UNDERSTANDING THE NOVEL XI-YOU-JI (JOURNEY TO THE

WEST)
IN THE CONTEXT OF POLITICS AND RELIGIONS

By Darui Long

ABSTRACT

Journey to the West is a novel known to almost all in China and overseas
Chinese. Boys and girls are enchanted by the stories in which the Monkey subdued
the demons when he kept company to Master Xuan Zang（玄藏 600？ – 664）
with Pigsy and Sha Monk on their journey to western regions to obtain authentic
Buddhist scriptures.
Since 1920s, Dr. Hu Shi （胡適 1891 – 1962）and many other scholars
have made researches into this novel. Most of the scholarships have focused on
literature. My paper discusses the innuendoes that Wu Cheng’en （吴承恩）used
to criticize Emperor Ming Shizong (明世宗 r. 1522 – 1566). The emperor was
addicted to Daoist practices for longevity by making elixir, a medicine which was
believed to lead to immortality in ancient China. The emperor followed the Daoist
advice to stay away from state affairs – he met ministers in the court four times in
these forty-two years on his throne. He put his treacherous ministers in charge of
state affairs. As a result, the Ming gradually moved towards its doom.
The paper aims to discuss the novel and its characters in the perspective of
history, court politics and religion. It offers textual analysis on how Wu Cheng’en
criticized both Daoism and Emperor Ming Shizong (1522 – 1566 CE) by using
innuendoes and irony.

INTRODUCTION

The Journey to the West (Xi You Ji 《西遊記》is a novel known to

almost everyone in China, her neighboring countries and many overseas
Chinese. Almost all boys and girls remember the story of Master Xuan
Zang 玄奘(600? – 664 CE 1 ), a famous monk in the Tang dynasty (618 –
907), went to India to obtain Buddhist scriptures with Pigsy, Monkey and
Sha Monk. They particularly remember the story of how the Monkey
subdued the demons on the way to the western regions.

A number of chapters in the novel were devoted to the Second

Emperor of the Tang – Tang Taizong (唐太宗 r. 626 – 649). The stories of
Emperor Tang Taizong in these chapters in the novel demonstrate a sharp
discrepancy between the historical records both from the court and Buddhist
biographies and the plots and characters in the novel. Novel is defined as
stories in which characters and events are imaginary. It is true that novel
does not have to follow exactly what happened in the past. The author, who
was a very intelligent person, should have clear knowledge of history of the
Tang dynasty, especially the legendary stories about Master Xuan Zang .
 Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism

Basing on the historical records, Wu Cheng’en （吴承恩）, the author,

developed the plots and wrote his novel with bountiful imagination and
creations.

Reading the novel, we can find many innuendoes in it. The word
“Ming”（明） in its collocation of the Ming Dynasty, means “bright.” In
fact, the Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644) was one of the darkest periods in
Chinese history. The first Emperor was a peasant who starved and begged
as a boy, got his literacy from Buddhist priest, and joined an anti-Mongol
religious sect. Ugly to look at, Hongwu Emperor (1368 – 1398) was fiercely
energetic, had violent fits of temper, and became paranoidally suspicious of
conspiracies against himself. 2 He was notorious for making literary
inquisitions – by giving wrong interpretations of the speeches and
memorials of the ministers, he accused them of criticizing him and attacking
his policies. He massacred more than 45,000 people whom he regarded as
potential enemies, competitors for the throne of his grandson, and
conspirators to topple his reign. In fact, he terrorized the country by
organizing a special police institution to supervise both officials and
civilians and by false accusations against innocent people or people with
minor errors. With such a terrorized approach, the country was brought into
peace.

The second emperor, a grandson of the this hot-tempered First

Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang, was soon dethroned by his uncle Zhu Di （朱棣
r.1403 – 1424） He was on the throne for three years only. When the third
emperor “usurped” the throne, he massacred the ministers, their family
members, relatives and even friends whom he considered accomplices of the
second Emperor. He further developed secret police to supervise the actions
and speeches of officials and civilians alike. The country enjoyed further
prosperity under such terrorized rule. When the successive emperors
inherited the policies and secret police supervising system, they did not have
to worry about state affairs. From the ninth emperor Zhu Jianshen (朱見深r.
1465 – 1487) to the fourteenth emperor Zhu Yijun (朱翊鈞 1573 – 1620),
six emperors met government officials once in a decade when they were on
the throne. They put their trusted eunuchs in charge of Jinyiwei (錦衣衛
Imperial Bodyguards), and other secret police institutions and the daily
routine work of the court. 3 Thus, it was a miracle that the dynasty still lasted
more than one hundred years without emperors’ efforts. It should be pointed
out that all these were made possible due to eunuchs, the secret police
system, and the terror the previous emperors imposed upon the nation.
Certainly, this abnormal administration of the court slowly moved towards
doom in 1644 when the peasant rebellions swept into Beijing and overthrew
the dynasty.

It was in this environment that Wu Cheng’en skillfully reminded us

of the earlier emperors and court institutions in the Tang and Ming dynasties.
He told us how vicious demons in Daoist disguise deceived emperors and

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 Understanding The Novel Xi-You-Ji (Journey To The West)
In The Context Of Politics And Religions

brought disasters to the court and the country. He also tactfully referred to
the notorious secret police named Jinyiwei (The Imperial Bodyguards).

The present paper examines the author, the historical background of

this novel, and analyzes how Wu Cheng’en criticized Daoists and emperors.

