Modern Physics

• The fields of study in physics can be divided

into classical physics and modern physics.

 Classical physics deals with questions regarding motion

and energy. It includes five important areas: mechanics
(forces and motion), heat, sound, electricity and
magnetism, and light.
• Modern physics concentrates on scientific beliefs about
the basic structure of the material world. Its major
fields include atomic, molecular and electron physics,
nuclear physics, particle physics, relativity, origin of the
universe, and astrophysics.
 Describing Motion and Interactions
Position—where you are in space (L or meter)

Velocity—how fast position is changing with time (LT-1 or m/s)

Acceleration—how fast velocity is changing with time (LT-2 or m/s2)

Force— what is required to change the motion of a body (MLT-2 or kg-m/s2 or N)

Inertia (mass)— a measure of the force needed to change the motion of a body (M)

Energy—the potential for an object to do work. (ML2T-2 or kg m2/s2 or N-m or J)

Work is equal to the force applied times the distance moved. W = F d

Kinetic Energy is the energy associated with an object’s motion. KE=½ mv2
Potential Energy is the energy associated with an objects position.
Gravitational potential energy PEgravity=mgh
Spring potential energy PEspring= -kx

Momentum— the potential of an object to induce motion in another object (MLT-1 or kg-m/s)

Angular Momentum and Rotational Energy— the equivalent constants of motion for rotation
(MT-1 or kg/s) and (MLT-2 or kg m/s2 or N)

Pressure— force divided by the area over which the force is applied (ML-1T-1 or kg/m-s or N/m2
or Pa)
 What are the major subfields in Physics?
• Classical Physics (pre 20th century)
• Mechanics → forces, motion
• Thermodynamics → heat, temperature
• Electricity and magnetism → charge, currents
• Optics → light, lenses, telescopes
• Modern Physics (20th century)
• Atomic and nuclear → radioactivity, atomic power

• Quantum mechanics
} → basic structure matter
• Particle physics
• Condensed matter → solids and liquids, computers, lasers
• Relativity, Cosmology → universe, life!
 Introduction
• Laws of thermodynamics and laws of electricity and magnetism
provided the basis for explanation of all phenomena in classical
physics
• Classical mechanics – motion of objects which are directly observable
or observable with help of inst. like microscope.
• Classical concepts do not hold good at atomic dimensions.
• The phenomena in the realm of atoms, nuclei and elementary particles
are commonly referred to as quantum phenomena and the subject
matter concerning all these phenomena constitute quantum physics.
• The currently accepted basic mathematical theory of quantum physics
is called quantum mechanics.
 Inadequacy of classical mechanics

1. Electrons moving round the nucleus – according to

classical theory – electron losses energy and ultimately
collapses showing instability of atom but not witnessed.
(fails to explain the stability of atom)
2. CM fails to explain the spectrum of exited hydrogen
atom, photoelectric effect, blackbody radiation
Some key events/observations that led to the
development of quantum mechanics…
_________________________________
 Black body radiation spectrum (Planck, 1901)
 Photoelectric effect (Einstein, 1905)
 Model of the atom (Rutherford, 1911)
 Quantum Theory of Spectra (Bohr, 1913)
 Scattering of photons off electrons (Compton, 1922)
 Exclusion Principle (Pauli, 1922)
 Matter Waves (de Broglie 1925)
 Experimental test of matter waves (Davisson and Germer,
1927)
Black body radiation
Perfect black body - absorbs and emits all the radiation that fall on it.
This radiation is black body radiation  Radiation pass thro hole
Undergoes multiple reflection
Independent of : 1) the Material And completely absorbed
2) shape of the black body
 While place in a bath at T
Heat radiation come out
Depends only on : Temperature
only from the hole Not through
wall of sphere

An object that absorbs all incident radiation, i.e. no reflection

Cu

Lamp black
(Graphite)
 Heat energy transmission

• Types of heat energy transmission are conduction, convection and

radiation.

• Conduction is transfer of heat energy by molecular vibrations not by

actual motion of material. For example, if you hold one end of an iron

rod and the other end of the rod is put on a flame, you will feel the heat

some time later. You can say that the heat energy reaches your hand by

heat conduction.
• Convection is transfer of heat by actual motion of molecules. The

hot-air furnace, the hot-water heating system, and the flow of blood

in the body are examples.

