NEW KIND OF MAGAZINE FOR ELECTRONICS PROFESSIONALS

·COIITEIITS FROM THE

PUBLISHER
Vol. 1 No.1 May 1984 Welcome to ComputerDigest. This is Volume 1, Number
1 of what we intend to make a long series of continuing
4 Lisa, PC, Macintosh, And Peanut publications. Our purpose is to bring you something that
A look at four popular systems and how they stack up you cannot get elsewhere currently: a broad look at what
against each other. Byron Wells is happening in computers from the viewpoint of the
electronics professional.
6 Macintosh: A New Variety Of Apple
Apple's new computer has created a bit of That means that ComputerDigest is not w ritten for the
excitement. Find out why, and exactly what it is that typical computer operator or hobbyist. It is written for the
makes the Macintosh so special in our in-depth review electronics professional-engineer, technician, or
of that new machine. Marc Stem hobbyist-who has his feet solidly placed in the field of
electronics. To sum it up-the typical Radio-Electronics
9 CP/M For Beginners reader.
Though it has scared off many a beginner, CP/M is one
of the best, and easiest-to-use operating systems Because of that slant, that orientation, we are different!
available. Herb Friedman However, we do not replace any other computer
magazine. In fact, if we are successful in obtaining
12 Upgrading Budget Printers permission to reprint articles from other computer
Just because you own a budget printer doesn't mean magazines, we may well serve as an introduction to what
that you have to settle for budget features. Here's a those magazines have to offer. In fact, you may blame
look at some products for upgrading some of the most us-ComputerDigest-some time in the future for
popular inexpensive printers on the market. causing you to subscribe to so many other publications.
Herb Friedman
But for now, as Byron Wels, our editor points out on his
2 From The Publisher facing page-we need to know what kind of magazine
you want ComputerDigest to be. We need to compare
3 Editorial your input with our plan, making modifications where we
can to make the two pictures overlap. So do write. We'll
read your letters, respond to them as qUickly as possible,
consider all of your suggestions carefully, and go on to
make ComputerDigest a really great publication.

I know I've said it before, but it is important so I wi ll

repeat myself one more time. ComputerDigest is an
added section in Radio-Electronics. Note that the pages
are numbered separately. It takes no editorial space away
from any R-E reader. If you like reading R-E, but are not
interested in computers, just ignore the section. If you do
like it, you can tear it out and save it as a separate
publication.

ComputerDigest is our investment in the future of

electronics. Join with us and learn more about this existing
exploding field . You are an electronics professional today,
and that means you 're going to have to know about
computers.
Sincerely,

lARRY STECKLER
PUBLISHER
EDITORIAL ColfilUiEil
D,GESi
Another Computer Magazine!
Hugo Gernsback (1884-1967)
No! This one is different. Really different! founder
M. Harvey Gernsback, editor-in-
Considering the numbers of computer magazines available today, you could chief
go broke trying to read them all. What's more, the amount of time you Larry Steckler, CET, publisher
would use up just going through all of them would keep you from getting Art Kleiman, editorial director
anyplace near your computer. Byron G. Wels, editor
Brian C. Fenton, technical editor
That's why ComputerDigest is here. Carl Laron, associate editor
Robert A. Young, assistant editor
We do read all the magazines in the field, and we read them very carefully. Ruby M. Vee, production manager
When w e see an article that we feel is important to you, we pull it out and Robert A. W. Lowndes, production
put it aside. Then, once a final selection is made,each of those articles is associate
read again and carefully edited to carve off the fat and leave only that Dianne Osias, production
which is necessary to make it readable and informative. assistant
Joan Roman, circulation director
When we can't get permission to reprint an article, we assign one of our Arline R. Fishman,
own authors to do a story that fully covers the subject in our own style and advertising coordinator
format. In this issue, every article is original with us. Next month, we hope
will start showing carefully selected and edited reprints.
Gernsback Publ ications, Inc.
You gain two ways. First you don't have to buy those magazines you don't 200 Park Ave. South
really need. Second, you get to preview a lot of magazines you may have New York, NY 10003
been considering subscribing to. If you like the kind of articles they publish Chairman of the Board,
(after you preview one or two in ComputerDigest) you can subscribe, . M. Harvey Gernsback
knowing that it is a magazine you will want. President; Larry Steckler

Naturally, we can't operate in a vacuum. We need some i"nput from you too. ADVERTISING SALES 212-777-6400 '
We'd appreciate your comments, and we hope we'll be able to get a letter Larry Steckler
column started with the next issue. So do drop us a line and give us the Publisher
benefit of your thinking. We need and want your help to make
ComputerDigest a more helpful, valuable publication for you. EASTISOUTHEAST
Stanley Levitan
We know you'll like what you find in the pages that follow, and that you will Radio-Electronics
be looking forward to our next issue. We feel that we have an excellent 200 Park Ave. South
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accomplish that purpose. 212 -777 -6400

Thank you for joining us here, and we hope we 'll be talking to you again, MIDWESTlTexas/Arkansas/Okla.
and often, in the future. Ralph Bergen
Radio-Electronics
BYRON G. WELS 540 Frontage Road-Suite 325
EDITOR Northfield, Illinois 60093
312-446-1444

PACIFIC COAST
Mountain States
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15335 Morrison St., Suite 227,
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MAY 1984 - ComputerDigest 3

 Although there are more than two computer
Apple-always seem to dominate the headlines.
machines

When you talk to the experts, all you're going

to get is confused. Most people who already own
computers compare other computers to those
they have. It's something like buying a new car. It TABLE 1
takes a bit of getting used to. If you're switching
from a stick shift to an automatic you're going to Apple Macintosh
have some adjustment problems. And the
additional little gadgets on the new car will Microprocessor MC68000
Memory 64K ROM 128K RAM
probably remain unused until you get accustomed Disk drives One 3V2 inch microfloppy
to their being there! Disk storage 400K per disk
Got a keyboard with the legends printed right Keyboard 58-key detached (numeric keypad
on the keys? You might not like having the legends optional)
off to the top of the key, on a separate insert. But Size 9.7 (width) x 10.9 (depth) x 13.5
(height) inches
once you get used to it, who knows? You might Weight 16112 pounds (without keyboard or
even learn to like it. mouse)
What we're trying to say, is that while a lot of Other comments Mouse, independent clock! calendar,
information is available when it comes to making two RS-232/RS-422 serial ports, built-in
major decisions, we'd suggest that you do not video monitor, sound/voice generator
base an important decision on a superficial factor.
Because most of us like to comparison shop,
here's a good jumping-off place for you:

Apple's Macintosh
This personal computer will solve all kinds of
problems for anybody from a school person to a
business manager. It comes with a mouse, and
offers a 32-bit (internal architecture)
microprocessor and bit-mapped graphics. You get
TABLE 2
many of the advantages of the Apple 32 Apple Lisa 2
supermicro at an excellent price. Microprocessor MC68000
Memory 16K ROM, 496K RAM
Apple's Lisa Disk drive One 3Y2-inch microfloppy
Disk storage 400K per disk
There are three, count 'em, three Apple Lisa's.
Keyboard 76 keys with numeric pad
The Lisa 2, the 2/5 and the 2/10. If you want Size 18.7 (width) x 15.2 (depth) x 13.8
Apple, and want more Apple than you can get in (height) inches
a Macintosh, go for the Lisa series . Again, the more Weight 48 pounds
Lisa you get, the better off you will be, so we Other comments Three slots, two serial ports, one
parallel port, built-in speaker with
advise investing the most you can afford to make
software-controllable tone generator.
your first expense your last. All the Lisa 's come
with a mouse, and as you'll see from the
specifications, they keep getting more and more
powerful ..

4 CompulerDigesl - MAY 1984

manufacturers, the same two-IBM and
Let's compare what their most popular
offer.

TABLE 3
IBM PC
Microprocessor 8088
Memory 40K ROM, 16K (standard) to 256K RAM
Disk drives Up to two 5%-inch diskette drives
(optional)
Disk storage 160K per diskette
Keyboard detached, with 6-foot cable. 83 keys, APPLE's MACINTOSH (above) and IBM's PCjr- two new ma-
auto repeat chines generating a lot of excitement.
Size 20 (width) x 16 (depth) x 5.5
(height) inches
Weight 21 pounds (without drives) 28 pounds
(with two drives)
Other comments Cassette 110, five expansion slots, built-
in speaker, BASIC interpreter. RF
modulator or video monitor must be
purchased separately

IBM's PCjr.
Many have taken to ca lling this "the Peanut," and
TABLE 4 it's a truly innovative unit w ith some features that
IBM PCjr tickled our fancy- like the cordless keyboard that
Microprocessor 8088
is coupled to the system unit via infrared signals to
Memory 64K ROM, 64K RAM
Disk drives one 5%-inch double-sided drive provide a degree of freedom heretofore
(optional) unavai lable. It's an excellent, low-priced starting
Disk storage 360K on a double-sided d iskette unit, and w ill do a w orkmanli ke job for the small
Keyboard cordless infrared keyboard with 62 office or for the home.
chicklett keys
Size 13.9 (width) x 11.4 (depth) x 3.8 IBM's PC
(height) inches
Weight 6 pounds (without drive) 9 pounds There are two PC's from IBM. The PC and the PC
(with one drive) Xl Chances are that w hen you visit your local
Other comments Cassette 110, two joysticks. Cord for dealer,
keyboard is optional. Display is 40
, if you ask to see the jr it won't be long
before he's selling you "up" to a PC or an Xl Both
columns, 80 columns with upgrade
that also increases RAM to 128K. (Both are excellent va lues, and suffic iently powerful to
that upgrade and disk drive are do any sort of job that you'd cali o n a desktop
included with the enhanced version. unit for. There's a vast array of software available
Connector for N is optional, direct for both, and the speci fi cati ons speak exceed ingly
and composite video are standard.
well for these units ......CD~