The essay is divided into four parts:

1. The author
2. Emperor Shizong’s addiction to Daoism in the
Ming Dynasty (r. 1522 – 1566)
3. Wu Cheng’en’s Criticisms of Daoists and the Ming
Emperors by Innuendo
4. Conclusion
1. Author

After many years of research, scholars now generally agree that it

was Wu Cheng’en （吴承恩）who wrote Journey to the West (Xi You Ji
《西遊記》) . There had been confusion about the authorship of this novel.
The earliest Ming edition did not give the author’s name when it was
published. Many people took Qiu Changchun (邱長春 1148 – 1227 or Qiu
Chuji 邱處機, a famous Daoist leader of Complete Perfect Daoism, as its
writer, for Qiu, summoned by Genghis Khan, traveled a long distance to
Samarkand to meet the Great Conquer in the twelfth century. Qiu’s disciple
Li Zhichang (李志常)
wrote a book recording what they experienced in this long journey
entitled Xi-You-Ji (《西遊記》Journey to the West). 4 This book has been
an important book in geography. Scholars in the Qing dynasty and 20th
century challenged the authorship of Qiu Changchun and offered convincing
sources.

The earliest edition of this novel was probably published by the

Shidetang (世德堂) of Nanjing in the twenty to forty years of Wanli Period
(萬曆 1592 – 1612). However, the editions in the Ming and Qing dynasties
did not bear the name of Wu Cheng’en. Instead, the penname of Huayang
Dongtian Zhuren （ 華 陽 洞 天 主 人 This sounds a Daoist hermit. ） was
carved in the front page. Scholars have made investigations into the
authorship of Xi You Ji or Journey to the West in the last 150 years. They
generally agreed that Wu Cheng’en should be the author of this great novel
of the Ming dynasty (1368 – 1644). 5 He was probably born in 1500 and
died in 1581 According to Wu Guorong’s “Preface to Collections of Essays
Written by Mr. Sheyang 射 陽 先 生 ,” Wu Cheng’en passed the imperial
examination at the county level, conferring the title of Xiucai （秀才）in
the year 1521. 6 He probably went to Nanjing eight times in the following
decades until he was over fifty years old. Unfortunately, he did not succeed
in obtaining the title of successful candidate in these examinations. Later he
wrote inscriptions on the stone for Ge Mu 葛木 who had been an influential
person to him. He said, “I failed to live up to your expectations.” Ge Mu,

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the local magistrate, often persuaded Wu Cheng’en to make preparation for

the imperial examinations as he saw Wu’s talent in literature. A local
gazetteer described that Wu, being an unparalleled genius, “insisted on
having his own way and refused to seek connections with those in power.
He continued to sit for the examinations, and eventually he was selected as
a Tribute Student (suigongsheng歲貢生) in 1544, but he achieved a certain
reputation as a poet and humorous writer. 7 At the age of fifty-three, he half
completed his studies at the National Academy in Nanjing. At the age of
fifty-four, his good friend Shen Kun organized soldiers to resist the
invasions by Japanese pirates along the coastal areas. Shen often invited Wu
to discuss matters concerning military affairs and strategy. He even wanted
to cast aside the pen and join the army but his mother’s illness prevented
him from doing so. In his sixties, he went to Beijing hoping to obtain an
official post. He was appointed assistant to the county magistrate, which
was a very low-ranking official in charge of grain, horses and security.
Being a small officer, he offended the local tyrant when he was
implementing his work to impose grain levies. The local tyrant made false
accusations against him. Thus Wu was dismissed and arrested. When he
was exonerated, he resigned his official post and returned to his hometown.
From then on, Wu became addicted to wine and spent much time writing
poems. He died in hermitage.

Wu Cheng’en was good at poetry and painting. He wrote many

poems and literary works. When he died, being poor and having no children,
many of his works got lost. His relatives and friends made efforts to collect
these literary works and publish them posthumously. His monumental
work Xi You Ji (Journey to the West) was published under a penname of
Huayang Dongtian Zhuren（華陽洞天主人） with the help of his friend Li
Chunfang (李春芳)ten years after his death. Li Chufang, who obtained the
high post of senior grand secretary (宰輔) in the Ming court, did not give
enough information when he helped to publish the book, thus making it
more difficult for people to identify the authorship of the novel.

Wu Cheng’en was not able to obtain any high official posts, yet, he
enjoyed longevity through the reigns of five emperors: Emperor Xiaozong
(明孝宗 1488 – 1505), Emperor Wuzong (1506 – 1521), Emperor Shizong
(明世宗 1522 – 1566), Emperor Muzong. (明穆宗 1567 – 1572) and
Emperor Shenzong (明神宗 1573 – 1619). The Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644)
was notorious for its darkness. The word “Ming” 明 means “bright” in
Chinese language. In fact, the period in which Wu Cheng’en lived may be
regarded as the darkest period of the Ming dynasty. The Ming emperors
lived in debauchery and corruption. Treacherous persons held high official
posts in the court during the reigns of these emperors. It was a period full of
power struggles between ministers and eunuchs. Some of the notorious
prime ministers and eunuchs were worst in the stage of Chinese court
politics.

2. Emperor Shizong’s Indulgence in Daoism in the Ming Dynasty

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 Understanding The Novel Xi-You-Ji (Journey To The West)
In The Context Of Politics And Religions

Emperor Ming Shizong (Zhu Houcong 朱厚熜reigned the Jiajing

period 嘉靖 1522 – 1566) was tremendously influenced by Daoism. His
father was conferred the title of Prince Ningxian in Anlu Prefecture in Hubei
Province. A Daoist monk named Chunyi became a close friend of Prince
Ningxian. On the tenth day of the eighth month in the second year of
Zhengde (正德 1507), Prince Ningxian （寧獻王）had a dream in which he
met this Daoist monk Chunyi. When he woke up, he could not see Chunyi.
At this moment, his servant came to report the birth of his son whom he had
expected for years. He owed the birth of this son to the magic of Daoist
monk Chunyi（純一道人）. Prince Ningxian named the boy Zhu Houcong
朱厚熜. When Zhu Houcong grew up, he came to know more about his
family. He often visited a Daoist temple named Xuanmiao Guan to show
respect and worship Daoist gods with his parents. 8

Since Emperor Wuzong (Zhu Houzhao 明武宗 朱厚照 r. 1506 –

1521) did not have any sons, the court decided that the son of Prince
Ningxian, Zhu Houcong 朱厚熜, should become the emperor. Thus, Zhu
Houcong ascended the throne and reigned China from 1522 to 1566.

