92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 143

The Mandala as a Cosmic Model:

Integrating Temple Architecture within the Tibetan Buddhist
Landscape

PING XU
University of Colorado at Denver

Key n ords: in Inner Rlongolia in China. Also. there are increasing numbers
of belie\erb in 3 o r t h America and Bestern Europe.
mandala cos~nicmodel
9 mbolisni micro to macro scale In Tibet. el e q citj . tov n. 1 illage. and e l en ex erq home has its
spatial organization circumambulation own temple. \\hich pro~idesa focus for the social and spiritual
integration temple architecture lifr of the Tibetan communitj. Tibet once had oxer 6 0 0 0
Tibetan Buddhist landscape temples. E\ erj i~nportanthistorical el ent. often linked to a
religious re~olution.left hehind a great temple as an historical
mark. Fanlous temples ere concentrated in Tibet. but many
\$ere also located in the surrounding regions: Gansu. Qinghai.
INTRODUCTIOX Sichuan. and J o n g n a n Prolinces. Farther off. m a n j famous
temples Mere located in Inner Zlongolia. Beijing. and Chengde.
T h e mandala as a Buddhist cosmic model of oiganizing the
spiritual \+orldhas receixed great attention worldnide. especial- The wide distribution of Tibetan temples throughout China mas
1) for its iole in Tibetan Buddhist practices a n d its s!mbolism in the result of historical arid political factors. During the Yan
religious architecture. Surprisinglj . among t h e \ olumes written Dynast! (1271-1368 AD). the emperors, u ho Mere descendents
about the mandala. fen stress the integration of temple of Genghis Khan of Mongolia. adopted Tibetan Buddhism as
architectuie mith its surrounding landscape. Emphasizing the the national religion of China. During the K n g Djnastj (1368-
integratk e relationship between architecture arid landscape 1644 AD). to keep peaceful relations with. arid to control Tibet
based on field irir ebtigations of Tibetan temples throughout and Mongolia, t h e emperors encouraged the building of Tibetan
China. thib paper discusses hou the mandala. as cosmic temples in these two regions. During the Qing DJnastj (1644-
model. wab utilized to shape the Tibetan Buddhist architecture 1911 AD). Tibetan Buddhism again became the national
a n d the cultural landscape. and s e n e d to interl+ea\e it ~ i t h religion. imperial Tibetan Buddhist ten~ples were built in
nature. architecture. religious meanings. a n d man's nio\ ements. Beijing and Chengde (northeast of Beijing) (Figurel).

Tibetan Buddhism is a branch of Tantric Buddhism originallj The contents of t h e Buddhist cosmic model \+ere explained in
from India. lihich has been infused with the Ben reli,'~1011. the Ahhzdl~al-rnclh-osa.an ancient text nritten b\ 1-asubanhu
indigenous to Tihet. This branch emphasizes the path arid (fourth or fifth centun AD). During priinexal times. it was
practices of the Buddha of enlightenment. arid also follomb a b e l i e ~ e dthat t h e polier of rollecti~eactions brought about t h e
common Buddhist theme: humanit! is suffering the torments of unixerse ~ \ i t hwinds from t h e four cardinal directions. T h e
being caught up in the cycle of death and rebirth: and onl! the minds filled the empt! space and helped to form the clouds.
Buddha. with his great wisdom arid compassion. has the ahilit! from which water poured. From the water, hurricanes shaped
to help humans transcend and 11e liberated from this c!cle. in the golden earth. In the center of the golden earth rose a
order to leach ultirnate enlightenment ( P o ~ e r s .1995. P.208). mountain called Mount \Ieru. In the middle of the square
4s a liling religion. Tibetan Buddhism is practiced in Tibet. sumrnit-region of 2Iount Meru la! the palace of the leader of
a n d in it? surrounding region* on the Qingzhang Plateau. and the thirty-three chief Buddhas. -It halt the height of Zlount
 144 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