MAY 1984 - ComputerDigest 5

 MACINTOSH: a new variety of apple.
Apple s long-awaited new business For example, if you want to open a file, you simply
point to a file-folder icon, push a button on the mouse,
computer has arrived. Lets take a look at and a file is opened. O r, if you want to create some
what it has to offer. text (provided the proper application program is in the
MARC STERN disk drive) you then point to the appropriate picture or
menu command at the top of the screen and you are in
the text-processing mode. During thiS time, the
computer is handling all the tasks without requiring you
to remember any commands to control its operating
system.
That ease of use points the way the personal
computer world is likely to go. It seems almost
inevitable that the personal computer of the future will
be easy to use yet powerful. It's like ly the personal
computer of the future will take only a few hours or so
to learn adequately so you can use it for whatever
purpose you have in mind.
The Macintosh is a logical progression of the small
computer-system. In the last decade, since the first,
\ .,..-' 7 "primitive" microcomputers became available, the
industry has advanced a step at a time from 4-bit to 8-
• bit to 16-bit and to 32-bit architecture. Each step in th is
progression has brought with it an increase i,n power
-No one will know for some time the impact that the and capability
Macintosh w ill have on computer users and the Eight-bit microprocessors, w ith their 16 address lines,
computer industry-but we'd be will ing to bet that it can directly address a maximum of 64K (actually 216 or
will have a major effect. The Macintosh, with its 65,536) memory locations. However, that figure was the
MC68000 microprocessor, icons, and mouse, (we'll upper limit of its capability Some 8-bit-based systems
explain shortly) may be an example of how all do claim the ability to address more memory, but they
computers will be designed in the years to come. are using fancy memory and timing techniques (bank
To be sure, the Macintosh isn't the first smal l selecting) to achieve that affect.
computer to use the MC68000. For example, Radio For its time and for most purposes, that was more
Shack's Model 16, wh ich was introduced a couple of than adequate for many computer users. It was a fairly
years ago, and Apple's Lisa both use it. But the simple setup, requiring only 16 address lines, eight data
Macintosh is the first system to use the power and lines, and various control-bus lines. But that simplicity
capability of that microprocessor in a computer that had its drawbacks, especially for systems and program
costs under $2500. developers, who just love more and more computing
Just w hat do you get for your $2500? You get the power. The 64K limit of memory addresses and the
main unit, the keyboard, and the mouse. The main unit relatively primitive level of instructions available limited
includes a 9-inch black-on-white display (512 x 342 them in what they could do,
pixels), the microprocessor and related circuitry, Fortunately, the 16-bit microprocessor began to make
(including 128K RAM and 64K ROM), a 3.5-inch Sony its appearance. Here is a device wh ich can d irectly
microfloppy-disk drive that can store up to 400 address more than a megabyte of memory (2 20 bytes).
kilobytes; two RS-232/RS-422 serial ports, and built-in Of course, it is a bigger, more powerful device. It uses
sound and speech hardware. That's quite a bit of 20 address lines plus a 16-line data bus for its 16
power in a lightweight (17-pound) unit. internal data registers, and lines for timing and other
control functions. System designers and programmers
Icons and a mouse can do a great deal more with it because not only can
Perhaps the most important features of the Macintosh it support far more memory, it also has a richer
are those that make it easy for almost anyone to use it. instruction set.
With the mouse (a desk-top "roller controller") and Although it was the type of device which could do
icons (graphic representations of a command or cartwheels in the eyes of developers, it was also a
function), you can do a great many things without device which required more support circuitry than an
knowing the first thing about operating systems or 8-bit microprocessor. So, of necessity, the motherboard
command structures. All you have to do is move the in a 16-bit computer became much more complex.
mouse on the desk, and the screen pointer (cursor) And that brings us to the Macintosh and its 32-bit
moves to a picture (icon) that indicates the action you internal architecture, the next step in the
want to take . Then, you push the single button on the microcomputer revolution. Unlike its predecessors
mouse and the system goes to work. (such 8-bit devices as the Z80 or 8080 and such 16-bit
6 CompulerDigesl - MAY 1984
microprocessors as the 8086/8088), the MC68000 is input, so it works nearly as fast as a true 32-bit
packaged in a 64-pin flat pack with 24 address lines, 16 microprocessor-although Motorola (the
data lines, and 20 control lines. It has a 32-bit internal microprocessor's manufacturer) calls it a 16-bit device.
architecture (its has seventeen 32-bit data and address For convenience, though, we' ll continue calling the
registers) and it has the capability of directly Macintosh a 32-bit machine. Just remember, we're
addressing 16 megabytes with its 24 address lines. referring to the microprocessor's internal architecture.
Macintosh's only limitation at the moment is the Macintosh comes with 192K of internal memory,
amount of RAM available: 128K. Unless a program wh ich consists of the 64K ROM that stores many of the
designer wants to move applications routines in and operating system primitives and device drivers, as well
out of memory w ith constant use of the single disk as other system and device calls, and 128K of RAM.
drive (a second optional drive is available), most Mass storage is via a 3.5-inch microfloppy diskette,
routines will actually be single tasks. When Apple which holds 400K of information on a single-sided
upgrades the Macintosh to a promised 512K of RAM in double-density disk.
the fall, then multitasking and true concurrency will be When you open the system box you will find all of
available. the Macintosh's memory and processing power is on
Still, Apple's unique way of handling input and one motherboard running along one side of the box.
output makes it seem as if Macintosh is capable of This board contains the CPU, RAM and ROM. It also
concurrency You are able to call up two concurrent contains the connectors for the mouse controller, as
applications under the main program and have them well as the connector for the optional external floppy
resident on screen, with one of the executing. Much of disk drive. Further, it also contains dual serial ports to
this is due to the fact that a large part of the interface a printer and modem. The system also
Macintosh 's operating program is stored in read-only contains a built-in, battery-driven clock/calendar and
memory and is called for by the disk-based the sound/speech generation chip.
applications program. Because it is, very little RAM is With the exception of the 68000 CPU and
wasted holding the operating system and thus the microfloppy diskette drive, the basic Macintosh outline
entire 128K is available for use. is pretty simi lar to many other small computer systems
But this is getting away from the point here wh ich is on the market. But Apple has done something that is
that Macintosh 's microprocessor points the way to the unique. For a better understanding of this, it's only
future and it is a logical step in the microcomputer necessary to take a look at the architecture of the
revolution. system, as well as the user interface to see why
Macintosh is innovative.
16 or 32 Bits?
You might have noticed that whenever we said "32- Unique architecture
bit, " the word "architecture" always followed. Although At the heart of this system is the 68000 CPU and its
Apple markets the Macintosh as a 32-bit computer, memory In the Macintosh, the RAM data-output lines
there are some who would debate that terminology, are connected to a different bus from that used by the
preferring to call it, instead, a 16-bit computer. The rest of the system, increasing operating speed. The
reason is the number of data lines. The 68000 uses 16 RAM has three different entry ways, each of which give
data lines (rather than 32) to bring data to its 32 the CPU, screen display and sound-generation
registers. The result is that the device must make two hardware separate periodic access to the data and
16-bit fetches, which slows th ings a bit. However, once address buses so that sound, video and the current
the data are inside the processing unit, they are task that the 68000 is performing appear concurrently
processed in a 32-bit manner. So what kind of executing to the user.
computer is the Macintosh? It is a 16/32-bit machine. The ROM, which contains low-level graphics
The MC68000 uses special timing routines for data primitives, operating system routines, and user-interface

. ~
THE MACINTOSH WILL NOT take up too much room on your A VARIETY OF ACCESSORIES is available for the Macintosh,
desktop. Its "footprint" (not including the keyboard or mouse) including an outboi\rd drive, a numeric keypad, printer,
is 10 x 10 inches. modem, and carrying case.