The emperor invited a Daoist adept from Jiangxi Province named

Shao Yuanjie (邵元節 1459 – 1539) to court. By 1526, Shao had won the
emperor’s favor with his prayers for rain and for an end to calamities. When
Shao was serious ill, he recommended Tao Zhongwen （陶仲文 1481 -
1560 ） to replace him. Since Emperor Shizong was notorious for his
indulgence in both women and in Daoism in the court, and Tao was skillful
at compounding aphrodisiacs and at divination, he immediately became a
favorite of the emperor and was put in charge of Daoist affairs.

One of the Daoist theories was the so-called “inner chamber

techniques,” which offered information about sexuality. Under Tao’s
guidance, the emperor began to explore these facets of Daoism in some
detail. The aphrodisiacs were generally made of red lead (lead tetroxide)
and white arsenic (naturally occurring arsenic trioxide), compounded with
other substances and formed into pills or granules. These “elixirs of
immortality” were said to make one feel light and strong, to increase all the
appetites, and to lead to intense sexual arousal. In September 1540 the
emperor informed the court that he intended to seclude himself for several
years to pursue immortality. When a court official protested that this was
nonsense and that aphrodisiacs were dangerous, he was arrested and tortured
to death. 9

The emperor wanted Daoists to make elixirs which he believed

could enable him to enjoy longevity. One way to make “red lead” was to
collect the first instance of menses of young girls. Thus about one thousand
young girls under fourteen years old were forced to gather at the court for
this purpose. Then he forced young boys who had not yet come to puberty

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to gather their morning urine and boil it to make an outer elixir. He believed
that taking all these things as tonics could make him strong enough to enjoy
an everlasting life. Then he could build up vital energy to indulge in sexual
life.

Daoists were summoned to come to the capital to build magnificent

altars for him. They came to the altars, using all the best phrases and
praying before the image of the Jade Emperor. They believed that the Jade
Emperor would be deeply moved by their utter devotions and therefore
protect the land by dispelling all the evil spirits. More importantly,
immortality would be brought to the emperor.

Duan Chaoyong ( 段 朝 用 ), a Daoist, recommended that if the

emperor could stay away from ministers. He could concentrate his mind on
the cultivation of inner elixir – another kind of medicine which could enable
him to enjoy immortality. He called for the prince to act on behalf of him
in the court business. When his plan met with strong opposition, he never
mentioned the affairs of his successor, nor kept any contact with officials. 10

Thus, Emperor Shizong was addicted to the prayers and practices of

Daoists and he neglected his responsibilities to the routine work of the court.
In twenty years, Zhu received his ministers only four times. He spent the
rest of time as a hermit in the court, holding Daoist rituals in altars. Totally
devoted to the practice for longevity, the emperor was indifferent to his
relatives and much colder to ministers. 11

The emperor did not only show his favor to Daoist priests, but also
promoted them to high official posts. Shao Yuanjie, Tao Zhongwen, and
others were highly honored in the court. He supported many construction
projects for Daoist temples and squandered a great deal of money on Daoist
ceremonial prayers （斎醮）. In order to achieve his goal of immortality, he
also established many ceremonies for divination. It was reported that the
court exhausted tons of beeswax, white wax and incense each year for the
rituals of the royal family.

Instigated by Daoists, Emperor Shizong decided to ban Buddhist

temples in the capital. He renovated all Buddhist temples in the court. He is
considered to be the last emperor who bore strong animosity against
Buddhism.

3. Wu Cheng’en’s Criticisms of Daoists and the Ming Emperors by

Innuendoes

As mentioned before, the Ming rulers were panaroid of any word of

criticism. They were responsible for a number of literary inquisitions and
false accusations of conspiracy. Under such conditions, scholars found
themselves silenced. The reign of terror was effective. It was said that even

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 Understanding The Novel Xi-You-Ji (Journey To The West)
In The Context Of Politics And Religions

officials often had hard times. They would bid farewell to their wives and
family members in the morning before going to the court. When they
returned home from the court, they would congratulate their safe return by
saying, “I have survived one more day.” 12

Having gained an understanding of such a historical background, we

may understand why the author would deliberately use historical events to
allude to the present dynasty. Thus the author was processing legendary
stories and creating his own work by putting his views quietly into the plots
of the novel.

Chapter 10 is devoted to Emperor Tang Taizong (r. 627 – 649) in

the court. When Wei Zheng （魏徵 580-643）, his trusted subject, was in
asleep, he executed the Dragon King in his dream. The emperor promised to
pardon Dragon King’s disobeying the decree of Heaven by refusing to rain
on time. The emperor realized that he failed to keep his words. That night,
Taizong returned to his palace in deep depression. He kept remembering the
dragon in the dream crying and begging for his life. …...He was sleeping
fitfully when he saw our Dragon King of the Jing River holding his head
dripping with blood in his hand and crying in a loud voice: “ Tang Taizong!
Give me back my life! Give me back my life! Last night you were full of
promises to save me. Why did you order a human judge in the daytime to
have me executed? Come out, come out! I am going to argue this case with
you before the King of the Underworld.” He seized Taizong and would
neither let go nor desist from his protestation. Taizong could not say a word;
he could only struggle until perspiration covered his entire body. 13

Taizong began to have nightmares from then on. In his dream, as he

and the judge “walked along, they saw at the side of the street the emperor’s
predecessor Li Yuan (李淵 618 – 626), his elder brother Jiancheng（李建
成）, and his deceased brother Yuanji（李元吉）, who came toward them,
shouting, “Here comes Shi-min! Here comes Shi-min!” The brothers
clutched at Taizong and began beating him and threatening vengeance.” 14

Li Shimin (later became Emperor Tang Taizong) planned and

carried out the assassination of his brothers Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji in
the famous incident of the Xuanwu Gate. Then he became briefly crown
prince and shortly thereafter forced his father to abdicate. 15 Chinese history
books record how Li Shimin ascended the throne by killing his brothers,
although they tend to convince readers that Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji
plotted conspiracies before the event.

