CHAPTER – 17

ADVENT OF MODERN PHYSICShttp://allsubjectsnotes.blogspot.com/

Qs. What are the basic postulates of Einstein’s Special theory of relativity. Also give the
consequences of the theory.

EINSTEIN’S SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Introduction
Einstein examine the motion of objects in frames of references moving relative to one another.
On the basis of his experimental results he proposed a special theory of relativity in the year
1905. This theory is valid specially for inertial frames and is to be modified into a general theory
for accelerated frames of reference.

BASIC POSTULATES

The Einstein’s special theory of relativity is based on two assumptions known as the postulates
of special relativity. The two postulates are states as follows.

First Postulate
The speed of light was regarded as the universal constant. It means that the speed of light in
vacuum is the same for all observers in uniform transnational motion and is independent of the
motion of the observer and the source.

Second Postulate
According to this postulate the laws of physics in the frame moving with uniform velocity can be
expressed by a single set of mathematical expression.
This postulate points out if some event takes place in any of the frame and the frames are moving
with uniform velocity the result of the two frames will be identical. Conversely if the frames are
in accelerated motion then the result will not be identical.

MASS ENERGY RELATIONhttp://allsubjectsnotes.blogspot.com/

Einstein proved that energy has inertia, which is the property of matter and associated with mass.
Thus mass is simply a property attributed to the total energy of the body and only total energy is
required to know total mass of the body. Hence in special theory of relativity total energy and
mass are related by the famous Einstein’s equation.
E = mc(2)
From this relation between mass and energy it has been predicted that any process that changed
the mass by a detectable amount of energy.

Qs. Write a note on Compton Effect

COMPTON EFFECT
In 1926, Arthur Compton studies this phenomenon of change in wavelength. On the basis of his
experimental results he proposed a theory based on the idea of photon theory of radiation. Since
the detailed study of phenomenon was made by Compton, the effect is now known as the
Compton’s Effect. http://allsubjectsnotes.blogspot.com/

Definition

The phenomenon in which a photon (hv) strike with stationary electron and after collision both
scattered in different direction in such a way v > v is known as Compton Effect.

Consideration
In order to explain this phenomenon we assume that photon strike with a stationary electron and
after collision both makes an angle θ and ф with respect to their initial line of motion.

Qs. Write note on Pair Production and Annihilation of Matter.

PAIR PRODUCTIONhttp://allsubjectsnotes.blogspot.com/

Definition

The phenomenon in which photon collides with heavy nucleus then two material particles,
electron and positron are produced, is called Pair Production.

Explanation
The positron produced during pair production has been identified to be identical with an electron
in mass and carries an equal positive charge and is called the anti particle of electron. Since the
process of pair production involves the creation of particle and its anti particle, therefore it is also
known as materialization of energy. This phenomenon is the practical proof of Einstein’s mass
energy equivalence, in which mass and energy of the system remains constant.
For the production of electron and positron 1.02 MeV energy is required. I can be calculated by
the following equation
Eo = 2moC(2)
=> Eo = 2 x 9.1 x 10(-33) x (3 x 10(8))2 / 1.6 x 10(-19)
=> Eo = 1.02 x 10(6) cV
=> Eo = 1.02 MeV
If energy of photon is less than 1.02 MeV then this phenomenon cannot produce. If energy of
photon is greater than 1.02 MeV then rest of energy is used to accelerate the electron and
Positron. The energy conservation in Pair Production demands.
hv = e+ + e + K.E + K.E+
=> hv = moc² + moc² + K.E + K.E+
=> hv = moc² + K.E + K.E+

ANNIHILATION
Definition
The phenomenon in which electron and positron fuse together to form at least two photons, is
known as Annihilation of matter.

Explanation
Annihilation is the reverse process of pair production. In Pair Annihilation a particle and one of
its anti particle come close enough to be converted completely into radiation energy of the two
photons moving in opposite direction conserving the total momentum of the creation and
annihilation process. Each photon will have an energy equal to rest mass energy moc of an
electron that is equal to 0.51 MeV.
The energy conservation equation for the process will be
(mo)e + c² + K.Ee + (mo)e-c² + (K.E_e = 2hv

Conclusionhttp://allsubjectsnotes.blogspot.com/
The phenomenon of Pair Production and annihilation helps us to conclude that energy and mass
are inter changeable.