Jleru. the sun and moon traleled their orhits borne by the beckoned m! leturn. I re\ isited Tibet in 2002. I also extensi~el!
nind. Around Mount RIeru n e r e sel en golden mountain ~zalls. in~estigatedTibetan temples and villages outside Tibet in the
each lower than the one inside it. Between the mountains. the Gansu. Qinghai. l u n n a n . Inner ;\Iongolia. and Sichuan Pro\ -
rain created the *.inner sea" of fresh nater. Outside the louest
golden mountain nail stretched the '-great outer ocean" of
saltwater. In the ocean, the t\\el\e continents floated. the
southern most of 11hich was inhahited b! human beings. T h e
great outer ocean. with its t \ \ e l ~ econtinents. was in turn
encompassed b! an iron mountain mall (Brauen. 1997. P18).

This cosmic model is represented both in three-dimensional

and two-dimensional mandalas. The three-dimensional manda-
la. in ~ a r i o u s sizes. represents a geographic model of the
Buddhist cosmos. Mount Aleru (Figure2): tr~o-dimensional
mandalas are painted o n cloth or leather. or ;prinkled on a flat
surfare with colored powder. demonstrating Vount RIeru in the
plan-xiew. I painting of a mandala. "Tan Cheng'or literall!
.-the altar cit!" is a s!mmetrical diagram built u p of nesting
squares around with concentric circles. presenting the cosmic
model in the plan-xieu (Figure S). ?Iandalas are otten aids to
meditation. \isualization. a n d liberation in ritual cerernoniea. as
ell as in the Tibetan dail! life.

This re<earch has been niusliroorning and e \ o h i n g since the

sunimer of 1998. x hen I first ~ i s i t e dTibet. Tibet's unique
geographical high plain forms a plare oi religious \\orship e l en Fig. 2. ,A I I ~ I I I I Z ~ru/pturr
~ oj 1/01111i Veru iri l h ? rigIi/evr~//~-c?r~/~ir~~
todd!. The landscape a n d architecture. and their integration JC)rlg/w Pt~low.(111 irrlportunt irry1c4al Tibrttrn Bzro'r/hi,\t tr~rrple in Kviji~lp.
within the rich Tibetan cultule. pleatlj intrigued me and (Plloto~tlllh\-117- Ping .\u. 2002)
 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 145

inces. These field investigations greatlj enhanced rn! under- architecture of the Buddha tower and the great chant hall.
standing that Tihetan architecture. landscape. and religious Surrounding these main structures are moriasteq court\ards
beliefs a r e \\oIen together. forming a sacred realm. In the vhich take the shape of flat-roofed ~ernacularhouses. Follow
Tibetan cultural landscape. t h e theme of the mandala \+as ing the mandala model. stupas. built up with nesting squares
present e v e r p h e r e I T\ent. \\hich in turn inspired me to and the 1 ertical structure in the center. are cornmonh. -placed at
speculate that the mandala. as a spiritual ~ e h i c l eand model. the entrancr of the temple or a illa age. syml~olicallyto guard
shaped Tibetan Buddhist architecture and its relationship to the gate (Figure 4): a n d stone landrnarlts. called .'hIani Dui".
the landscape. indicate the important turning points along the path t o ~ a r dthe
temple (Figure 5).
Carqing out this ner\ thought and adding to t h e existing
literature on the mandala. this paper presents the mandala as a The Buddha toners and t h e great chant halls are painted red or
cosmic model that shaped the structure of spatial organization !ellox. M ith gilded roofs. surmounted by tu o deer on either side
of Tibetan architecture and cultural landscape with sjmbolic of a golden wheel. Other building< are often painted uhite. an
systems a t multiple lekels: a hol! mountain. landscape setting. auspicious color belieked to ha\ e the power to mard off ex il and
temple complex. Buddha hall. stupa. and stone landmark. to attract luclt. On the surrounding hills coloihl prayer flag* are
\Ian's movements uithin architectural spaces are also included. often placed. inscribed with Buddhist sutras. chanting uith the
ninds and prajing for t h e ~ o r l d(Figure 6).

