Geotechnical factors

Geotechnical factors influencing selection of mining method

 1 Geotechnical factors influencing selection of mining method

 2 Mining Method Classification

 3 Change of Mining Method in a Mining Operation

 4 Thickness and Orientation of Mineralization

 5 Ore and Country Rock Strength

 6 Distribution of Mineralization within the Orebody

 7 Depth of Mineralization and Surface Conditions

 8 Geotechnical Environment

 9 Geotechnical Factors of Underground Mining Methods

o 9.1 Pillar Supported

 9.1.1 Room and Pillar Mining

 9.1.2 Sublevel Open Stoping

o 9.2 Artificially Supported

 9.2.1 Cut-and-Fill Mining

 9.2.1.1 Case Study: Kristineberg Mine

 9.2.2 Bench-and-Fill Stoping

 9.2.3 Shrink Stoping

 9.2.3.1 Case Study: Mouska Gold Mine

 9.2.4 Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR) Stoping

o 9.3 Unsupported

 9.3.1 Longwall Mining

 9.3.2 Sublevel Caving

 9.3.3 Block Caving

 10 Summary

 11 References

The characteristics of the orebody itself form the basis for geotechnical factors, including the thickness and
orientation of the mineralization, the ore and rock strength, the distribution of mineralization within the
orebody, the geotechnical environment, and the depth of mineralization and surface conditions. In some
cases, these conditions change in a single mining operation. If significant enough, a change in mining
method in one ore deposit can occur.
Geotechnical considerations when selecting a mining method are becoming increasingly important, due to
the increased dimensions and production rates required of mining operations in order to meet growing
expectations of profitability. Since these larger projects require a longer period of satisfactory performance
in terms of ore recovery and ground support, more formal and rigorous methodologies are necessary in
mine design (Brady and Brown, 2006). Geotechnical factors include in-situ mechanical properties of the
orebody and country rocks, the geological structure of the rockmass, the ambient state of stress and the
hydrogeological considerations in the zone of potential mining influence (Brady and Brown, 2006). The
goals of geotechnical consideration in mine design, regardless of the mining method, are to:

 Ensure the overall stability of the complete mine structure, defined by the main orebody, mined voids,
ore remnants (pillars) and adjacent country rock;

 To protect the major service openings and infrastructure throughout their design life;

 To provide safe access and working places in and around the centres of ore production; and

 To preserve the mineable condition of unmined ore reserves (Brady and Brown, 2006).

Mining methods have evolved significantly in the last several decades as improvements have been made
on machinery used to extract the ore, understanding and experience with the behaviour of the rockmass
and underground stresses has developed, and as newly discovered ore bodies are located in increasingly
difficult conditions.

Mining Method Classification

From a geomechanical perspective, mining methods can be classified based on the type and degree of
support required in mining operations. Supported mining methods include open stoping and room-and-
pillar mining, where natural support is provided by ore remnants (e.g. pillars), or cut-and-fill mining
and shrinkage stoping, where support for the walls of the void remaining after ore extraction is provided
by backfill or by fractured ore temporarily retained in contact with mined stope walls. Cave mining methods
include block caving and sublevel caving, where no support is used because fragmented rock fills and
flows through the stopes. A classification of underground mining methods, subdivided based on pillar
supported and unsupported groups, is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: A hierarchy of underground mining methods and associated rockmass response to mining (Brady and Brown,
2006)

The distinction between these two broad categories of mining methods can be made by comparing the
displacements induced in the country rock and energy redistributions in the rockmass caused by mining
activities. Supported mining aims to restrict displacements in the country rock to elastic behaviour and
prevent failure of the rockmass. The success of these methods depends on the ability of the near-field
rockmass to sustain compressive stresses in order to maintain elastic behaviour. The mining issue
therefore becomes prevention of unstable energy releases (e.g. rockbursts) associated with increased
near-field stress, which could cause failure of support elements, sudden closure of stopes, or rapid fracture
generation in the surrounding rock. A schematic of a supported mining method (room-and-pillar) is shown
in Figure 2.

On the other hand, cave mining purposefully induces large displacements following fragmentation of the
rockmass, resulting in energy dissipation in the caving rockmass. The success of this method depends on
exploiting the discontinuous behaviour of a rockmass when confining stresses are relaxed
(Brady and Brown, 2006). The mining issue here is to maintain steady displacement of the fragmented
orebody so to prevent the development of unstable voids. The rate of slip and fragmentation of the
rockmass must be proportional to the rate of ore extraction. A schematic of a caving mining method (block
caving) is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Schematic of a mechanized block caving operation

Change of Mining Method in a Mining Operation

In practice, it is possible for a mining operation to utilize different mining methods, which can even be
classified by different geomechanical concepts, at different stages of orebody extraction. The transition
between methods of different geomechanical behaviour can have significant consequence on the stability
of permanent openings, which lends to the importance of defining a mine plan for the entire mine life that
will be able to successfully accommodate the necessary mining methods and induced behaviours of the
rockmass. However, in underground mines, a complete change of mining method once operations have
begun is uncommon. Slight variations in the method occur when faced with minor changes to the ore body
and mining environment, but a complete overhaul of the initial method requires a change that significantly
impacts the mine output and its overall profitability. In general, mines that have experienced continuous
problems are more willing to adopt new mining techniques to improve their operations with a changing
mining situation (Laubscher, 1994).

Thickness and Orientation of Mineralization

Orebodies can occur in a variety of geometries, related to the deposit’s geological origin. Tabular or
stratabound deposits are of sedimentary origin and are extensive in two dimensions (horizontally if in
unmetamorphosed sedimentary rock). Veins, lenses and lode deposits are also generally extensive in two
directions but are formed by hydrothermal and/or metamorphic processes. Massive deposits have a more
regular orebody shape that are controlled less by geologically imposed boundaries (Brady and Brown,
2006). The details of preferred orebody shapes are discussed in the section for each mining method. A
detailed discussion of oil and gas deposits is not included in this article.