Qs. Write note on Uncertainty Principle

UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

Introduction
In classical physics we can easily determine the momentum and position of moving body
simultaneously with accuracy, that no uncertainties are involved in it. But for a light particle is
found that however refined we make our instruments there is a fundamental limitation to the
accuracy with which the positron and momentum can be known simultaneously.
This limitation was first expressed by Hersenberg in 1927 and is known as Uncertainty Principle.

Statement
It is impossible to measure with accuracy both positron and momentum of a particle
simultaneously.

Consideration
Consider a slit of thickness Δy placed near to a screen. Now a particle bean strikes the slit then
after diffraction at very small angle, it reaches at points A.

Proof
As we know that momentum is a vector quantity, therefore, it can be resolved into two
components. Consider ΔOAB.
tan θ = Perpendicular / Base
=> tan θ P(y) / P(x)
Since θ is very small, therefore
tan θ ≈ θ
=> θ P(y) / P(x)
=> Py = Px θ ——- (I)
From the condition of interference, http://allsubjectsnotes.blogspot.com/
mλ = d sin θ
For first maximum,
m=1
=> λ = Δy sin θ
But, http://allsubjectsnotes.blogspot.com/
sin θ ≈ θ
=> λ = Δy θ
=> θ = λ / Δy
Substituting the value of θ in eq (I)
=> P(y) = P(x) λ / Δy
=> P(y)Δy = P(x) λ
From Debroglie’s wave equation
λ = h / P(x)
=> λP(y)Δy = P(x) h / P(x)
=> P(y)Δy = h
Similarly,
P(x)Δx = h
And,
P(z)Δz = h

Conclusion
The uncertainty principle is of no importance in our daily life because plank’s constant h is very
small and so the uncertainties in position and momentum of even light objects are far too small
to be experimentally observed.

Qs. State and explain Debroglie’s Hypothesis.

DEBROGLIE’S HYPOTHESIS

Introduction
In 1924, Debroglie proposed an idea called Debroglie’s Hypothesis.

Statement
If light can have particle behaviour then material particles such as electrons and protons etc can
also behave in a wave like manner.

Mathematical Form
According to Debroglie’s Hypothesis a particle like electron can possesses a momentum given
by
P = mv = h / λ
Where m is the mass of particle. This relation has related the electron a particle and the wave
character of a frequency. Thus we can write down the wave length associated with the particle
i.e.
λ = h / mv
Conclusion
The Debroglie’s relation was initially developed for the electron but it is valid for all material
objects including particles. However for massive materials the associated wavelength is too
small to be measured.

Qs. Define and Explain Photoelectric Effect

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Introduction
In 1887, Hertz discovered the phenomenon of emission of electrons. When ultra violet light falls
on certain metals. On the basis of his experimental results, he proposed the phenomenon of
photoelectric effect.

Definition
The emission of electrons from a solid or liquid surface when it is subjected to electromagnetic
radiation is known as Photo-electric effect.

Experiment
Consider a glass tube in which two electrodes are suspended connected to a positive and negative
terminal of a battery. A milliammeter is connected in series with the circuit to detect the flow of
current.
When ultra violet rays strike the negative plate, then electrons emit. These electrons are repelled
by the negative (-) plate and attracted by the positive plate. Hence, current flows in the circuit.
The effect is known as Photoelectric effect.