A Tibetan Buddhist place of \\orship has three essential

THE TEMPLE IS A MANDALA ingredients: a statue of t h e Buddha. an open floor space in front
of it. (in which \\orshippers ma\ praq indilidually and/or
Just as t h e u n i erse
~ is organized around hlount Ileru. a Tibetan groups of monlts ma! chant). and a perimeter enclosed b j thiclt
temple complex is organized around the highl? intensile walls nith paintings of t h e mandala. Around t h e perimeter.
146 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

risiting ~ o r s h i p p e r scircumambulate in a cloclwise direction. at the northern bank of the k7aluzangbu River. a high mountain
Large temple complexes have square. niultiston Buddha in the north. xith mountain peaks in the southern distance. and
touers. and great chant halls with single-story structures and a sacred rrlourit in the east (Figure 7).
Buddha chambers in the rear section. Buddha to~lersand great
chant halls often face south. which s!mholizes the Buddha's Tlle Samye Temple outer uall talies the shape of a circle.
compassion for the huniari inhabitant< of the southern conti- symbolizing the iron mountain. In the four cardinal directions
nent. The main axis of these structure. often aligns uith are halls that represent the four main continents. Four stupas
landscape features. such as mountain peaL or the center oi a are set in each corner. sjmbolizing the four dixinities u h o
forest. here deities are h e l i e ~ e dto dv ell. p a r d t h e Buddha's lands. Tlle small Imildings o n the north-
south axis s!mbolize the sun and moon. T h e central Buddha
Historiralh. man) famous Tibetan Buddhist temples through- t o ~ e talies
r the shape of a square. uith a court!ard surrouriding
out China were established under the a d ~ i c e of leading it. T h e main entrance is on the east (Figure 8 arid 9).
Buddhist masters. The! follomed tlle mandala model. not onl!
in selecting the temple sites. b u t also in directing the plan's
layout and architectural design. T h e Sarn!e Temple uas built in
779 AD under the adlice of t h e Buddhist Master Jihu. The
mandala plan later became a model for other Tibetan Buddhist
temples. The Samye Temple is located in tlle center of a valle!
 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 147

Fig. 7. The Snniw T ~ m p l eit] Tsedang. Tibet. (Sketch Ping Xu)

Fig. 8. 777r c.~l~tl-nl R~rdrlho iower- o j h r Son?-r Trvq~le

~ Z/';/lg
( ~ ' / ~ O I O ~b,\' ~ / ~ ,h.
V 1998)
 148 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

F g . 12 ? h e plan of the Uozhcio I ' e n ~ ~ l e(Source:

. kunp.1996. P 149)

Fzg. 13. The Buddhu tort rl of thc Burlala Palate. ( t J h o t o p a p l ~ bx

~ Ping
Xu. 1998)

Fig. 11 Colomude-\ ole o ~ o w i d The Buddha torter of tlrr Brrdala Palatr

(Figure 12). with their spatial patterns of a box-in-a-box. creates
( P l i o t o g ~ a ~h\h ~ Pntg Xu. 1998)
an ordering sequence ~ h i c hencourages one to seek t h e center.
CENTER: T H E B U D D H A TOWER BUILT U P WITHIN
KESTING SPACES Corresponding to the lertical axis of Rlount hIeru, in Tibetan
temples t h e xertical axis is emphasized in the center of the
Buddha's tower. At the Budala Palace in Lhasa. t h e red palace
The center is the most barred space in the mandala. In the
tahes the shape of a square enclosure within a square enclosure.
temple. as a spiritual core. the Buddha touer built up \tithin
nesting >paces is in the center. The Buddhd statue is placed in The rloser to the center. the smaller the room is, t h e higher the
the tenter of the Buddha tower. surrounded I]! an d r n h u l a t o ~ ~ floor is set, a n d the more intense ib the worship. until one
passagella! for circuinarnbulation by man. The 'central-statue- reaches t h e top center. a flat roof pro\iding open r i e ~ t sto the
plu>-colonnade' pattern ma! be repeated on each floor. or the last horizon where nlountains rim the deep blue slq. The
center of the t o ~ t e rma! be an open atrium containing a single sequential experience of the building creates both a plilsicdl
rer! large statue. u i t h ~nultistor! colonnades on all four nallb and mental climax. Thib hierarchal s ~ s t e min the design of the
(Figure 10). temple'e architectural space. -!mholizing the lertical axis of
IIount RIeru, forms a ~ e h i c l efor obtaining ultimate liberation.
The ye\ enth-centur) Budala Palace in Lhaqa. Tihet. (Figure 11 emptiness. a n d subsequent enlightenment (Figure 14).
and 13) arid the qeventh-centur) Dazhao temple in Lhaba. Tihet
 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 149