Emperor Taizong has been considered the best ruler in Chinese

history. He was courageous to take responsibilities, astute and capable, and
full of bold wisdom and strategy. In his campaigns to conquer his opponents,
he killed many people. As a person who believed in the concept of cause
and effect, Taizong naturally had a sense of worry and fear. In an edict
issued in the eleventh month in the third year of Zhenguan (629), he said:

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 Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism

At the end of the Sui dynasty, I rose for justice. I was determined to
save the weak. We started expeditions in the north and east. Now
the country is in peace. However, we do not know how many were
wounded and killed with these weapons. I have a heavy heart
recalling these people with sadness. Quiet, I felt deep regret and
could not sleep. 16

Taizong was sympathetic towards those who died in the battlefields.

He felt that those who died in the battlefields seemed to be buried there as
life imprisonment. On the one hand, he felt the need to use war to fight wars
and on the other hand, he regretted that he had accumulated many karmas of
killing. Such sad feeling of regret made him fearful, worried and sleepless.
Under such pressure, he built more temples and offered more ceremonies to
relieve his troubled heart.

Politically, Emperor Taizong made use of three schools of thoughts:

Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism. Confucianism dealt with essential
problems. However, Taizong probably had a strong memory of the one
thousand people he killed. The Buddhist doctrines of no-killing, and
causality added to his fear and anxiety. Thus, he made efforts to provide
free meals to monks for the purse of eliminating grievances. His killing of
his own brothers in a bloody coup d’etat at the Xuanwu Gate must have left
a sad memory in his heart. 17

This reminds us of Shakespeare’s Macbeth:

I heard a voice cry ‘Sleep no more;

Macbeth does murder sleep’ – the innocent sleep.
Sleep that knits up the ravell’d sleave of care,
The death of each day’s life, sore labour’s bath,
Balm of hurt minds, great nature’s second course,
Chief nourisher in life’s feast. Act II, Scene II.

Here we can find the same mental fear and anxiety in Macbeth. The
difference between them lies in the fact that Emperor Tang Taizong has
been regarded as the paragon of Chinese rulers.

Emperor Taizong’s fear of karma demonstrated his sense of sins.

When he became old and weak, such a feeling would frequently occur. In
his last three years of life, the emperor often summoned Master Xuan Zang
to keep him company at his summer retreats in Yuhua Palace and Cuiwei
Palace. The master was kept in the palace until the emperor’s death. Such
close ties between Xuan Zang and Emperor Tang Taizong illustrated the
religious needs of the latter. 18 As Arthur Wright analyzes, the last years of
Taizong was full of personal sorrow, illness and perhaps premature aging,
645 – 649. This explains why the emperor took actions relating to
Buddhism. 19

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 Understanding The Novel Xi-You-Ji (Journey To The West)
In The Context Of Politics And Religions

Ming Chengzu（明成祖朱棣 1403 – 1424）, the third emperor of

the Ming dynasty, came to the throne by bloodshed. He was the fourth son
of the First Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang. 20 Before Zhu Yuanzhang’s death, he
chose his grandson Zhu Yunwen （朱允炆 1399 – 1402）as his successor.
Emperor Huidi (惠帝朱允炆Zhu Yunwen, who reigned in the Jianwen
period 建文 1399 – 1402) wanted to reduce the princes’ power. These
princes were his uncles. This angered Zhu Di, Prince Yan. He launched
military offensives against Emperor Huidi in the pretext of chastising
treacherous court officials. This marked the beginning of a bloody, three-
year military struggle between the court and the prince. When Zhudi
overthrew his nephew and declared himself the emperor, he cruelly executed
many officials under Emperor Huidi as he labeled them as wicked ministers
who misguided the emperor. It was a bloody effort to intimidate China’s
independently-minded intellectuals. In due course, tens of thousands of
innocent people related to these former imperial officials were either
executed, incarcerated, or banished; the violence of these bloody purges was
equaled in its ferocity only by those carried out by the dynastic founder. 21

These historical facts may throw light into the story of Xiyouji
(Journey to the West) by Wu Cheng’en. It was not allowed to criticize the
emperors of the present dynasty. However, Wu skillfully reminded readers
of the fratricide that Emperor Tang Taizong committed eight hundred years
ago. Careful readers with knowledge of the Ming dynasty may also recall
how Emperor Chengzu overthrew his nephew’s throne and carried out the
massacre against those who followed the previous emperor.

The author showed his aversion to Daoists in many places. In

Chapter 19, the Monkey, the key character in the novel, told Pigsy, “It’s old
Monkey who turned from wrong to right, who left the Taoist to follow the
Buddhist. I am now accompanying the royal brother of the Great Tang
Emperor in the Land of the East.” 22

Most of the demons, monsters, and devils in the novel are Daoist
monsters. Chapter 25 was entitled “The Chen-yuan Immortal gives chase to
catch the scripture monk; Pilgrim Sun causes great disturbance at the
Temple of Five Villages.” When the pilgrims arrived at a Daoist temple,
they saw a huge stone tablet, on which the following inscription was written
in large letters:

The Blessed Land of the Mountain of Longevity.

The Cave Heave of the Temple of Five Villages

……. On both sides of the second gate they saw this New Year
couplet”

Long-living and ever young, this immortal house.

Of the same age as heaven, this Daoist home.

