Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 1

Historical Significance of Howard’s Work

In order to fully appreciate the significance of Howard’s

life work, one must understand the early history of Tennessee.
Tennessee officially became a state in June of 1796, two years
before Howard’s birth. Prior to that date, Tennessee was
administered as a western district of North Carolina. Indeed,
Howard himself was born in North Carolina. VIII. Historical
Significance of Howard’s Work

In order to fully appreciate the significance of Howard’s

life work, one must understand the early history of Tennessee.
Tennessee officially became a state in June of 1796, two years
before Howard’s birth. Prior to that date, Tennessee was
administered as a western district of North Carolina. Indeed,
Howard himself was born in North Carolina.

In 1777, North Carolina established Washington County, an

area encompassing all of present-day Tennessee, whose lands were
subsequently put up for purchase at 50 shillings per 100 acres1.
This began the precedent of North Carolina opening her western
lands to settlers for monetary gain. Having joined her fellow
colonies in declaring independence from Britain just a year
prior, the burden of funding a full-fledged revolution began to
take its toll on North Carolina’s coffers. Before long, North
Carolina would be forced to turn to her western lands to sustain
war efforts. Legislation passed in 1782 set aside a large swath
of land in the middle of present-day Tennessee as compensation
for service in the war2.

Land set aside for

Revolutionary-War soldiers

The following year, in late 1783, North Carolina once again

opened up her western frontier for settlement under the Land-

1
Bamman, Gale Williams. “THIS LAND IS OUR LAND! TENNESSEE’S DISPUTES WITH NORTH CAROLINA.”
TNGenWeb Project, 1996.
2
EARLY TENNESSEE LAND RECORDS, 1773-1922 [PDF]. (2018, November 16). Nashville: Tennessee State
Library and Archives.
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 2

Grab Act at a price of 10 pounds per 100 acres. This applied for
all areas except the military reservation and the Cherokee
reservation. Although North Carolina needed the money, the
influx of speculators attempting to abuse the system resulted in
the act’s repeal just 7 months later in May of 17843.

One of the key things to note about this era in American

history is that the Constitution took effect in May of 1789,
several years after the passage of these laws. Under the
Articles of Confederation, the entire dynamic of states’ rights
and powers in comparison to those of the federal government was
not yet clear. Thus, when North Carolina offered its western
territory to the federal government as payment for war debts in
April 1784, the inhabitants of those lands declared themselves
an independent sovereignty called Franklin. This state lasted
until 1789, when it was reincorporated into North Carolina and
became a federal territory the following year4. Although not as
famous as California or Texas, Franklin nevertheless was a
sovereign entity, and served an important role in Tennessean and
American history5.

3
Bamman, Gale Williams. “THIS LAND IS OUR LAND! TENNESSEE’S DISPUTES WITH NORTH CAROLINA.”
TNGenWeb Project, 1996.
4
EARLY TENNESSEE LAND RECORDS, 1773-1922 [PDF]. (2018, November 16). Nashville: Tennessee State
Library and Archives.
5
Eschner, Kat. “The True Story of the Short-Lived State of Franklin.” Smithsonian, Smithsonian,
23 Aug. 2017.
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 3

Map of Franklin, in what is now northeastern Tennessee

When Tennessee sought to become a state in 1796, the issue
of North Carolinian land grants inevitably came up. In those
days, the Tennessean frontier was not as well documented and
mapped as it is now, resulting in great difficulties when it
came to the subject of land grants and warrants. Grantees would
essentially have to visit the property in question, record its
location and boundaries, and then report back to the land
office, where the land grant would be documented. This process
was not without its flaws, as there was no realistic way to
accurately keep track of every land grant out there, be it a
purchase grant or a military grant. To make matters worse, there
were plenty of overlapping claims and unclaimed grants, the
latter of which was the direct result of soldiers dying without
a lawfully named heir. As a condition of statehood, whether they
liked it or not, Tennessee had to honor grants based off of
warrants previously issued by North Carolina.

In 1818, the land west of the military reservation and east

of the Mississippi River was ceded by the Chickasaw to
Tennessee. Not long thereafter, Congress authorized the use of
these newly obtained lands to satisfy any unclaimed military
grants6. In 1821, the North Carolina General Assembly decided
6
EARLY TENNESSEE LAND RECORDS, 1773-1922 [PDF]. (2018, November 16). Nashville: Tennessee State
Library and Archives.
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 4

that unclaimed land grants, called escheats, were to go to the

University of North Carolina7. As these grants were in fact
previously issued land grants, there was nothing Tennessee could
do in regards to the situation. At this time, North Carolinians
realized the business potential of the situation and looked to
take advantage of it. One pair of business partners, in
particular, seems to have been one step ahead of the curve, as
Thomas Hunt and Samuel Dickens began surveying West Tennessee in
18208. It is at this point where Howard enters the picture.