Frp 13. The center at the top of the Budala Palute,. T~brt.(Photog7aph h~ Pmg l u . 1998)

T\+o eighteenth-centu? imperial Tibetan temples. built on the influenced b j the Buddala Palace in Lhasa. Tibet (Figure 15
south slope of the hills north of the Chengde Summer Palace. and 16): the Xumifushou Temple. Mas greatl! influenced b j the
provide excellent examples of the nesting spaces in the center Jashlunbu Temple in Shigatse. Tibet (Figure 16 and 17). Both
of the mandala model. The Putozongcheng Temple was greatl! temples are dominated bj a Buddha hall in the center. and
 150 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

Fig. 16. Pl(ci~snf the Putozonpcheng t m ~ p l r(Ir/i). und / I r e I~uri~~/ijiczlzou

t r r ~ q ~ l(I-igl~t).
r
Fig. 1 7. 771e X u ~ n i f u s h o u t r n y l ~( P l ~ o t o ~ n p lhv
z Ping Xu. lW8) ( S O I I I T P :
C ~ L P 1903.
II P.218 uitd P.11.5)
h a l e open space bet\\een tlie main hall and the surrounding
colonnade.
temple complexes h a l e developed a dualitj intended to aid
VERKACULAR ARCHITECTURE AS A TRASITIOK people in the understanding that the sacred Buddha land is a
place \+here eteryone can arrile. if they follo~+Buddhist
As in the mandala model. in the Tibetan temple. farther from practices.
t h e center. less intense architecture \\as utilized. more natural LAKDSCAPE SETTINGS DEFIRE A LARGE-SCALED
landscape is present. and the more secular is the place. Set on MAKDALA SPACE
t h e temple rim. monasterq courtyards. taking the shape of a
vernacular house. are usuallj clustered randornlj on the slope In Tibet. t h e vast plateau. deep blue skies. snou-covered
of the land. thus creating a transition bet\\een the central mountains. unpredictable eath her. simultaneous beauty arid
architecture and the surrounding landscape (Figure 18). danger. richness and emptiness. all form a complex matrix
which together affect the design of temples. In turn. the
T h e alchitectural design of the Joslllonhu Temple and the Buddhist temples are belieled b j Tibetans to pro1 ide t h e pover
Labuleng Temple h a l e a homelilie feeling beranse they imitate to suppress a n d subdue the demons and elil e n e r g in t h e land.
t h e architectural ~ o c a b u l a r jof Tibetan \illages ~ i t hflat roofs. rnaliing the land itself hol!.
thick tla! or stone walls. often painted mhite. tapeled up t u o or
t1l1ee flools high \+ith trapezoidal \+ indows (Figure 19). The Corresponding to Mount Meru. as a reference point fol
random organization of monasteij court!ards foirns a twisted concentrically arranged continents and oceans. the temple
access to dieelent sections of the temple. 4s one uallis bet\+een embodies the sacred places of the Buddha. providing merit for
t h e ~ a r d s the
. angled pat11 proxides rich images that change at the worshipper. Tibetan temples are oiten located in a central
e l e n tuining point (Figure 10). The contrast ~+itllthia simple spot: instead of constructing the temple itself as an architectural
lernarulai architectural m a t ~ i xmakes t h e Buddha halls stand mountain. Tibetans place the temple uith the summit of a
out. elen while it mixes the secular mith the sacred. mountain behind it. Borrouing the lie\\ of the mourltairi
summit and integrating it into tlie slope. the t e ~ n p l ewith its
Temple complexes were created to help people \isualize the surrounding landscape is lietved as a mandala. an un-separated
temple ds a s ~ n i h of
1 the sacred land- of the Buddha. On the spatial unit (Figure 21).
other hand. in Tihetan temples particularl!. tlie monaste?
court!ards often proxide an atmosphere of "home." Inheriting R7ater is Lery important. not just to the temple communit!'~
the hnowledge of the Tibetan \ernacular \illage. Tibetan s u n i ~ a l .hut for its religious sigriilicance. In correspondence
 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 151