MAY 1984 - ComputerDigest 7

 routines, is d irectly connected to the system bus and is w ill run, without worrying about whether company X's
used only by the CPU. Because of the way its software peripheral card will change things.
is encoded and stored-in low memory locations- One last feature of the system architecture is its
the ROM-based subroutines function as extensions of simplicity Using programmable logic-arrays, large-scale
the 68000 instruction set and operate at system speed . and very large-scale integration techniques, App le has
Therefore, the ROM is always accessed at 8 MHz been able to keep the IC package count to about 50.
Video memory appears as a linear array of 10,94416- That not only helps to keep the computer's size and
bit words of data. Because of the arrangement of video cost down, it helps to ensure reliability
memory with the rest of the system, RAM access time
slows to about 3.5 MHz during the horizontal video The user interface
refresh period. That prevents video glitches. The second key to Macintosh's uniqueness is the
A key to the Macintosh system, though, is the serial user interface. It is simple to learn and easy to use.
bus. It is through this bus that most peripherals will Rather than relying on the traditional operating system
interface with Macintosh. It can run in two modes, the approach with its rather cryptic A > (or whatever)
first using an extemal clock which allows data transfer prompt, followed by the need for a command or series
at up to one megabit-per-second; the second mode of commands, Apple has chosen the mouse and
uses an internal clock and allows data to be transferred screen graphics and menus as the way someone w ill
at up to 230 kilobits-per-second. That is the speed at be able to access and use any of the applications
which most peripherals w ill transfer their data. wh ich he may need.
It is through this latter feature that Macintosh The windowing capability allows several documents
implements "virtual" slots. Rather than relying on to be displayed on screen simultaneously The
conventional slots as has been Apple's policy with its windows can be moved, expanded or shrunk. This
tremendous ly successful Apple /I + and /Ie lines, the means that numbers, words and pictures can easily be
company interfaces each piece of peripheral cut and moved around and repasted elsewhere.
equipment in a daisychain manner off the serial bus. Since Macintosh uses an unchanging memory and
Each peripheral has its own power supply and will use access format, all programs-will use the same
the 230-kilobit data-transfer rate. command structure in the same way No longer is it
Wh ile a closed bus might seem to be a necessary to learn and relearn new commands as new
disadvantage, virtual slots do have some advantages programs are acquired. This means that software
that become apparent. For starters, it means the system designers are forced into standardization that is seldom
box can remain closed, thus preventing radio- seen in the microcomputer world .
With the Macintosh, there's no more worry about
Rtbena Sport learning long, complicated command strings or the like.
And, rather than taking 20 to 40 hours to master the
machine, Apple estimates it w il l take 10 or less. Also,
. . . . .lifpatal the software allows the system to share files across
up your people 10 market.mg, I want.ed to several programs and it gives software' developers
"'-==-"':';=:":':"':;J'ake 'Zapata I 1M hottest sellmg all-sport shOe
lIl'our line direct access to its many features through a
You can read tne attached 143-page report at your leIsure, l>ut tills "developer's toolbox."
really gives you everything you need to know
Future trends
What is in store for the future of Macintosh is still up
in the air and several questions remain with it. Li ke it
has done before, Apple has introduced a system that is
totally incompatible with the systems it already has on
the market-although it will "talk" with the Lisa (it is
A MEMO CAN easily be illustrated with graphics. Note the upward compatible-meaning that the Lisa can run
window near the top corner of the sereen. Macintosh software, but not the other way around).
Further, since there is no compatibility w ith the near
frequency interference (RFI) problems that have industry-standard MS-DOS operating system and since
troubled many other manufacturers. Further, since there there is likely to be none, there have been questions
are fewer mechanical connections in a serial interface raised about its future in the business market. Also, it
than on a typc ial add-on computer card, there are comes totally w ithout software-not even BASIC is
fewer places where mechanical troubles can occur. included when you buy it, so you must start adding to
And, since each peripheralwill use its own power the system's price at the start. (Apple, however, w ill
supply, the power requirements of the Macintosh can throw in word -processing and graphics software if you
be kept low and stable, and the company doesn't buy the computer w ithin 100 days after its introduction
have to worry about beefing up the supply to handle date of January 24, 1984.)
future peripherals. In that way, costs are kept down. In conclus ion, the future of the Macintosh is still
Finally, for software developers, the virtual-slot system unclear. Yes, many people and the company are
means that the memory map w ill always remain the ecstatic about the machine, but there is still some
same-there w il l be no peripheral cards inserted into uncertainty around . Whatever the outcome, one thing is
memory that will change the mapping itself. Therefore, for sure, Macintosh's impact on the smal l computer-
developers can be assured the programs they write systems market is likely to be felt for yea rs . ~(1)~
8 ComputerDigest - MAY 1984
 YOlimlO
HERB FRIEDMAN
CP/M
Here's a CP/M primer that's perfect for beginners others who need to know about that
operating system on a non-technical level.