The policy established by the University of North Carolina

was that for every acre of land located, the locator would be
paid ⅙ of it in land9. Throughout his 16-year career locating
land for the university, it is easy to see how Howard came into
possession of so much land in western Tennessee, using skills
learned from his short apprenticeship under his uncle in 1820.
In doing so, Howard amassed a significant fortune and became an
influential member of the Tennessean community in the mid-19th
century.

IX. Historical Perspective: Philadelphia

In 1793, 5 years before his birth, Philadelphia suffered a

massive yellow fever epidemic, claiming the lives of some 4,000
people. In the summer of 1798, a few months before Howard’s
birth in December, there once again was a yellow fever epidemic,
this time claiming the lives of 3,637 people.

7
Mainfort, Robert C. Pinson Mounds: Middle Woodland Ceremonialism in the Midsouth. University of
Arkansas Press, 2013.
8
Mainfort, Robert C. Pinson Mounds: Middle Woodland Ceremonialism in the Midsouth. University of
Arkansas Press, 2013.
9
Mainfort, Robert C. Pinson Mounds: Middle Woodland Ceremonialism in the Midsouth. University of
Arkansas Press, 2013.
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 5

In 1818, the same year of the Chickasaw cession of West

Tennessee, a school district was formed in Philadelphia, the
first of its kind in Pennsylvania, which eventually became the
modern School District of Philadelphia.

4 years after Howard began surveying western Tennessee, the

Franklin Institute was established in 1824, an institution that
is active to this day.

In 1832, the year of Howard’s marriage, the second US Mint

in Philadelphia was built on the corner of Juniper and Chestnut
Streets. This would have increased the quality and consistency
of the federal money supply, with positive effects on the
national economy as a whole. As Howard would have been in the
prime of his working years at this time, this would likely have
positively impacted him as well.

A few years after, in 1835, a general strike occurred in

Philadelphia, the first of its kind in America. The following
year, Philadelphia Gas Works was established.

In 1842, the infamous Lombard Street Riot took place, as a

racially charged white mob attacked blacks and looted their
homes. Over the course of the next couple years, nativist
sentiment resulted in numerous other riots in the Philadelphia
area. Howard would likely have known of this situation, as
nativism was not limited to Philadelphia alone, but rather the
entire nation as a whole.

In the summer of 1863, a year before Howard’s move to New

York City, the Gettysburg campaign was in full swing, causing
fear among the general population in Philadelphia in regards to
the city’s defense. Fortunately for Philadelphia, the war never
made it there.

In 1864, the year of Howard’s move to New York City, the

Great Central Fair was held in Logan Square, Philadelphia. The
event was designed to raise funds and collect goods for
soldiers. Even President Lincoln visited the event grounds,
signing copies of the Emancipation Proclamation as mementos10.
Today, there is a plaque in Logan Square commemorating the
event.

In 1876, the Centennial Exhibition was held in

Philadelphia, marking 100 years since the nation’s birth. The

10
Davis, Lucy. Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia, 5 Oct. 2016.
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 6

Exhibition showcased many new inventions, such as the automatic

turnstile and an early prototype of Alexander Graham Bell’s
telephone. Held in West Fairmount Park, many buildings and
pavilions were constructed to accommodate the 10 million or so
visitors to the fairgrounds. Memorial Hall, constructed to house
the art exhibits, still stands today as the building that houses
the Please Touch Museum11. Due to the size of the exhibitions, it
can be inferred that Howard knew of the event. In fact, Howard
may even have visited the fairgrounds, as New York City is in
fairly close proximity to Philadelphia.

In July of 1885, the year Howard moved to Philadelphia to

live with the Copes, President Grant passed away. During the day
of funeral solemnities for Grant on the 8th of August, business
throughout the country, including Philadelphia, was suspended to
honor Grant. Howard would likely have honored President Grant
along with the rest of the nation, especially considering the
fact that he was close to many prominent political figures back
in Tennessee, including two Presidents12.

X.Historical Perspective: National

Exactly one year after Howard’s birth, President Washington

passed away. Washington’s death paved the way for centuries of
political strife and conflict, as he was arguably the only
President who was well-loved by all in the nation.