Fig. 18. l'ernaeulur ur-chitectuw forms a transition IIPIIWPII / ~ m p l e

% of the temple. with a road opposite. B h e n ualhing on the road.

ueonle looh at the temple across the rixer. The scene of the

The fifteenth-century Jashlunbu Temple in Shigatse (Figure

24) arid the eighteenth-century Labuleng Temple in Gangsu
Prolir~ce(Figure 25 and 26) both were built on the south side
of a hill ~ i t ha gentle. \+ide-open slope. the surnnlits of the
\+ith t h e mandala. the temple represents the Buddhists' sacred mountain behind it resembling the embracing form of a lotus
land beyond the salty ocean separating the human continent flower. and a rixer meandering in front of the temple. Such
f r o ~ nt h e Buddha. This salt! ocean also symbolizes human landscape settings h a l e become a typical model for Tibetan
suffering from the torments of being caught up in the cycle of temple site selection.
death and rebirth. For a n ideal temple site. a ril er flov s in front
CIRCUMAMBULATION AROUKD ARCHITECTURE AND
LANDSCAPE

The rriost significant ritual of spiritual perfection in Tibetan

Buddhism is circuma~nbulation.u h i c h proceeds in a clocl\~ise
di~ectionaround a stone landmark, stupa. temple complex.
Buddha touer. or inside the hall of a temple. -1 pilgrimage
circurndnibulating the hol! rnouritains, a s\mbol of the Mount
RIeru. ma! take <r\era1 1% eehs (Figure 2 7 ) .
The wrnmit of the niountains and t h e center of lal'es are
conbidered to be the positions of deities. Tibetans b e l i e ~ ethat
circurndrnhulatior~scan purih their liles and lead to liberation.
and the) vill then he able to go to the coritirierlt of the Buddha
pip. 21. Luizdrcnpc ~ l l i ~ ~dr{;?w
g s 11 / I I I ~ ~ F - 177nncln/o
s ~ ~ I / Pyucp
~ fi-nm~d (Karma!. 1988. P75). T7; her1 people circurnamhulate around
iz17d ~ w t i v .(BI. Ping \ [ I )
111. ~nountui~ir these structures. t h r mandala model. a s!rnmetrical diagram
152 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

built u p of nesting squares around with concentric circles. is sqmbolizing the four elements of air. fire. water. and earth.
rompleted (Figure 28). Exen layer is a floor of Buddha halls and niches. The temple
has ?7 Buddha halls and niches. and oler 3000 Buddha statues
4s a vehicle for transmitting people's hopes to the Buddha. (Figure 30). This temple is circumambulated spirallj on sexeral
circumamhulation is translated into the temple architecture stories. up to the most important Buddha hall. Vo\ing through
u h i c h is furnished with anlbulator! passage\\ays at 1 arious the temple is like wallring through a mandala palare. \-allring
wales. People start at the outer colonnade. with its ro\\s of through the stepped path to the top Buddha niche is xisualized
prayer uheels. turning each ~ v h e e in
l turn (Figure 29). In some as climbing- the stair t o reach the top lexel of Buddhansrealm. a
temples. such as the Dazhao Temple in Lhasa. the circumam- formless emptiness of eternal liberation and enlightenment.
bulation starts in the street around the temple. Then people This temple's form manifests the path along which t h e
circumambulate inside the great hall. then climb up to circumambulation in the ph>sical place. as well as in t h e
circumambulate the colonnades. until the) reach the top of the human mind. progresses and spirals up to t h e spiritual climax.
temple.
CONCLUSIONS
The Baiju Temple nas built in 1414 AD in Jiangzi. Tibet.
located on a south-facing slope surrounded by hills with a river The mandala, as a cosmic model. symbolizes the u n i ~ e r s ea s
(yang 1996. P.426). The base of the building has four layers. rentered on the Buddha's d\\elling place. As a common ancient
helief. this cos~nicmodel ~ t o r k sin the rnacro % o d d as \$ell a s
the micro world. I n Tibetan cultural landscape. the mandala
model for the rnacro space. \\as transferred to architecture a n d
it. burrounding landscape in a relatixel! micro space. i t every
lelel of ~ a r i o u sscales. the structure of spatial organization
follons the mandala as its nlodel. ~ h i c hs e n e s the ieligious
purpose that Buddha is with > o u e\ei-j\\llele. i s a result.
architecture. nature and religious beliefs are intento\en in t h e
Tibetan cultural landscape. Figure 31 presents the mandala
pattern of architecture. landscape. and man's moternent. a n d
the integratile relationship betneen them. It also p r o ~ i d e sa
surnrnal? of this paper.