-It often appears that CP/M is the bogeyman of The fact that it remains the leading 8-bit computer
personal computing. Some colleges short on funds operating system is a testimonial to how well it was
take in substantial extra income w ith rather expensive initially thought out, touch ing bases that hadn 't even
"How to use CP/M" adult education courses. Highly . been thought of in the late 1970's.
paid consultants· will come to your home or office any CP/M was intended for a "persona l computer" that,
hour of the day or evening to give you personal training like the mythical kingdom of Camelot, lasted for one
in CP/M. Magazine authors suggest you consult the local brief instant in time. It was written for a central
"CP/M expert" to work out your problems. And computer to which other equipment--called
computer stores offer as an excuse to users who "peripherals"-were connected. Depending on the
wiped out all traces of their software from a hard disk particular installation the input to the computer could
that "it's your fault if you misuse CP/M." be from any of several devices such as a teletypewriter,
Why is CP/M so difficul t to use? In truth, it's not a video terminal consisting of a keyboard and CRT
difficult at all; it's often easier to use than most of the display, batch processor, a telephone line, a paper-tape
so-called user-friendly operating systems. reader, virtually anything. Similarly, the computer could
Most difficulties in using CP/M arise because the feed any number of devices, among them a high-
system has remained essentially the same while the speed line printer, slow speed letter-quality-printer,
hardware, the program software, and the type of several d isk drives, paper-tape punches, teleprinters,
person using the software has changed dramatically. even another computer. Hence, CP/M was designed to
Many of the original CP/M concepts no longer pertain accommodate all those various peripherals, and
to how the modern personal computer is generally numerous software routines commonly used by "data
used. But once you understand CP/M in terms of processing" techn icians were built into CP/M so the
modern hardware and software and your own user could easily use the peripherals.
technical level, you will find that it becomes a delight Today, however, the typ ical personal computer rarely
to use. connects to that much hardware. Nor does the user
need the software functions that go with the hardware;
What's CP/M? yet the functions remain in CP/M. If you call a function
CP/M, an acronym for Control Program for not implemented for your particular computer, either
Microcomputers, is only a disk operating system w ith a nothing happens, your information gets directed to
fancy name. It's primary purpose is to create d isk files places unknown to you, or the keyboard locks up. If
and then permit the user to use the files in any desired you just don't use the features there won 't be any
manner. For example, the output from a d isk file could problems. We'll cover what not to use a little later.
be directed to a printer, or another d isk drive to make Also, the documentation was intended for the
copies, or another computer, or a modem, or a paper computer scientist/engineer/technician, and even some
punch-anything at all. of them had difficulty understanding it. For many
On the opposite side of the coin, CP/M allows / applications-oriented users of personal computers,
almost anything to be used to create the d isk file. The inconsequential hassles become insurmountable
input could come from a keyboard, a teletype problems because the user doesn't understand the
machine, a CRT terminal, a card reader, paper tape- technically-oriented documentation.
again, anything. To make life easier and simpler for those of you who
Some of those devices and uses might sound aren't computer experts, and don't care to become
strange because you have not heard of them or your experts, we're going to cover CP/M from a strictly non-
computer has no provisions for them; and that's a good technica l applications-oriented viewpoint. Some of
part of the reason some users have difficulty using you wil l undoubtedly gnash your teeth and shout to
CP/M. CP/M was never intended for the modern the world "that isn't right. " Gnash away! This short
personal-computer or the typical person using it today. course in CP/M is intended strictly for those who want
MAY 1984 - CompulerDigesl 9
 DIR
A. CARDF I LE COM MBAS I C COM LABEL2 BAS MAILPAC BAS
to use their computer, not write the next multi- A: F AMI L Y BAS BOOKEEP BAS CHECKS BAS CHECKS82 BAS
megabyte integrated word processor/spreadsheet! A:
A:
INSURE84
STAT
BAS
COM
PIP
XD I R
COM
COM
CARDF I LE
COMHE X
PRM
COM
CARDFILE
MITE
DAT
COM
graphics program. A: FILES DOC FLS COM
A>
Note : To avoid confusing computer keyboard
FIG. 1-THIS TYPICAL DIRECTORY display shows the CP/M
commands, the punctuation-the periods, commas, utilities, MBASIC and its files, and a Cardfile dat abase with
colons, etc.-which are by normal convention located its files.
within parentheses will be shown outside the
parentheses. unrelated files; you would like them arranged into
homogeneous groups. For example, you woul d like
Drives and user areas only the CP/M utility programs-PI p, STAT and XDI R- to
As stated earlier, CP/M is a disk operating system. It be available on boot up, with MBASIC and all its
will write and read d isk files on any of up to 16 related programs w ith the .BAS extension listed
individual or "dual identity" disk drives which are alpha independent of both the CP/M utilities and the
labeled as "A", "B:", "( ", etc. The colon (":") is part of database program with its ind ivid ual data files and
the disk drive hardware identification; without it CP/M prompt screens. Figure 2 shows how only the CP/M
has no idea what you are talking about, and the lack of utilities wou ld be d isplayed.
the colon is the reason why what should be an OIR
;~ P I P COM : STAT COM : XOIR COM
ordinary copy command can resu lt in inaccessible disk
files. Whi le a disk drive can be assigned any letter
I
(within reason), because of the way modern personal- FIG. 2.-THIS IS HOW we would like the computer to " boot
computer software is written, the main drive, the so- up," with a DIR showing only the utility files.
called primary default drive, is always A and the What you can do to avoid the cl utter is to tag each
second drive is always B: You could have your second individual file by ass igning it a user area tag . As shown
drive designated ( but a lot of commercial software in Fig. 3, we could place the MBASIC file and its
wouldn't have the vaguest idea what to do. Unless you programs in user-2 area by first typing USER 2. A nything
modify the software that is the way it must be done; done from here on w ill have the USER 2 tag, so if we
otherwise, you will end up w ith software that won't now move (write) MBASIC and its relate9 programs to
run, or software that simply erases it's own records. the disk they w ill all have the USER 2 tag . A ll programs
(Self-erasure is very common to hard disks where A created by MBASIC will also automatically get the USER
and B: are the same disk mechanism.) 2 tag.
Take note that some programs permit the user to
eliminate the colon when specifying disk drives, and USER 2
A >DI R
some so-called "utility" software permit the user to use A. MBAS I C COM. LABEL2 BAS . MAILPAC BAS: FAMIL Y BAS
A. BOOKEEP BAS . CHECKS BAS. CHECKS82 BA S • I NSURE84 BAS
CP/M without the colon. Using a colon at one time and A>