In 1797-1798, less than a year before Howard’s birth, the

XYZ Affair occurred, in which three French diplomats referred to
as X, Y, and Z demanded bribes and loans from American diplomats
seeking an audience with the French. Although this was standard
practice in Europe, it did not sit well with Americans,
resulting in the Quasi-War. Fought entirely on the seas, this
unofficial war established the fact that America was willing to
stand their ground against Europe.

When the War of 1812 broke out and the nation prepared for
war, supplies were scarce, as they were needed by the military.
At this time, Howard was 14 years of age and was working at a
general store in his home county. Unfortunately, the scarcity

11
Wolf, Stephanie Grauman. “Centennial Exhibition (1876).” Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia.
12
“Timeline of Philadelphia History 1646-1899.” Ushistory.org, Independence Hall Association.
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 7

prevented the general store owners from maintaining its payroll,

and Howard was subsequently laid off, forcing him to look
elsewhere for employment.

In 1820, the year that Howard began surveying Tennessee

lands under his uncle, the Missouri Compromise was passed. This
Compromise, proposed by Henry Clay of Kentucky, established
Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. In
addition, all land obtained in the Louisiana Purchase above 36°
30’ would be free, while all land south of that line would be
open to slavery. Although Tennessee was a slave state, Howard
himself never owned any slaves. In fact, he explicitly expressed
support for the Whig and Republican parties, even supporting
Clay’s three bids for the presidency in the 1840’s.

In 1829, General Andrew Jackson was inaugurated as the

nation’s 7th President. A native of Tennessee, Jackson was an
acquaintance of Howard’s before assuming the Presidency, as
Jackson’s wife’s niece was the wife of John C. McLemore, a close
friend of Howard’s. In fact, Howard had stayed over at Jackson’s
Hermitage several times before Jackson’s bid for the presidency.
Although Howard would have opposed Jackson’s political views
(Jackson was a Democrat while Howard supported the Whigs and
Republicans), he still respected Jackson, even defending him in
regards to his complicated marriage status.

In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which

authorized the transplanting of Indians living east of the
Mississippi River to the Indian Territory in present-day
Oklahoma. This would have also impacted the Cherokees, who were
still living in areas of southeastern Tennessee at the time.
Since Howard supported the Whigs who protested against Jackson’s
removal policies on moral grounds, Howard would likely have felt
sympathy for these people, especially considering their history
in his home state.

The Panic of 1837 occurred just one year after Howard

stopped locating lands for the University of North Carolina,
which was the primary source of his wealth. As Howard made his
fortune in land ownership, he would not have been impacted as
hard by the recession compared to other working-class people.

In 1845, James K. Polk was inaugurated as the nation’s 11th

President. Polk spent the vast majority of his life in
Tennessee, and was also an acquaintance of Howard’s like his
political mentor Andrew Jackson. In fact, when Howard and
McLemore were struggling to find a buyer for their Oklahoma
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 8

lands in 1834, it was then-Congressman Polk who they entrusted

with this task.

Later on during Polk’s presidency, the Mexican War

occurred, being waged between 1846-1848. Although American
justification for declaring war was questionable at best, Polk’s
move netted America a vast swath of territory that became the
southwestern part of the United States. As Polk’s policies were
in line with those of Jackson in regards to westward expansion,
it can be reasonably inferred that Howard was not too much of a
fan of President Polk.

In 1850, the Great Compromiser Henry Clay once again

introduced legislation to cool rising tensions over the issue of
slavery. The Compromise of 1850 made California a free state
while implementing the Fugitive Slave Law, which would have
required the North to return all runaway slaves back to the
South. As there was no evidence that Howard owned any slaves, it
can be inferred that he supported this compromise, given his
past views on the Whig party. Furthermore, Howard would have
retired by this time, as he and his wife embarked on a trip to
Europe during that year, supporting the idea that domestic
political affairs were not too important to him personally.

The Civil War took place between the years of 1861 and
1865, and most of the fighting took place in the South,
including Tennessee. Some of the major battles in West Tennessee
included the Battles of Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, and Shiloh,
all in 1862. As Howard was listed as living in Nashville in an
1860 census and New York City in an 1864 tax record, it can be
deduced that Howard moved sometime during this period. However,
since that is the only evidence of Howard’s move, it is unclear
when exactly Howard moved. As such, there are many possible
motives for Howard’s move, be it in anticipation of the fighting
in Tennessee or the war as a whole.

