
Po ""'
""' ....ndard air den.ity

,
,,',' " . w.,,"'.l1 .."
II, .•. " ' . . •.

".
,t" • ~

'.
•