not at other times causes mBre problems thaI! the FIG. 3-MBASIC AND ITS FILES should have their own
convenience is worth because omitting a colon at the exclusive tagged directory.
wrong time can "crash" (ruin) a file. Try to do it CP/M 's
To keep our database files separate we might give
way at all times-use the colon even if you don 't have
them a USER 5 tag . From the "A>" command prom p t we
to.
type USER 5. Everything we do w ill now get the USER 5
The basic CP/M system that handles the filing and ·
tag. If we write our database, in this instance Cardfile,
retrieval of d isk data has several inherent command
to the disk, the program and all its generated prompts
functions. The most commonly used command is DIR
and files will be tagged USER 5 (see Fig. 4).
(for "directory"), which will cause the display device to
show a directory of the disk files. The directory can be USER 5
A >DIR
"keyed" so that only a desired group of files appears at A. P IP COM : CARDFILE COM : CARDFILE PRM : CARDFILE DAT
A)
anyone time.
One of the attractive features of CP/M is that it can FIG. 4- A DATABASE PROGRAM, such as cardfile, and its
files could similarly have its own tagged directory.
create up to 16 individual "user areas" on a single disk
that are keyed to individ ual directories for each user If you now go back to the "b oot up" cond ition by
area. "User area" is essentially an invisible tag applied typing USER 0, you would see on ly the CP/M utilities, as
to one or more disk files, and the computer always shown in Fig. 2.
"comes up" in user 0 when CP/M is first booted up. In Fig. 2, the computer has been "booted" so it
You enter a user area from the command line-when "comes up" automatically in the the user 0 area and a
the "A> " shows on the screen-by typing USER 1, USER 5, DI R command produces the response NO FILE. In Fig. 3
etc. Since the computer automatically comes up in the computer has "come up," we have first entered
user 0, the command USER 0 need be entered only USER 2 and then DIR. Notice we have a d irectory listing
when leaving some other user area. of MBASIC and its files. In Fig. 4 we have entered USER 5,
User areas work this way: Assume your disk drive will then DIR, and we get only a directory of the Cardfile
record 200K bytes of data. Any program written to the files.
disk is placed in the user-O area and a DIR command There is normally no way a single DI R command will
will display a listing for all the d isk files . If all the files list files from other user areas unless spec ial software
were simply written to the d isk, the directory would has been provided, and this is not usually done except
appear as show n in Fig. 1. But let's assume you don't for the computers with hard-disk drives such the
want the d irectory listing cluttered w ith a string of Kaypro 10. Kaypro provides a special directory program
10 Computer Digest - MAY 1984
that will list all files regardless of their user area. (There In Part 2 we' ll give you a short seven-statement routine
are available special utility programs that simplify for DDT that you don't have to understand at all, but it
getting directories and moving from user area to user w ill open up user areas to you-and then you can
area, but they are a subject for another time.) In fact, forget all about it.
because hard-disk drives contain so many files it's ED is a rudimentary line-oriented editor that wasn't
often d ifficult to locate a desired file unless they are even good in "the good old days;" kill that one also.
organiied in homogeneous user area. In fact, a full LOAD and DUMP are also for computer science types;
d irectory listing for the software that comes bundled you will probably never use them so kill them from the
w ith the Kaypro 10 would take almost four fu ll screens work d isk. SUBMIT is a way to automatically link
to display That does not include any user-generated commands, as is XSUB. Many software houses supply
files. Using user areas simpl ifies load ing programs-it's their programs in SUBMIT or XSUB format under a
certain ly a lot easier to locate and use the desired files different name. For beginners and appl ication-oriented
from a user area than trying to dig them out from the users it's best to avoid those programs until it's you
"fu ll directory" who are the local CP/M expert.
Wh ile the user areas are often a decided SYSGEN is the program that is used to place the CP/
convenience you must keep in mind that the user area M system on other disks. Leave it on the work disk.
on the default drive, the control drive determines the STAT means "statistics." It w ill tel l you almost anything
user area on all other drives. If you copy a program you want to know about a disk or the programs stored
from drive A: to a disk on drive B, or C, or whatever, it on the disk, such how much free space is available on
w ill be copied to the same user area from which it the disk; how much disk space a program takes up (or
came. Same th ing if B: is the default drive. Often, the needs if you're making a copy); the devices connected
user will be in a user area, say user 4, and copy a to the computer; the cond ition (setup characteristics)
program to a backup disk in drive B:. Sometime later, of the devices. STAT is important,' and you should
forgetting that"a user area was used during the backup, hands-on experiment with it until you can use all its
the user calls for a DIRon the backup disk and the "bells and whistles."
screen shows NO FILE, because DIR checks the 0 area of PIP-an acronym for Peripheral Interchange
B: and the files have the USER 4 tag. Program-is the utility that moves files from place to
In Part 2 of this series we'll show how to move place and it is the keystone of CP/M. Unfortunately, PIP
programs between user areas. For now keep th is point works on two levels: very-easy-beginner and d ifficult-
in mind: It is easy to move files from any user area into to-understand mumbo-jumbo technese. (Technese is a
the one being used. It is d ifficult, often almost language whose purpose is to insure that outsiders
impossible for a non-programmer to move a file from don't understand what's going on. For example, social
the assigned user area into any other because the workers speak technese, educators speak technese,
original CP/M made no provision to do it easily etc.) In Part 2 of this series we will cover PIP strictly on
the beginner level. Be prepared to follow along "hands
on" because you'll be the local "CP/M applications-
Utilities software expert" when you're finished.
Because CP/M is a "universal " program it is always The manufacturer's utilities generally include some
specifical ly enhanced by the computer manufacturer form of CONFIG (configure) utility, and either a FORMAT
for a particular computer. That is done through special utility or a COPY utility that will either format a disk or
utility programs that are suppl ied w ith CP/M, as well as copy one complete d isk to another disk. That should
by utilities supplied by Digital Research, the outfit that be on the same work disk as SYSGEN. The command
wrote CP/M. Some are invaluable for day to day work; FORMAlCor FORMAT through the COpy program)
others can cause the tota l destruction of the d isk files if places invisible magnetic "tracks" and other information
used by a non-programmer-they shouldn't even be on blank (new) diskettes so they can be used to store
on the average user's work disk because they were disk files. You cannot store information unti l a disk is
intended for computer scientists, technicians, and formatted. If the disk isn't formatted there is no
programmers. The N technician using a personal personal computer using any operating system that will
computer for business, the dentist keeping patient know the disk exists. That is a point often forgotten, if
records, the service shop using a spreadsheet program ever known, by many "toy store" computer
for financ ial projections, and the wheeler and dealer salespersons.
doing stock transactions from home have rare or no The CON FIG program is a means whereby the user
need for some of the supplied utilities; again, all they can assign different techn ical attributes to various
can do is damage the d isk data or confuse the user. "ports"-the connections for a printers, modem, or
The Digital Research util ities are: ASM, DDT, ED, whatever. It is generally not needed on the work disk
LOAD, DUMp, STAT, EXSUB, SUBMIT, SYSGEN, and PIP since once CP/M is configured, meaning "set up" for
ASM is an assembler for those who write assembly particular hardware or software there is rarely any need
programs; you probably don 't need it so erase it from to change things.
your working disk (not from the master or backup copy If the manufacturer provides other utilities they are
of CP/M). DDT is also for software experts and is used generally intended for his particular computer, or
primarily to modify program code. Normally, it can also specific software, and aren 't really part of CP/M.
be erased from the working disk; but even if you Next time, we'll PIP and STAT through several disks
haven't the vaguest idea of what DDT is all about, it is and user areas. Be prepared by having a few
required one single time if you want to use user areas. SYSGEN'ed disks available .....Q)~
MAY 1984 - CompulerDigesl 11
 rade
Your B get Printer

, "It,,,, 1"'* '"''