Although Presidents Grant, Garfield, and Arthur were all

Republicans, their presidencies were seen by the public as
incompetent, more concerned about surviving political infighting
than actual governing. Howard likely agreed with this opinion,
as he switched party allegiances to the Democrats and voted for
Cleveland in the election of 1884, as stated in his
Recollections.

In 1777, North Carolina established Washington County, an

area encompassing all of present-day Tennessee, whose lands were
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 9

subsequently put up for purchase at 50 shillings per 100 acres13.

This began the precedent of North Carolina opening her western
lands to settlers for monetary gain. Having joined her fellow
colonies in declaring independence from Britain just a year
prior, the burden of funding a full-fledged revolution began to
take its toll on North Carolina’s coffers. Before long, North
Carolina would be forced to turn to her western lands to sustain
war efforts. Legislation passed in 1782 set aside a large swath
of land in the middle of present-day Tennessee as compensation
for service in the war14.

Land set aside for

Revolutionary-War soldiers

The following year, in late 1783, North Carolina once again

opened up her western frontier for settlement under the Land-
Grab Act at a price of 10 pounds per 100 acres. This applied for
all areas except the military reservation and the Cherokee
reservation. Although North Carolina needed the money, the
influx of speculators attempting to abuse the system resulted in
the act’s repeal just 7 months later in May of 178415.

One of the key things to note about this era in American

history is that the Constitution took effect in May of 1789,
several years after the passage of these laws. Under the
Articles of Confederation, the entire dynamic of states’ rights
and powers in comparison to those of the federal government was
not yet clear. Thus, when North Carolina offered its western
territory to the federal government as payment for war debts in
April 1784, the inhabitants of those lands declared themselves
an independent sovereignty called Franklin. This state lasted
until 1789, when it was reincorporated into North Carolina and
became a federal territory the following year16. Although not as

13
Bamman, Gale Williams. “THIS LAND IS OUR LAND! TENNESSEE’S DISPUTES WITH NORTH CAROLINA.”
TNGenWeb Project, 1996.
14
EARLY TENNESSEE LAND RECORDS, 1773-1922 [PDF]. (2018, November 16). Nashville: Tennessee State
Library and Archives.
15
Bamman, Gale Williams. “THIS LAND IS OUR LAND! TENNESSEE’S DISPUTES WITH NORTH CAROLINA.”
TNGenWeb Project, 1996.
16
EARLY TENNESSEE LAND RECORDS, 1773-1922 [PDF]. (2018, November 16). Nashville: Tennessee State
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 10

famous as California or Texas, Franklin nevertheless was a

sovereign entity, and served an important role in Tennessean and
American history17.

Map of Franklin, in what is now northeastern Tennessee

When Tennessee sought to become a state in 1796, the issue
of North Carolinian land grants inevitably came up. In those
days, the Tennessean frontier was not as well documented and
mapped as it is now, resulting in great difficulties when it
came to the subject of land grants and warrants. Grantees would
essentially have to visit the property in question, record its
location and boundaries, and then report back to the land
office, where the land grant would be documented. This process
was not without its flaws, as there was no realistic way to
accurately keep track of every land grant out there, be it a
purchase grant or a military grant. To make matters worse, there
were plenty of overlapping claims and unclaimed grants, the
latter of which was the direct result of soldiers dying without
a lawfully named heir. As a condition of statehood, whether they
liked it or not, Tennessee had to honor grants based off of
warrants previously issued by North Carolina.

Library and Archives.

17
Eschner, Kat. “The True Story of the Short-Lived State of Franklin.” Smithsonian, Smithsonian,
23 Aug. 2017.
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 11

In 1818, the land west of the military reservation and east

of the Mississippi River was ceded by the Chickasaw to
Tennessee. Not long thereafter, Congress authorized the use of
these newly obtained lands to satisfy any unclaimed military
grants18. In 1821, the North Carolina General Assembly decided
that unclaimed land grants, called escheats, were to go to the
University of North Carolina19. As these grants were in fact
previously issued land grants, there was nothing Tennessee could
do in regards to the situation. At this time, North Carolinians
realized the business potential of the situation and looked to
take advantage of it. One pair of business partners, in
particular, seems to have been one step ahead of the curve, as
Thomas Hunt and Samuel Dickens began surveying West Tennessee in
182020. It is at this point where Howard enters the picture.

