An important point to note…

~ D
• Note that r. ~ = ⇢f just looks like Gauss’s law, only the total charge density
⇢ has been replaced by free charge density ⇢f .

• Here D~ is the electric displacement vector ✏0 E

~ + P~ . But do not conclude
~ is just like E!
that D ~

~ ~ r) 6= 1
R r̂ ⇢f (~r 0 )d⌧ 0
• In particular, there is no Coulomb’s law for D: D(~ 4⇡ r2

~ is not always zero.

• Curl of the electric field is always zero! But curl of D
~ ⇥D
r ~ = ✏0 (r
~ ⇥ E)
~ + (r
~ ⇥ P) = r
~ ⇥ P~

and there is no reason in general to suppose that curl of P~ is zero. Sometimes

it may, but not in general.

• Because r ~ ⇥D~ 6= 0, moreover, D

~ can not be expressed as gradient of a scalar
~
- there is no potential for D.
Boundary conditions
~ We
• The electrostatic boundary conditions can be represented in terms of D.
already know: I
~ a = Qf
D.d~ and r ~ ⇥D ~ =r ~ ⇥ P~
enc

Talks about discontinuity in component Talks about discontinuity in parallel

perpendicular to an interface. component along the interface.

? ? k k k k
Dabove Dbelow = f Dabove Dbelow = Pabove Pbelow

• In presence of dielectrics, these are sometimes more useful that the corre-
sponding boundary conditions on E: ~

? ? k k
Eabove Ebelow = and Eabove Ebelow = 0
✏0
 Linear Dielectric
What causes polarization in a material ? Electric field that lines up atomic or molecular dipoles

• For many substances, polarization is linearly proportional to electric field Linear Dielectric

(provided E is not too strong) P~ = ✏0 eE

~ Electric susceptibility

• Susceptibility of a material depends on the microscopic structure

• dimensionless quantity

• Note: The electric field above is not only the external field, but also includes the contribution due
to polarization. We can’t compute P directly from above eqn.

• Easier way to parametrise it, is to identify the electric displacement for which
~ = ✏0 E
D ~ + P~ = ✏0 (1 + e ) ~
E = ✏ ~
E

Relative
Permittivity of
✏ permittivity
✏ = ✏0 (1 + e) ✏r = =1+ e
the material ✏0 or Dielectric
constant
Polarisation of crystal

Although, material is still linear dielectric, polarisation of some materials are different in different
direction.

Recall, we had P~ = ✏0 e
~
E

A crystal is generally easier to polarize in some directions than in others and the above relation
changes to a more general linear relation of the form:

Px = ✏ 0 ( xx Ex + xy Ey + xz Ez )
Py = ✏ 0 ( yx Ex + yy Ey + yz Ez )
Pz = ✏ 0 ( zx Ex + zy Ey + zz Ez )

ij forms Susceptibility tensor

Example
A metal sphere of radius a carries a charge +Q. It is surrounded out to radius b, by a linear
dielectric material of permittivity ✏ . What is the potential at the centre (with respect to infinity)?
What are the bound charges ?

Gaussian surface for which r > b, Qencl = Q

Gaussian surface for which a  r  b,
Qencl = Q

b
+Q
Recall IGauss’s law for dielectrics: a
~ a =
D.d~ Qfenc
✏ Gaussian surface for which r  a,
~
|D|4⇡r 2
= Q
Qencl = 0

~ =
D Q
• Therefore the displacement: 4⇡r 2 r̂ for all points r > a

• ~ =D
Inside the metal sphere of course: E ~ = P~ = 0

• Hence we have: ~ = 0 for r < a

E
Example
A metal sphere of radius a carries a charge +Q. It is surrounded out to radius b, by a linear
dielectric material of permittivity ✏ . What is the potential at the centre (with respect to infinity)?
What are the bound charges ?

• ~ = ✏E
~ , we can calculate electric field, since D
Once we know D ~
⇢ Q
b
~ =
E 4⇡✏r 2 r̂ for a<r<b +Q
Q a
4⇡✏0 r 2 r̂ for r > b.
• Hence, potential at centre
Z Z Z Z
✏
0 b a 0
~ ~l = Q Q
V = E.d 2
dr 2
dr 0 dr
1 1 4⇡✏0 r b 4⇡✏r a
✓ ◆
Q 1 1 1
= +
4⇡ ✏0 b ✏a ✏b
Note that we did not have to calculate the polarization or bound charges ex-
plicitly for calculation the potential, although we can do so:
Polarisation Bound charges
✏0 e Q ⇢b = ~ P~ = 0
r.
P~ = ✏0 ~
eE = r̂ ⇢ ✏0 e Q
4⇡✏r 2 outer surface
b = P~ .n̂ = 4⇡✏b2
✏0 e Q
4⇡✏a2 inner surface.
Curl of Polarisation in linear dielectric
We might now say, that as polarisation and displacement are proportional to field in
~ ⇥ P~ = 0, r
linear media, the curl of them should vanish r ~ ⇥D ~ =0 ?

If the medium is homogeneously filled with dielectric of one kind, then, indeed so,
otherwise not. r~ ⇥ P~ = 0, r ~ ⇥D ~ = 0, r. ~ D~ = ⇢f

~ = ✏0 E
So, D can be found out from the free charges as if the dielectric is not there D ~ vac

The field, the same ⇢f would produce in absence of dielectric.

~ = ✏E
Using D ~ and ✏r ⌘ 1 + = ✏ ~ = 1D~ = 1E ~ vac
e ✏0 : E
✏ ✏r

Hence, when the space is filled with homogeneous linear dielectric, the field is
reduced by ✏
✏r =
✏0
P~ = 0
• Consider, the interface of two different medium, vacuum
eg: dielectric with vacuum:
dielectric P~ 6= 0
I
P~ .d~l 6= 0 ~ ⇥ P~ 6= 0
r
~ ⇥D
r ~ =r
~ ⇥ (✏0 E
~ + P~ ) 6= 0
What does a free charge do in dielectric medium ?
Suppose a free charge is embedded in a large dielectric.

It produces a field: ~ 1 q
E= 2
r̂ (✏ not ✏0 )
4⇡✏ r

~ 1~ 1 ~
It can be simply obtained as follows: E = D = Evac
✏ ✏r

~ vac 1 q ✏
with E = 2
r̂ and ✏r =
4⇡✏0 r ✏0
+
Physically: Polarisation shields the charge + +
by surrounding it with bound charges of
opposite signs
---
+ - +q - +
-- -
This causes reduction in the field in the
dielectric material
+ +
Capacitor filled with linear dielectric material : revisited

We can simply use the relation of electric field inside the dielectric material compared to
the case of vacuum

~ 1~ 1 ~
E = D = Evac
✏ ✏r

Vvac
V =
✏r
dielectric

Q Q
C= = ✏r = ✏r Cvac
V Vvac

Capacitance increases by the factor of dielectric constant of the material

✏
✏r =
✏0