• Radiation The heat reaching the earth from the sun cannot be

transferred either by conduction or convection since the space

between the earth and the sun has no material medium. The energy is

carried by electromagnetic waves that do not require a material

medium for propagation. The kind of heat transfer is called thermal

radiation.
Stefan-boltzmann’s law (1879, 1884)
it is found that the radiation energy (E) is proportional to the fourth power of the associated
temperature (T).

Area under a curve which measures the total energy of radiation at that temperature,
increases according to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. Thus Stefan’s
fourth power law is verified.

total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body per unit time
(also known as the black-body irradiance or emissive power)

E  T4

E =  T4

 = 25k4 / 15h3c2
 =5.6704 x 10-8 Js-1m-2K-4
Wein’s displacement law (1893)
The wavelength distribution 0f thermal radiation from B.B. at any temperature has
essentially the same as at any other temperature
max .T = constant max = c/max
2.898 x 10~3 m-K
max/T =constant (Universal)
Useful to determine the temperature of stars
This holds good for shorter wavelength not for longer wavelengths

Derived a formula for energy distribution in black body radiation according to which,
the energy density Ed for waves between  and +d is given by

This law is quite useful for measuring the temperature of a blackbody with a very
high temperature.
The wavelength of the peak of the blackbody radiation
curve decreases in a linear fashion as the temperature is
increased (Wien's displacement law).
Rayleigh Jean’s law
E  T

E  1/ 4

E = 8k T / 4
Or
8 2
E , T   3 kT
c

This law holds good only for longer wavelengths

Not for shorter wavelengths
Blackbody Intensity as a Function of Frequency
Maxplanck ’s quantum theory of
black body radiation (1900) (Awarded
Noble prize 1918)

Assumptions
1. A black body radiator contains electron Max Planck
or so called oscillator, which are capable 1858 – 1947
of vibrating with all frequencies. German theoretical
physicist
2. Frequency () of radiation emitted by
osci.
=  of vibration
nE n=n
3. Osci. Radiate energy in discrete manner
not continuous 3E n=3
4. Osci. Exchanges energy in the form of
2E n=2
absorption or emission in terms of
quanta of magnitude h  E n=1

ie E = n h  where n =o,1,2,3……. 0 n=0

Plank was successful in explaining the energy spectrum with the
following assumptions

-- BB composed of large number of oscillating particles (oscillators) capable of

vibrating with all possible frequencies.
-- Energy of the oscillating particle is quantized
can have energy E = nh
h – plank’s constant ;
 – frequency of radiation
n – 0,1,2,3…
Energy of a single photon of frequency is given by
E = h

-- Vibrating particle emit energy – one quantized state to another

-- Oscillating particle can emit or absorb energy only in discrete amounts of h
Exchange of energy between radiation and matter is not continuous – bundles or
packets of quanta of definite energy – Photons
Average energy of an oscillator

Eave=ET/ N 1

N- number of oscillators
ET – total energy

Let N0 be the no. of oscillator having ‘zero’ energy

N1 be the no. of oscillator having ‘h’ energy
N2 be the no. of oscillator having ‘2h’ energy
……….
Nn be the no. of oscillator having ‘nh’ energy

Total no. of oscillators can be written as

N=N0+N1+…..Nn 2
 kkB=1.3806488 x 10-23 m2Kg/s2K
Boltzmann’s distribution law J/K

N n  N 0e  nh / kT 3

Total no. of oscillator

0 h / kT 1h / kT 2 h / kT  nh / kT
N  N 0e  N 0e  N 0e  N 0e
x  e  h / kT

N  N 0 1  x1  x 2  x n 
 1   1 
N  N0    N0   h / kT 
1 x  1 e  ---- 4
ET  N 0 .0  N1.1h  N 2 2h  N n .nh
ET  0  hN 0e 1h / kT  2hN 0e 2 h / kT  nhN 0e nh / kT
ET  hN 0 e 1h / kT  2e 2 h / kT  nenh / kT 
xe  h / kT