,. *'"""
(:'.:'". ~;.:;
I'HI N'r
" ...... '
~ ",_ ..
f,.".:''';:":.,,,~.
...... -
.....
;".-:-.::::
~
:
~~
.' ..... ,.or ""'''''''
:~.;':'-"
~-ip-

Many low-priced printers can be easily upgraded to give them new features and greater
flexibility. Here's a look at some of the upgrade kits currently available for two of the most
popular of those printers.
HERB FRIEDMAN

- If you have been into personal computing from its Shack TRS-8o. Mode/1, the most popular computer of
"hobbyist" days, or have built your system on a tight its day, hence the MX-8o. featured a Radio Shack
budget, it's odds-on that you have either an Epson graphics mode. Much of the modern software,
MX-8o. matrix printer or Smith-Corona TP- 1 (or TP-2) however, is written for the graphics mode of the newer
daisy printer. Either, or b oth, have prob ably given you MX-8o. printers, which has the graphics capability for
years of trouble-free service, but lately you find that the present most popu lar 8-bit computers, the Apple II
more and more software can't be used with your and lie. Even if the software is for other than Apple
printer, or you want to upgrade the computer but find computers the graphics will most likely be intended for
your printer can't quite hack it as an up-to-date printer the graphics capability of the most recent vers ion of
with the new computer hardware. the MX-80
Essentially, what you have is still functional The MX-8o. (and its clones such as the Texas
equipment that's been made obsolete by modern Instruments and IBM printers) accommodates only
software, or by modern uses for a personal computer. tractor-feed paper. If you want to print on single sheets,
The Epson MX-8o. printer, which could be used with such as letterhead, the only way to do it is to use a
any computer having a Centronics-compatible parallel special plastic tractor/p in feed "carrier," some of which
printer output, was intended primarily for the Radio are prone to damage the printhead when p ushed

12 ComputerDigest - MAY 1984

EPSON'S OWN Graftrax-Plus upgrade consists of three
ROM's supplied on a strip of conductive foam

THE PASSIVE TRACTOR FEED upgrade kit for the Smith-

Corona printers. The main section is supplied as a
complete assembly.

THE MICRO-GRIP single sheet upgrade kit. Its use does not
interfere with tractor operation.

EPSON TELLS YOU to work on the printer with the cover

attached, but don't do it-"pull the plug " instead.

THE FINGERPRINT module plugs directly into an Epson

ROM socket. The existing ROM is moved to the empty
socket on the board.

through the printer mechanism. While the original

MX-80 has a host of features such as compressed or
enhanced printing it lacks a backspace, which
prec ludes underscoring from some of the less
expensive (but otherwise excellent) word processors THE THREE ROM sockets located in the base of the MX-80
that are available. printer. If you have an original MX-80 two of those are empty
and one is filled.
The "letter quality" Smith-Corona daisy printer TP
family, wh ich consists of the TP-1 and the newer TP-2, is
the "buy of buys" when it comes to letter-qual ity can produce "camera ready" print quality the equal of
printers for home-and-fami ly and small businesses. The machines costing well over $1000 because it is
TP-1 was the first under-$1000 daisy printer, which by essentia lly the printer end of a Smith-Corona electronic
early 1984 was sell ing for as little as $250 Thousands typewriter with an accessory interface for computer
upon thousands of personal computer users who output.)
could not otherwise possibly afford a letter quality The problem with the TP-1 and the TP-2 is that they
daisy printer struck gold in the TP-1ITP-2-the price were intended for single-sheet documents such as
might very well be the reason you decided to get a business letters, etc., which is logical because it is
letter quality printer even though you already had a really the printer mechanism from a typewriter. But
matrix printer. (If a type 251 ribbon is used-which was today, much modern software is intended for
not mentioned in the ea rly documentation-the TP-1 conti nuous forms printing, such as checks, labels, IRS

MAY 1984 - ComputerDigest 13

 THE FINGERPRINT assembly snaps into ROM socket 1B, while the ROM that normally
goes in that socket is installed on the Fingerprint assembly.

AN ADHESIVE MYLAR LABEL you affi x to the front of the TO ADD the Micro-Grip single sheet feed to the MX-80 you.
printer lists the new functions provided by the Fingerprint. simply remove the collar securing the drive bar on the left
side.

sched ules, even bus iness stationary-which includes in the first place, user-installed retrofit kits are avai lable
letterheads and envelopes. To insure precise alignment that w ill upgrade either printer to accommodate
of the printing, continuous forms must be tractor or pin modern needs. While some of the retrofits are better or
fed . more convenient than others, we know those
So what we have is a popu lar tractor-feed matrix discussed here wi ll really work exactly as promised
printer that needs at least neW graphics capability and because w? actually tried them out
the ab ility to feed single sheets, and a daisy printer that The first of the user-installed MX-80 retrofits was
needs a tractor feed in order to accommodate Epson 's own Graftrax, wh ich consisted of three ROM's,
continuous forms . Let's see w hat w e can do to satisfy two of which plugged into empty sockets in the base
those important needs. of the printer wh ile the th ird replaced an existing ROM.
Among other things, the Graftrax upgrade provided for
Upgrading the printers dot-add ressab le graphics, itnllics p rinting, and even
Regard less of why you purchased the MX-80 or TP-1 more important, backspar illCj. It was terrible

14 ComputerDigest - MAY 1984

SLIDE THE ORIGINAL plastic paper guide roller from the WHEN WORKING ON the Smith-Corona TP-1, you cannot
driver bar and slide the two Micro-Grip rubber rollers on the separate the casing top because the leads to the fan are too
bar. Then replace the collar. short.

ATTACH THE PRESSURE roller assembly to the paper bail IT APPEARS TO BE permanently installed, but the tractor
and the single sheet retrofit is finished. mechanism goes on and off in seconds. .