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 Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism

The Monkey said with a laugh, “This Daoist is mouthing big words
just to intimidate people!” 23

When the two disciples of the Daoist master found that two ginseng
fruits in the orchard were lost, “they came directly back to the main hall.
Pointing their fingers at the Tang monk, they berated him with all kinds of
foul and abusive language, accusing him of being a larcenous bald-head and
a thievish rat.” They even would not stop swearing at the Tang monk when
he said, “If they can’t buy them with money, they can at least offer you an
apology, for as the proverb says, ‘Righteousness is worth a thousand piece
of gold.’ When the immortal lads found the truth, they became even more
abusive in their language. 24

Thus, the two Daoist disciples, narrow-minded, showed their

rudeness in using all the foul words. In order to get revenge, the Great
Immortal decided to fill the pan with clear oil and boil it. Then he ordered
twenty disciples to dump the Monkey into the pan and fry him. He deemed
that to be the payment for his missing ginseng tree. 25

Another demon disguised himself as an aged Daoist. The novel

describes his image:

A shining star-patterned cap,

And tousled whitish hair;
A bird-feathered gown wrapped by sash of silk,
And Taoist shoes woven from yellow coir;
Refined features and bright eyes like a man divine;
A light, healthy frame as the Age Star’s
Why speak of the Taoist of the green buffalo?
He’s as strong as the master of the white tablet –
A specious form disguised as the true form,
Falsehood feigning to be the honest truth! 26

According to the local spirit, the demons loved the firing of elixir
and the refinements of herbs and were delighted with the Daoists of the
Complete Truth Sect. 27

Chapter 73 tells the story of how a Daoist and female fiends plotted
to poison the Tang Monk, the Monkey Pilgrim, Pigsy and Sha Monk. 28

Chapter 37 describes how the ghost king visited the Tang Monk at
night and told him how he invited a Daoist monk who was capable of
making rain when the country needed. The Daoist monk, moved to treachery
all at once, pushed the king into the well which he then covered with a slab
of stone. He sealed off the entire well with mud and dirt. After killing the
king, the demon with his mastery of the Daoist abilities shook his body once
in the garden and transformed himself into an exact image of the king. He
took over the empire and usurped the kingdom. 29

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 Understanding The Novel Xi-You-Ji (Journey To The West)
In The Context Of Politics And Religions

Another paragraph in Chapter 44 tells us the following story about

Daoists and the king in the Cart Slow Kingdom:

The monks told the Monkey Pilgrim that the ruler of the country
was wicked and partial. He hated Buddhists. He wanted to create wind and
rain. Three immortal elders came and deceived him. They persuaded the
king to tear down the Buddhist monasteries and force Buddhist monks to be
slaves in the household of those immortal elders. …..The monks went on,
the Daoists “know how to manipulate cinnabar and refine lead, to sit in
meditation in order to nourish their spirits. They point to water and it
changes into oil; they touch stones and transform them into pieces of gold.
Now they are in the process of building a huge temple for the Three Pure
Ones, in which they can perform rites to Heaven and Earth and read
scriptures night and day, to the end that the king will remain youthful for ten
thousand years. Such enterprise undoubtedly pleases the king..” 30

In the end of chapter 46, we find the following words uttered by the
giddy king.

The king clutched at the imperial table before him and sobbed
uncontrollably, crying:

The human form is hard, hard indeed, to get!

Make no elixir when there’s no true guide.
You have the charms and water to send for gods,
But not the pill to lengthen, protect your life.
If perfection’s undone,
Could Nirvana be won?
If you knew before such hardships you’d meet,
Why not abstain, stay safely in the mount?
Truly
To touch gold, to refine lead – of what use are they?
To summon wind, to call for rain – still all is vain!

Then Chapter 47 continues:

The Pilgrim went to him and shouted:” How could you be so dim-
witted? Look at the corpses of those Taoists: one happens to be that of a
tiger and the other, a deer. Goat-Strength was, in fact, an antelope. If you
don’t believe me, ask them to fish out his bones for you to see. How could
humans have skeletons like that? They were all mountain beasts which had
become spirits, united in their efforts to come here and plot against you.
When they saw that your ascendancy was still strong, they dared not harm
you as yet; but after two or more years when your ascendance would be in
decline, they would have taken your life and your entire kingdom would
have been theirs. It was fortunate that we came in time to exterminate these
deviates and save your life. And you are still weeping? What for? Bring us
our rescript at once and send us on our way.” 31

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 Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism

When the Monkey Pilgrim fought the demon, he found that the
demon was released due to the “negligence” of Lao Zi, sometimes. In
Chapter 52, the Monkey was pursuing the demon king. He finally realized
that the demon was a green buffalo. The buffalo escaped because the boy,
who was assigned to take care of it by Lao Zi, fell asleep. The boy admitted
that he ate one pellet of elixir of Seven Returns to the Fire. Thus, he fell in
sound sleep for seven days. The buffalo transformed itself into a demon and
went to the Region Below to make enormous troubles. The Monkey scolded
Lao Zi for his negligence by saying:

When someone like you, Venerable Sir, lets loose a fiendish

creature to rob and harm people, with what kind of crime should we charge
him?” 32

Finally, Lao Zi subdued the demon who had to change back into his
original form, which was that of a green buffalo. Lao Zi climbed onto the
back of the green buffalo.

Having mounted colored clouds,

He went back to Tushita Palace;
Having bound the fiend,
He ascended to the Griefless Heaven. 33

Here the author implies that Lao Zi was guilty of his inappropriate
making of the elixirs which caused troubles. Finally, Lao Zi was converted
to Buddhism as he went back to the Tushita Palace. We can easily see the
author’s preference to Buddhism when he wrote this poem describing the
conversion of Lao Zi to Buddhism.

Let us read the following poem in Chapter 53:

The poem says:

For smelting true lead you need water true;
True water mixes well with mercury dried.
True mercury and lead have no maternal breath;
Divine drugs and cinnabar are elixir.
In vain there is the form of child conceived;
Earth Mother with ease has merit achieved.
Heresy pushed down, right faith held up,
The lord of the mind, all smiles now returns. 34

The Daoist practice of making elixirs was considered heresy and

should be repressed, as implied by the poet. The author certainly knew that
the contemporary emperor was intoxicated in Daoist practices of making
elixir at the court. He was using the innuendo to criticize the contemporary
emperor for his perverse behavior and practices.