ET  hN 0 x  2 x  x   hN 0 x1  2 x  3 x  x

1 2 n 1 2 n 1

x e h / kT
ET  N 0 h 2  N 0 h
1  x  (1  e  h / kT 2
) ---- 5
 ET N 0 h .e (1  e
 h / kT  h / kT
)
E  .
N (1  e  h / kT 2
) N0
h .e  h / kT
h
E 
(1  e  h / kT
) ( 1  1)
 h / kT
e
h
E  h / kT ---- 6
(e  1)

This is the average energy of an oscillators whose frequency of vibration is 

The no. of oscillators per unit volume in the
frequency interval  and +d
8 2

N ( )d  3 d
c
Energy radiated per unit volume in the
frequency interval  and +d

8 h 2

E ( )d  N ( )d .E  3 d . h / kT
c (e  1)
8 2
h
E  3
c (e h / kT
 1)
int erms  
 c c c
  d   d   d  d
 2

2

8hc 3 c 1
E ( )d  3 3 2 d hc / kT
c  (e  1)
8hc
E  5 hc / kT
 (e  1)
int erms  

Eλ = spectral energy density

= Energy/unit volume/unit
wavelength
irradiance
 COMPTON EFFECT
(Particle Nature of light)
(Scattering of photons by weakly bound electrons)
1921 by A. H. Compton

Illumination of a graphite block by a monochromatic x rays of wavelength, λ

Scattered X ray spectrum has intensity peaks at two wavelengths.

One at the same wavelength λ as the incident X ray photon and other at a
longer wavelength λ´.
 The Compton Effect
 Experimentally found that the frequency of X-rays scattered by

electrons was not the same as the incident X-rays.

 Scattered X-ray – two components

 Having the same wavelength as the incident

 Having longer wavelength

 Phenomenon in which there is a change in wavelength of the

scattered X-ray is called Compton Effect.

 Successfully explained by A.H.Compton based on quantum theory

 Scattering of X-ray

 Like ordinary light waves, X-rays are scattered by matter in two different ways

 Coherent scattering or classical scattering or Thomson scattering

 Incoherent scattering or Compton scattering

 Coherent scattering

 X-rays are scattered by electrons without any change in wavelength

 Explained by Thompson in classical theory

 Incoherent scattering (Compton scattering)

 Consists of two components (i) one having the same wavelength (ii) has a

slightly larger wavelength

 Compton directed a beam of x-rays toward a block of graphite

 They suffered a change in wavelength

 It was found that the scattered x-rays has two components (i)

having same wavelength (ii) slightly larger wavelength than the

incident x-rays

 This elastic interaction is known as Compton effect

 The amount of energy reduction is depended on the angle at

which the x-rays were scattered

 The change in wavelength is called the Compton shift

 COMPTON SCATTERING
Classical picture: oscillating electromagnetic field causes oscillations in positions of
charged particles, which re-radiate in all directions at same frequency and wavelength
as incident radiation.
Change in wavelength of scattered light is completely unexpected classically

Incident light wave Oscillating Emitted light wave

electron
Compton’s explanation: “billiard ball” collisions between particles
of light (X-ray photons) and electrons in the material
Before After p`
scattered photon
Incoming photon
P
θ
Electron
pe scattered electron
 Derivation of Compton shift
p sin 
E , P
Collision between photon and loosely
bound Electron
me c 2 , 0
Photon -energy and momentum X ray Target
photon electron
p cos 
Before collision

After collision E
hc
,P 
E
 pe cos 
 c E, P
hc E
E   , P 
 c
Electron -energy and momentum
Ee , Pe
Before collision
pe sin 
After collision me c 2 , 0

Ee , Pe E =m c p c
2 2 4 2 2
  v2 
mc 2
m c 1  2 
2 4

Total Energy, E =
E 2 -p 2 c 2 =  c  =m 2 c 4
v2
1 2  v2 
c 1  c 2 
 
2 m2c 4
E =
v2 2 2 2 2 4
1 2
c E -p c = m c
mv
momentum, P =
1 2
v2 E =m c p c
2 2 4 2 2
c
2 2 m2v 2c2
Pc =
v2
1 2

m2c 4
c
m2v 2c2
E= m c  p c 2 4 2 2
2 2 2
E -p c = 
 v   v2 
2

1  c 2  1  c 2 
   
m c m v c
2 4 2 2 2
Einstein relativistic
E 2 -p 2 c 2 =
 v2 
1  c 2 
equation
 
 Conservation of energy
Energy before collision = energy after collision
E  me c 2  E   Ee