Maximum K.E of Electrons

The maximum K.E. of electrons can be achieved by reversing the polarity of the circuit. When
ultra violet rays strike the positive (+) electrode. The kinetic energy possessed by the electrons
can be achieved if it is balanced by the voltage. So we increase the voltage to such an extent that
no electrons emit out. At this stage K.E. is maximum and can be calculated by
K.E(MAX) = Voe
=> 1/2 mv² = Voehttp://allsubjectsnotes.blogspot.com/
Where,
m = mass of electron
e = charge of electron
v = velocity of electron
Vo = voltage of circuit

Results Obtained
The conclusions that were made from the experiment on Photoelectric effect are
1. Increasing the intensity of source of light increases the number of photoelectrons but not the
velocity with which it leaves the metallic surface.
2. For each substance, there is a certain frequency called the threshold frequency below which
the effect does not occur.
3. The higher the frequency of incident ray, the greater the K.E of electrons.
Photoelectric effect could not be explained on the basis of classical wave theory, because
according to the theory:
There should be no threshold frequency because by that time electrons might escape from the
metallic surface by absorbing enough energy.
The velocity of photelectrons should depend upon the intensity of the incident ray rather than the
frequency.

Qs. Give Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectrons effect on the basis of quantum theory of
radiation.

EINSTEIN’S EXPLANATION OF PHOTOELECTRONS EFFECT

Introductionhttp://allsubjectsnotes.blogspot.com/
Albert Einstein was successful in providing an explanation of the photoelectric effect. He
proposed his description on the basis of quantum theory of radiation.

Explanation
Einstein explained the photoelectric effect on the basis of following postulates.
1. An electron absorbs neither one whole photon or it absorbs none.
2. An electron cannot absorb more than one photon.
3. After absorbing a photon, it acquires energy (hv) equal to photon. The energy is either used up
in ejecting the electrons or it dissipates within the metal surface.
4. An electron may lose some of its energy before leaving the metal surface and is ejected with a
kinetic energy less than hv.
5. If the energy of the photon is less than the energy required to overcome the forces then the
electron will not emit.

Mathematical Expression
The energy of the electron is given as
Total Energy = Work Function + K.E
=> hv = фo + 1/2 mv²
фo = hvo
=> hv = hvo + 1/2 mv²
=> hv – hvo = 1/2 mv²
=> h(v-vo) = 1/2 mv²
Since, K.E = 1/2 mv² = Voe and v = c/λ
=> h [c/λ - c/λo] = Voc
=> hc [1/λ - 1/λ] = Voc
The above equation is known as Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation.

Qs. What is a Photo Cell? Also Write its Uses.

PHOTO CELL

Construction
The Photocell or photo tube consist of an evacuated glass tube fitted with an anode and a
concave metallic cathode of an appropriate surface.
The material of the cathode can be choosen to respond to the frequency range over which the
photocell operates.

Working
When light of suitable frequency fall on the cathode photoelectrons are emitted which are
attracted by the positive anode and current flows in the external circuit. The current would cease
to flow if the light beam is interrupted.

USES OF PHOTO CELL

1. Simple Photo Cell

A simple photo cell can be used in any situation where beam of light falling on a cell is
interrupted or broken. Examples are given below.
To count vehicles passing a road or items running on a conveyer belt.
To open door automatically.
To operate burglar alarm etc. http://allsubjectsnotes.blogspot.com/

2. Photo Conducting Cell

In this cell internal photoelectric effect liberates free charge carrier in a material and its electrical
conductivity increases as much as 10,000 times, Its uses are
For detection and measurement of infrared radiations where the wavelength is of the order of
10(-6) m.
As relays for switching on artificial lighting, such as streetlights.

3. Photo Voltaic Cell

Such cells are used as exposure meters to set the aperture of the camera.

4. Other Uses
Photocells are used for the production of pictures in television cameras and the sound tracks on
motion pictures. The sound information is stored on the film in the form

Statement
Radiant energy comes out in discreat amounts or guanta of energy. The energy E content of each
quantum was directly proportional to the frequency v.

Mathematical Form
E∞v
=> E = hv ——– (I)
Where h = Plank’s constant = 6.63 x 10(-34) Js. Since,
c = vλ
=> v = c / λ
Thus equation (I) becomes
E = hc / λ
Where,
c = velocity of light = 3 x 10(8) m/s. http://allsubjectsnotes.blogspot.com/
λ = wavelength of radiation
The energy of ‘n’ photons is given by
E = nλy
Where,
n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ………

http://allsubjectsnotes.blogspot.com/