Chapter 78 tells a story about what happened when Master Tripitaka

and his disciples arrived in a country where they heard a story. Three year

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 Understanding The Novel Xi-You-Ji (Journey To The West)
In The Context Of Politics And Religions

ago, an old man disguised as a Taoist arrived with a young girl, barely
sixteen……. He presented her as a tribute to the King, who became so
infatuated with her that he gave her the title of Queen Beauty. The king
would not even look at any of the royal consorts dwelling in the six
chambers and three palaces. Night and day the King cared only to indulge
in amorous dalliance with this one girl until he is reduced to a physical
wreck. Constantly fatigued, emaciated, and unable to eat or drink, he had
not long to live. The royal hospital tried all its prescriptions, but no cure
was found. However, that Daoist, who was appointed the royal father-in-
law, claim1ed to possess a secret formula from beyond the ocean which can
lengthen the king’s life. He went to the Ten Islets and the Three Isles to
gather herbs. After his return and the preparation of all the medications, he
still required that the terrible medical supplement of one thousand one
hundred and eleven hearts of young boys. When the medicine was taken
with soup made from boiling these boys’ hearts, the king, soothe Daoist
claimed, would live to a thousand years without aging. Those little boys
whom the Tripitaka Master and his followers saw in the geese coops were
the selected ones, who were being fed and nurtured before they were
slaughtered. Hearing the law of the king the parents dared not even weep.

When Master Tripitaka heard this, he was scared, tears rolling down
his cheeks, he blurted out: “Ah, befuddled king! So you grew ill on account
of your incontinence and debauchery. But how could you take the lives of
so many innocent boys? O misery! O misery! This pain kills me!” 35

When Master Tripitaka handed his letter to the king, he noticed that
the king followed what his father-in-law said. His father-in-law, who was a
demon in Daoist disguise, bore grudges against Buddhism and even told the
king to eat Master Tripitaka. Believing such a perverse suggestion, the
befuddle ruler called up his Embroidered uniform Guards （錦衣官similar
word to refer to the secret imperial police -- Imperial Guards in the Ming
Court）to arrest the Master. The Monkey Pilgrim, capable to realized the
tricks of the Daoist demon, fought with the Daoist with his rod. They fought
a marvelous battle in midair. Finally, the Monkey Pilgrim overwhelmed the
demon in Chapter 79. 36

In Chapter 62, the Tang Monk and his entourage came to a Sacrifice
Kingdom. Monks told the Tang Monk, “Neither our civil officers are
worthy, nor our military officers noble. And the king is not upright
either.” ..….”The dim-witted ruler never gave the matter another thought, at
once those venal officials had us monks arrested and inflicted on us endless
tortures and interrogations.”

When the Tang Monk heard this, he nodded his head and sighed,
saying, “There are certainly hidden aspects to this matter that have not yet
come to light. For one thing, the Court has been remiss in its rule, and for
another, all of you may be faced with a fated calamity……” 37

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 Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism

The author reveals his criticism of Emperor Ming Shizong in

Chapter 62. When the Tang Monk asked if the king of the Scarlet Purple
State was still in the main hall, the steward replied, “His Majesty has not
held court for a long time.” 38 Checking the history of the Ming Dynasty, we
found that Emperor Ming Shizong (r. 1522 – 1566) in his forty years rule
went to court only four times to meet his ministers to discuss the state affairs.
Also the state name “Scarlet” is the surname of the Emperor Zhu. Then the
author made efforts to smooth things over by quoting the words of the King,
“We have been ill for a long time and we have not ascended our throne.
What a happy coincidence this is that the moment we appear in the main hall
with the intent to find a good physician through the promulgation of a
special proclamation, a noble priest immediately appears.” 39 On hearing
what happened in the court of Emperor Tang Taizong, the king sighed,
“Truly yours is a nation and a Heavenly Court! We have been ill for a long
time, but not one minister is able to assist us.” 40

Wu Cheng’en further criticized the emperor by Monkey’s words:

“That man at the moment is a sick ruler. After he dies, he’ll be a

sick ghost. Even in the next incarnation, he will still be a sick man.” 41

Taking the contemporary events into consideration, the reader can

reach a conclusion that the description of the king in this Scarlet Purple State
is not a coincidence at all. Wu Cheng’en was referring to the Ming dynasty.

Wu offered a medicine for the emperor:

To secure a state one must first cure the king’s disease;

To safeguard the Way one must purge the evil-loving heart. 42

These words remind us of teachings of Confucianism, Daoism and

Buddhism. The Great Learning (《大學》) says,

The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue

throughout the empire, first ordered well their own states. Wishing
to order well their states, they first regulated their families. Wishing
to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons, wishing
to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to
rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts.

Thus, we understand that Wu was a Confucian scholar first. He did

not object to Daoism, but disliked the ways that Emperor Shizong ruled. In
Chapter 47, after eliminating two perverse Daoists who made disasters in the
Cart Slow Kingdom, the Monkey advised the King:

You should realize that the true way is the gate of Zen.
Hereafter you should never believe in false doctrines. I hope that
you will honor the unity of the Three Religions: revere the monks,

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 Understanding The Novel Xi-You-Ji (Journey To The West)
In The Context Of Politics And Religions

revere also the Daoists, and take care to nurture the talented. Your
kingdom, I assure you, will be secure forever. 43

In chapters 78 and 79, Jin Yi Guan （錦衣官 Imperial Bodyguard）

appeared in the scene. In the Ming Dynasty, imperial bodyguards were
notorious for their extraordinary power, brutal interrogations of political
prisoners, terror and surveillance. The secret police department imposed
terror on the land. The novel describes how an imperial bodyguard officer
pulled Wukong by the sleeve to the court to meet the King.