A SINGLE SHEET being printed by the MX-80. Be certain SLIDE THE SUPPLIED GAUGE-actually a notched rod-on
the pin-feed mechanisms are against the sides of the paper the drive bar, tighten two screws, and the tractor assembly
it feeds straight. is adjusted for use.

b ackspac ing because the p rinthead returned to the true backspace that puts graphic printouts in high gear
extreme left and then advanced for each b ackspace, and rel ieves the stra in on the printer's printhead-d rive
but it was adequate for general word processing: motor; a "fine print" that can be used for superscripts
underscore, kerning, etc. Unfortunately, a graphic and subscripts; automatic perforation skipover (no
printout w ould cycle the head continuously until the more program listings printing on the perforations); and
d rive motor could be heard slowing to a crawl. a continuous underscore that can be turned on and off
The latest retrofit available from Epson dealers is from w ithin a p rogram or word processor. (A
Graftrax-Plus, which gives your o ld model MX-80 the continuous underscore is formed simu ltaneous ly w ith
advanced features of the latest model. A mong the the character; the head does not backspace for the
Graftrax-Plus highlights are the Apple-compatible underscore.)
graphi cs (no more Radio Shack Modell graphics); a The Graftrax-Plus retrofit kit consists of three ROM's

MAY 1984 - ComputerDigest 15

 and the latest Epson-with-Graftrax printer manual- tuning" than printing. Just ignore the "fine tuning"
which explains all the "bells and whistles." The instructions. Instead, gently slide the tractor pin-feed
Graftrax-Plus retrofit has the same kind of installation as devices against the sides of the paper and apply their
for the original Graftrax upgrade-just plug the ROM's locks, thereby locking them in position against each
into the correct sockets. One "caveat" however: The side of the paper. The pin feed assemblies will guide
Epson instructions leave the top of the printer attached the paper so it rolls through nice and straight. The
when you open the printer by separating the top and adjustment of the pin-feed mechanisms are
bottom; it has you delicately balancing the cover on its "permanent" as long as you keep using single sheets. To
end. If you look closely you'll see the wires to the use continuous form tractor paper you simply slide the
switches in the cover are attached through a connector. two rubber rollers to the side and reset the tractors, or
Mark the orientation of the connector with a pencil or leave the rollers where they are and pull the paper bail
pen and then separate the connector and put the (with its roller) away from the paper; the Epson will
cover in a safe place until you're finished. print on continuous tractor feed forms just as well
without the bail.
Pushbutton control
As long as you have the printer open consider a Installing a tractor feed
retrofit called Fingerprint (Dresselhaus Computer The tractor feed upgrade for the Smith-Corona
Products, 837 E. Alosta Ave., Glendora, CA 91740), TP-1/TP-2 isn't really a retrofit because it does not really
which allows the three printer control pushbuttons to become a permanent part of the printer, it can be
also program ten operating modes: compressed print; easily removed in seconds. The tractor feed
double-wide; emphasized; double-strike; perforation mechanism, which is available from some (not all)
skipover; left margin indent; 8 lines/inch spacing; Smith-Corona dealers and the Smith-Corona service
itall ics, and fine print. For example, just touch the centers is a "passive" tractor feed, meaning it's really a
printer's ON-LINE button twice and the printer shifts to guide that insures precise registration even though the
compressed type without any commands from the paper is really driven by the normal platten
computer. mechanism-just like a single sheet.
Fingerprint is supplied on a small printed-circuit While installing the tractor feed upgrade can be a
board that swaps for the ROM in a socket 1B, the one user-performed task, Smith-Corona does not provide
that's replaced in the Graftrax retrofit. Instead of the first three pages of the documentation with the kit;
substituting for the ROM in socket 1B, install the Graftrax the pages that show how to do it yourself. Smith- .
ROM in the Fingerprint socket and then snap the Corona service centers will do the installation for $10 if
Fingerprint assembly into socket 1B. You clip two you deliver the printer to the center.
attached Fingerprint leads where indicated and you What's missing are these instructions. First, remove
now have both the Graftrax and the Fingerprint retrofits, the casing top by loosening two screws at the top
and with virtually no extra effort required on your part. front and then prying t~e top out of the three clamps in
the base, thereby separating the casing top from the
Single sheets base. The three clamps are across the rear of the base;
If you quit now you'll have one heck of a matrix you'll need to use a large screwdriver as a pry bar and
printer, but you can go one step farther and add a real you'll swear you're breaking the case but that's what it
single-sheet feed by installing a Micro-Grip Friction takes to release the three clamps at the back of the
Feed (Bill Cole Enterprises, Box 609, Wollaston, MA casing. Don't disconnect any wires even though they
02170). The Micro-Grip retrofit does not interfere with are short; just flip the cover up.
the tractor operation, but it does permit single sheets Use common sense and remove the combination
to be fed directly through the printer without the need dust cover and paper rest, and install the supplied
for a plastic carrier. black metal strip (which is called an "electronics
The Micro-Grip kit consists of three components: cover") so it spans the two screws that originally held
two rubber rollers that replace the existing Epson the paper rest's pivots-remove the rest with its pivots.
paper guide roller (which is sandwiched between the Remove the hinge-screws that hold the paper rest to
two tractor pin feed mechanisms), and a rubber-roller the casing top. Drive out the hinge pins into which the
pressure assembly that clamps to printer's paper bail- screws fit and gently drive in the new, supplied, hinge
the bar that holds the paper down for printing. pins with a small soft-face hammer-or the back end
To install the Micro-Grip retrofit it is necessary to very of a screwdriver. That's it-reassemble the cabinet.
slightly dismantle the printer's feed mechanism so the The supplied documentation shows how to install
rubber rollers can be fitted to the tractor-drive bar and adjust the tractor mechanism itself, all of a 10
(instructions are provided in the kit). It is, however, a minute job at the very worst. A special gauge is
minor disassembly, and the whole installation shouldn't provided in the kit for alignment of the tractor
take more than 10 or 15 minutes. Just be certain you mechanism. The whole project looks much more
don't push or bend anything while you are doing the difficult than it is. Actually, separating the back of the
work-do everything very, very gently casing top from the base will be the most difficult part
When you see the Micro-Grip installed you won't of the upgrade.
believe it will work, but it does. The only problem is With the tractor-mechanism upgrade the TP-1/TP-2
the paper tends to skew, and the instructions on how can accommodate either single sheets, tractor-fed
to "fine tune" the paper feed really don't do much of sheets, or tractor-fed forms and labels. As with the
anything. You' ll spend more time fussing with the "fine Epson retrofits, you lose nothing; you only gain .....(I)~
16 ComputerDigest - MAY 1984