The policy established by the University of North Carolina

was that for every acre of land located, the locator would be
paid ⅙ of it in land21. Throughout his 16-year career locating
land for the university, it is easy to see how Howard came into
possession of so much land in western Tennessee, using skills
learned from his short apprenticeship under his uncle in 1820.
In doing so, Howard amassed a significant fortune and became an
influential member of the Tennessean community in the mid-19th
century.

IX. Historical Perspective: Philadelphia

In 1793, 5 years before his birth, Philadelphia suffered a

massive yellow fever epidemic, claiming the lives of some 4,000
people. In the summer of 1798, a few months before Howard’s
birth in December, there once again was a yellow fever epidemic,
this time claiming the lives of 3,637 people.

In 1818, the same year of the Chickasaw cession of West

Tennessee, a school district was formed in Philadelphia, the
first of its kind in Pennsylvania, which eventually became the
modern School District of Philadelphia.

18
EARLY TENNESSEE LAND RECORDS, 1773-1922 [PDF]. (2018, November 16). Nashville: Tennessee State
Library and Archives.
19
Mainfort, Robert C. Pinson Mounds: Middle Woodland Ceremonialism in the Midsouth. University of
Arkansas Press, 2013.
20
Mainfort, Robert C. Pinson Mounds: Middle Woodland Ceremonialism in the Midsouth. University of
Arkansas Press, 2013.
21
Mainfort, Robert C. Pinson Mounds: Middle Woodland Ceremonialism in the Midsouth. University of
Arkansas Press, 2013.
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 12

4 years after Howard began surveying western Tennessee, the

Franklin Institute was established in 1824, an institution that
is active to this day.

In 1832, the year of Howard’s marriage, the second US Mint

in Philadelphia was built on the corner of Juniper and Chestnut
Streets. This would have increased the quality and consistency
of the federal money supply, with positive effects on the
national economy as a whole. As Howard would have been in the
prime of his working years at this time, this would likely have
positively impacted him as well.

A few years after, in 1835, a general strike occurred in

Philadelphia, the first of its kind in America. The following
year, Philadelphia Gas Works was established.

In 1842, the infamous Lombard Street Riot took place, as a

racially charged white mob attacked blacks and looted their
homes. Over the course of the next couple years, nativist
sentiment resulted in numerous other riots in the Philadelphia
area. Howard would likely have known of this situation, as
nativism was not limited to Philadelphia alone, but rather the
entire nation as a whole.

In the summer of 1863, a year before Howard’s move to New

York City, the Gettysburg campaign was in full swing, causing
fear among the general population in Philadelphia in regards to
the city’s defense. Fortunately for Philadelphia, the war never
made it there.

In 1864, the year of Howard’s move to New York City, the

Great Central Fair was held in Logan Square, Philadelphia. The
event was designed to raise funds and collect goods for
soldiers. Even President Lincoln visited the event grounds,
signing copies of the Emancipation Proclamation as mementos22.
Today, there is a plaque in Logan Square commemorating the
event.

In 1876, the Centennial Exhibition was held in

Philadelphia, marking 100 years since the nation’s birth. The
Exhibition showcased many new inventions, such as the automatic
turnstile and an early prototype of Alexander Graham Bell’s
telephone. Held in West Fairmount Park, many buildings and
pavilions were constructed to accommodate the 10 million or so
visitors to the fairgrounds. Memorial Hall, constructed to house

22
Davis, Lucy. Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia, 5 Oct. 2016.
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 13

the art exhibits, still stands today as the building that houses
the Please Touch Museum23. Due to the size of the exhibitions, it
can be inferred that Howard knew of the event. In fact, Howard
may even have visited the fairgrounds, as New York City is in
fairly close proximity to Philadelphia.

In July of 1885, the year Howard moved to Philadelphia to

live with the Copes, President Grant passed away. During the day
of funeral solemnities for Grant on the 8th of August, business
throughout the country, including Philadelphia, was suspended to
honor Grant. Howard would likely have honored President Grant
along with the rest of the nation, especially considering the
fact that he was close to many prominent political figures back
in Tennessee, including two Presidents24.

X.Historical Perspective: National

Exactly one year after Howard’s birth, President Washington

passed away. Washington’s death paved the way for centuries of
political strife and conflict, as he was arguably the only
President who was well-loved by all in the nation.

In 1797-1798, less than a year before Howard’s birth, the

XYZ Affair occurred, in which three French diplomats referred to
as X, Y, and Z demanded bribes and loans from American diplomats
seeking an audience with the French. Although this was standard
practice in Europe, it did not sit well with Americans,
resulting in the Quasi-War. Fought entirely on the seas, this
unofficial war established the fact that America was willing to
stand their ground against Europe.