The images of both Buddhism and Daoism are characterized with

human nature. The Jade Emperor shows indecisiveness in Chapter 7. He
looked decrepit and muddleheaded. He is incapable of issuing decrees unless
someone gives him advice. We see the image of Emperor Shizong in him.
The Gold Star of Venus, with his profound knowledge of statecraft, is good
with words. He often appears to be a Goody-goody. His image reminds us
of the treacherous ministers of the Ming, especially the Senior Grand
Secretary Yan Song （嚴嵩 1480 – 1569）in the court.

4. Conclusion

The novel Xi You Ji (Journey to the West) is not simply a novel of

mythology. Wu Cheng’en followed the Chinese intellectual tradition – to
take social responsibility as one’s own. He gave full expression of his
criticism of the Ming emperor Shizong who was bewitched by the Daoist
ideas of immortality. Obviously, Wu was disappointed with the
irresponsibility of the Emperor, his selfishness, his perverse behavior and
the degeneration he brought to the nation.

Unlike the Western tradition, Chinese intellectuals were not able to

enjoy the freedom of speech since the unification of China by Emperor Qin
Shi Huang (221 – 210 BCE). Even in the Tang dynasty (618 – 907) where
literati enjoyed a much freer atmosphere of creative work, poets could
criticize the emperors with the allusive or indirect way. Bai Juyi’s long
poem “The Everlasting Regret”(長恨歌) recorded the tragic love between
Emperor Tang Xuanzong (唐玄宗 r. 725 – 768 CE) and his concubine Yang
Guifei (楊貴妃 719 – 756 CE). He began the poem by referring to Emperor
Han instead of mentioning directly the name of Emperor Xuanzong in the
Tang Dynasty.

The First Emperor of the Ming further silenced Chinese literati by

an approach called “literary inquisition 文字獄.” The emperor, feeling
humble for his low family background, was suspicious of certain words
which might imply his past history as a beggar, monk and rebel. Being a
southerner, he would behead officials whose memorials contained taboo
words such as “seng”(僧 monk) “fa (髮 hair),” and so forth. The officials
of Rite Department were scared and begged the emperor for a format
without his tabooed vocabulary. Thus, the emperors even monopolized the

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 Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism

Chinese language and silenced both officials and intellectuals alike with
terror. With such knowledge of the Ming dynasty, we may comprehend
why the author of Xi You Ji (Journey to the West) used many innuendoes
and satire to criticize the emperor indirectly.

Daoism has been the indigenous Chinese religion. Different from

Daoist philosophy which is supposed to be the words of Lao Zi and Zhuang
Zi, Chinese Daoists followed the ancient ways by Fangshi (方士 magicians)
who claimed that they were able to produce elixirs for immortality. Daoists
were known as alchemists in the history of Chinese science. They searched
for an elixir that might permit physical longevity or even immortality. They
also developed ways for cultivation, techniques for healing, breath
circulation, meditative exercises and sexual hygiene.

Elixir mixtures frequently contained dangerous compounds derived

from mercury, lead, sulphur and the like. Many Chinese emperors, from the
First Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi (r. 221 – 210 BCE) to Emperor Ming
Shizong (1522 – 1566), were interested in obtaining such a medicine for
immortality. At least five emperors in the Tang dynasty died of poisonous
medicine. The emperors, who led a debauchery life with too many women,
believed that these elixirs could help to strengthen themselves and keep
immortality. In spite of the advice of honest ministers, the emperors seldom
changed their minds.

Under such conditions, the court became a heart of darkness. The

emperors put their trusted sycophants and eunuchs in charge of daily state
affairs. Honest ministers were either dismissed, exiled or executed for their
honest advice and criticisms. The emperors were flattered as being a sacred
ruler, the most intelligent son of Heaven, the superhuman being in the world.
They had nothing to worry about what they were doing, taking no
consideration of their actions at all. What they had in mind was their own
pleasure. For instance, Wei Zhongxian (魏忠賢 1568 - 1627), one of the
evil eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty, used to report state affairs to the emperor
when the latter was enjoying himself. The emperor would agree to every
suggestion the eunuch made. As a result, the country was declining and
going from bad to worse.

It was under such evil environment that Wu Cheng’en wrote this

novel. He threw all his energy into the creation of this unprecedented novel.
He articulated his message in a way which is beyond ordinary readers who
had little knowledge of Daoism and Buddhism. It is by possessing certain
knowledge and terms of Daoism and Buddhism that one may comprehend
the message that Wu Cheng’en was sending. Then the discourse is clear: the
emperor was doing something harmful to the nation. It is necessary to make
the correct doctrines known to all so that the evil and harmful trend may be
stopped.

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 Understanding The Novel Xi-You-Ji (Journey To The West)
In The Context Of Politics And Religions

By reading between the lines, we can see that the author, on the
whole, was a Confucian scholar with a profound knowledge of Daoism and
Buddhism. This is not strange because Chinese literati tended to be
Confucians when they were young. This was the period when they made
endeavors to become successful candidates in the Imperial Examination
which was held once in three years. They would spend their lifetime
preparing and sitting for the civil examinations. Once they obtained what
they had worked for, they could be appointed as officials. Thus they might
bring honor to their families. This was considered “filial piety.” The
officers appointed to their posts after the imperial examination would
encounter setbacks in office because the reality was far distant from their
ideals. Then they might embrace Daoism in middle age or old age, when
they felt frustrated at their failures. They might first accept Daoist
philosophy to escape from society. Then they might learn how to prolong
their life by picking up the Daoist practice in producing elixirs and other
exercises. They might convert to Buddhism, too, depending on their
individual factors. Wu Cheng’en’s life showed his dedication to Confucian
studies at an early age. It is through a thorough understanding of the history
of the Ming and the doctrines and practices of Buddhism and Daoism that
we reach a better understanding of this monumental novel.

Note: I am grateful to Professor Ananda Guruge for his inspiration

and encouragement for working out this paper. I also express my hearty
thanks to Mr. Nishale for his efforts in proofreading for improvement.