Ee  E  me c 2  E  (1)
Conservation of momentum

Since momentum is a vector quantity, In the collision process, momentum

must be conserved in the mutually perpendicular directions.
In the direction of incident photon (along x direction)

p  0  p cos   pe cos 
Squaring the above pe cos   p  p cos 
(2)
pe cos   p  p cos   2 pp cos 
equation 2 2 2 2 2

Along y 0  p sin   pe sin 

direction
pe sin   p sin 
Squaring the above pe 2 sin 2   p2 sin 2  (3)
equation
 Adding (2) and (3)
pe 2 cos 2   pe 2 sin 2   p 2  p2 cos2   2 pp cos   p2 sin 2 
pe 2 cos 2   sin 2    p 2  p2 cos 2   sin 2    2 pp cos 
pe 2  p 2  p2  2 pp cos  (4)
(5)
From the theory of
relativity eE m c P c
2
e
2 4
e
2 2

Substituting equation (1) and (4) in the equation (5)

 E  m c  E   m c  p c  p c  2 ppc cos
2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2
e e

 E  m c   E   2E   E  m c   m c  p c  p c  2 ppc
e
2 2 2
e
2
e
2 4 2 2 2 2 2
cos 
E 2  me 2c 4  2 Eme c 2  E 2  2 E E  2 E mec 2  me 2c 4  p 2c 2  p2c 2  2 ppc 2 cos 
E 2  E 2  2 E E  me 2c 4  2me c 2  E  E    me 2c 4  p 2c 2  p 2c 2  2 pp c 2 cos 
Using (5), energy of photon can be written as
E 2  P 2 c 2 , E 2  P 2 c 2

E 2  E 2  2 E E  me 2 c 4  2me c 2  E  E    me 2c 4  E 2  E 2  2 EE  cos 
E 2  E 2  2 E E  me 2 c 4  2me c 2  E  E    me 2 c 4  E 2  E 2  2 EE  cos 
2 E E  2me c 2  E  E    2 EE  cos 
2me c 2  E  E    2 E E 1  cos  

E  E  1  cos  

E E me c 2

 1 1  1  cos  
   (6)
E E me c 2
In terms of wavelength
    1  cos  
    E  h 
hc
 hc hc 
2
me c

h
    1  cos  
me c
h
compton shift ,   1  cos   (7)
me c
 h
compton shift ,   1  cos  
me c

Eq. 7 gives the changes in wavelength expected for a photon that is scattered
Through the angle  by the particle of rest mass me

This change is independent of wavelength  of the incident photon

Compton wavelength c = h/mc 2.426 X 10-12 m

The greatest wavelength change is AT =180 o

 = 4.852 X10-12 m

This changes are observable in x-ray

Shift in wavelength for visible light is less than 0.01 percent of the
initial wavelength
 Compton Effect : Experimental setup

Collimating slit

Incident
X ray
 Collimating
slit

Inciden
t
X ray
Thomson Scattering: elastic scattering of EM radiation by a free
charged particle

This is valid only if photon energy is less than the rest mass
energy of the particle.

Electric field of the incident wave accelerate the charged particle

causing it to emit the radiation at the same frequency.

Compton scattering: inelastic scattering

Note that, at all angles
there is also an unshifted peak.

This comes from a collision between the X-ray

photon and the nucleus of the atom or entire
atom

h
    1  cos   0
mN c
since
mN  me
Mass of carbon atom is 22000
time than the mass of electron
 The explanation of spectral distribution of black body by Planck results in
the concept of energy quanta which was later known as photon.

 Einstein explained photoelectric effect by considering that the light wave

consist of Photons.

 Compton effect (1922) confirmed the behaviour of photons as particle.

 These facts established the particle nature of the wave.

 Louis de Broglie reasoned that

 Nature loves symmetry and is symmetrical in many ways

 Universe is composed of light and matter

 If light, a wave show particle character, then the particles of material may show

wave nature.