When the War of 1812 broke out and the nation prepared for
war, supplies were scarce, as they were needed by the military.
At this time, Howard was 14 years of age and was working at a
general store in his home county. Unfortunately, the scarcity
prevented the general store owners from maintaining its payroll,
and Howard was subsequently laid off, forcing him to look
elsewhere for employment.

23
Wolf, Stephanie Grauman. “Centennial Exhibition (1876).” Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia.
24
“Timeline of Philadelphia History 1646-1899.” Ushistory.org, Independence Hall Association.
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 14

In 1820, the year that Howard began surveying Tennessee

lands under his uncle, the Missouri Compromise was passed. This
Compromise, proposed by Henry Clay of Kentucky, established
Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. In
addition, all land obtained in the Louisiana Purchase above 36°
30’ would be free, while all land south of that line would be
open to slavery. Although Tennessee was a slave state, Howard
himself never owned any slaves. In fact, he explicitly expressed
support for the Whig and Republican parties, even supporting
Clay’s three bids for the presidency in the 1840’s.

In 1829, General Andrew Jackson was inaugurated as the

nation’s 7th President. A native of Tennessee, Jackson was an
acquaintance of Howard’s before assuming the Presidency, as
Jackson’s wife’s niece was the wife of John C. McLemore, a close
friend of Howard’s. In fact, Howard had stayed over at Jackson’s
Hermitage several times before Jackson’s bid for the presidency.
Although Howard would have opposed Jackson’s political views
(Jackson was a Democrat while Howard supported the Whigs and
Republicans), he still respected Jackson, even defending him in
regards to his complicated marriage status.

In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which

authorized the transplanting of Indians living east of the
Mississippi River to the Indian Territory in present-day
Oklahoma. This would have also impacted the Cherokees, who were
still living in areas of southeastern Tennessee at the time.
Since Howard supported the Whigs who protested against Jackson’s
removal policies on moral grounds, Howard would likely have felt
sympathy for these people, especially considering their history
in his home state.

The Panic of 1837 occurred just one year after Howard

stopped locating lands for the University of North Carolina,
which was the primary source of his wealth. As Howard made his
fortune in land ownership, he would not have been impacted as
hard by the recession compared to other working-class people.

In 1845, James K. Polk was inaugurated as the nation’s 11th

President. Polk spent the vast majority of his life in
Tennessee, and was also an acquaintance of Howard’s like his
political mentor Andrew Jackson. In fact, when Howard and
McLemore were struggling to find a buyer for their Oklahoma
lands in 1834, it was then-Congressman Polk who they entrusted
with this task.
 Chen, El-Morsy, Pan, Winter, Zhang, Zhao 15

Later on during Polk’s presidency, the Mexican War

occurred, being waged between 1846-1848. Although American
justification for declaring war was questionable at best, Polk’s
move netted America a vast swath of territory that became the
southwestern part of the United States. As Polk’s policies were
in line with those of Jackson in regards to westward expansion,
it can be reasonably inferred that Howard was not too much of a
fan of President Polk.

In 1850, the Great Compromiser Henry Clay once again

introduced legislation to cool rising tensions over the issue of
slavery. The Compromise of 1850 made California a free state
while implementing the Fugitive Slave Law, which would have
required the North to return all runaway slaves back to the
South. As there was no evidence that Howard owned any slaves, it
can be inferred that he supported this compromise, given his
past views on the Whig party. Furthermore, Howard would have
retired by this time, as he and his wife embarked on a trip to
Europe during that year, supporting the idea that domestic
political affairs were not too important to him personally.

The Civil War took place between the years of 1861 and
1865, and most of the fighting took place in the South,
including Tennessee. Some of the major battles in West Tennessee
included the Battles of Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, and Shiloh,
all in 1862. As Howard was listed as living in Nashville in an
1860 census and New York City in an 1864 tax record, it can be
deduced that Howard moved sometime during this period. However,
since that is the only evidence of Howard’s move, it is unclear
when exactly Howard moved. As such, there are many possible
motives for Howard’s move, be it in anticipation of the fighting
in Tennessee or the war as a whole.

Although Presidents Grant, Garfield, and Arthur were all

Republicans, their presidencies were seen by the public as
incompetent, more concerned about surviving political infighting
than actual governing. Howard likely agreed with this opinion,
as he switched party allegiances to the Democrats and voted for
Cleveland in the election of 1884, as stated in his
Recollections.