Endnotes
1
Regarding the lifespan of Xuan Zang, there are more than three to four records. These
records say that Xuan Zang was 61, 65, or 69 years old when he passed away. Professor Yang
Tingfu summarized the records of various sources and suggested that Xuan Zang’s lifespan was
65 years. See Yang Tingfu 楊廷福. Xuan Zang Nianpu 《玄奘年譜》（The Chronological
Life of Xuan Zang). Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1988, pp. 1 – 15.
2
Fairbank, John. China: A New History. Cambridge :Harvard University Press, 2001, pp.
128 – 129.
3
Bai Yang. Zhongguoren Shigang (《中國人史綱》Outline for Chinese History), Hong Kong:
Tiandi Tushu Youxian Gongsi, 1990, part II, p.758.
4
The full name of this book is Changchun Zhenren Xiyouji (《長春真人西遊記》Journey to
the West by Qiu Changchun, the Perfect Man). It records what happened to Qiu Changchun
and his disciples on their long journey to Samarkand. The book was written by Li Zhichang 李
志常 who was a close follower of Qiu. This book is of high value of geography of Central Asia.
5
See Hu Shi.胡適. Xiyouji Kaozheng 《西遊記考證》(Textual Research The Journey to the
West), (Taipei: Yuanliu Chuban Gongsi, 1994, pp.39 – 75. For more researches into this novel,
see Liu Yinbai 劉蔭柏. Xiyouji Yanjiu Ziliao 《西遊記研究資料》(Research Sources of
Journey to the West). Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, 1990, pp.692 – 785.
6
Xiucai 秀才 refers to one who passed the imperial examinations at the county level.
7
Suigongsheng 歲貢生 refers to a regulation practiced in both the Ming and Qing dynasties for
selection of Xiucai who lived on a government stipend. The selected xiucai would further

17
 Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism

study at the National Academy step by step. When they finish, they could be promoted as
minor officials.
8
Li Guorong 李國榮. Foguang Xia De Diwang: Zhongguo Gudai Diwang Foshi Huodong
Miwen (《佛光下的帝王：中國古代帝王佛事活動秘聞》) Beijing: Tuanjie Chubanshe,
1995, p.323.
9
Mote, Frederick and Twitchett, Denis. The Cambridge History of China: The Ming Dynasty,
1368 – 1644, Part I, Volume 7, Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp.479 - 480.
10
Bai Yang. Zhongguoren Shigang (《中國人史綱》Outline for Chinese History), Hong Kong:
Tiandi Tushu Youxian Gongsi, 1990, part II, p.776.
11
Ibid., part II, p. 776.
12
Chen Jiarong 陳佳榮. Zhongguo lidai zhi Xingzhi Shengshuai Luanwang (《中國歷代之興
治盛衰亂亡》). Hong Kong: Xuejin Chubanshe, 1989, p.419.
13
See Anthony Yu’s translation. Volume 1, p.232. In fact, Emperor Tang Taizong killed his
two brothers, crown prince Li Jiancheng and younger brother Li Yuanji. Then he forced his
father to abdicate the throne for him in 626 CE.
14
Ibid.: p.239.
15
See Wright, Arthur and Twitchett, Denis. Perspectives on the T’ang. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1973, p.244.
16
Guanghongming Ji, 《廣弘明集》in Taisho, 52:329a.
17
Yunhua Jan 冉雲華. Zhongguo Fojiao Wenhua Yanjiu Lunji (《中國佛教文化研究論集》
Taipei: Dongchu Chubanshe, 1990, pp.19 -20.
18
Ibid. p.34.
19
Wright, Arthur F. and Twitchett, Denis. Perspectives on the T’ang. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1973, p.256.
20
Regarding the mother of Emperor Chengzu (明成祖), scholars suspect that his mother was
not Zhu Yuanzhang’s first wife Ma but a concubine named Gong, of Mongolian or a Korean
nationality. They even suspect he was not related to Zhu Yuanzhang. Tall, Emperor Chengzu
looked handsome with moustache while Zhu Yuanzhang, his father, looked ugly. It was said
that Emperor Chengzu’s mother was a concubine of Emperor Shundi, the last emperor of the
Mongol Yuan dynasty. He showed a special atrocity to the followers of his predecessor
Emperor Huidi. The dynastic history books usually avoid mentioning his cruelty and violent
character. Both Emperor Taizu and Emperor Chengzu used terror to put China in peace.
21
Mote, Frederick and Twitchett, Denis. The Cambridge History of China: The Ming Dynasty,
1368 – 1644, Part I, Volume 7, Cambridge University Press, 1997, p.202.
22
Journey to the West, translated by Anthony Yu. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977,
volume 1, p.387.
23
Ibid., Volume 1, p.467.
24
Ibid., Volume 1, p.476, p.478.
25
Ibid., Volume 1, p.492.
26
Ibid., Volume 2, pp. 117 – 118.
27
Ibid., Volume 2, p.125.
28
Ibid., Volume 3, pp.380 – 393.
29
Ibid., Volume 2, p.182.
30
Ibid., Volume 2, p.306.
31
Ibid., Volume 2, pp. 352 - 353
32
Ibid., Volume 3, p.33.
33
Ibid., Volume 3, p. 34.
34
Ibid., Volume 3, p.49 – 50.
35
Ibid., Volume 4, pp. 42 - 43.
36
Ibid., Volume 4, pp. 47 – 63.
37
Ibid., Volume 3, pp. 190 – 191.

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 Understanding The Novel Xi-You-Ji (Journey To The West)
In The Context Of Politics And Religions

38
Ibid., Volume 3, pp. 291.
39
Ibid., Volume 3, p.292.
40
Ibid., Volume 3, p.294.
41
Ibid., Volume 3, p.302.
42
Ibid., Volume 3, p.321.
43
Ibid., Volume 2, p.354.

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