The mediums used to design architectural a n d l a n d s ~ a p e$paces

are difteierit. Closer to the centei of a temple. architectural
deqign \\as applied: stone-\+ailed Buddha tover- uere built up
\\ithi11 nesting spaces. Farther from the architectural center.
more design solutions mere made ~ i t the
h thought of landscape
planning: landscape settings define a large-caled mandala
 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 153

Fig. 23. 77le .Iashlunbu tm7ple in Shigatse. Tibt. (Photop4apl~hv P i y

,Yu. 1998)

space framed b j mountain a n d ~ t a t e rThe

. area for a pilgrimage
in the holy mountairis Mas organized with concerns of regional
planning. hex ertheless. at ere? 1e1el. a marriage bet14een
architecture. landscape design and planning tooh place to
produce t h e cultural landscape as a ~ l l o l e .

4 s in the mandala. in t h e ternple the Buddha touer as a

spiritual core is built in the center and is the highest point of
the hierarchical space. T h e pattern of nesting spaces of a
Buddha tower represents a n order of encouraging people to
seek the center. Closer to t h e center. rnore decorations appear.
and more Ialuable architectural material is used: the higher the
elevation. the more sacred t h e space hecomes.

I n the mandala model. the outer rim ymbolizes the secular

\\odd. In Tibetan temples. main structures are surrounded by
monasterj courtjards. These rnonasteries. taking the shape of a Fig. 26 The plu17 of Lahuleng temple ( S o u ~ c e :Lau. 198-1. f'J74)
1 ernacular court!ard. are usuall! clustered randomlj on the
slope of t h e land. creating a transition between the central Tibetan Buddhist landscapes are shaped b j using symbolic
architecture and the surrounding landscape. and also s!mboliz- sjsterns at multiple lelels. from static construction design to
ing a transition bet~seerithe secular -odd and the sacred world. dynamic ritual mo~ements.and from the ~ a s t n e s sof nature to
Farther apart from the temple's center. stupab placed at the the sirigulalit! of man. Alan's a c t i ~ i t jis taken into account in
entrance of the temple or village synibolicallj guard the gate. t h e religious function of architecture and landscape. Cilcu-
and stone landmarlts indicate important turning points along mambulatiori around a landmark. stupa. or t e ~ n p l eprogresses
the path touard the temple. Expanding into the natural t o ~ a r d sthe tenter. a5 if uallting through a mandala. hen
landscape. these stupas and stone landmarlis blur the boundaiy people circumambulate around these structures. the rnaridala
betneen archite17ture and landscape. model. a +!mmetrical diagram built up of nesting squares
around ~zithconcentiic circles. is ekentuallj completed. The
Landscape setting plajs an importarit role in integrating the rnore times the ~ircurriarnbulatioriis co~npletedand the higher
temple's architecture ~titl-1landscape. addressirip an analjsis of elex ation the ~ircuma~nbulation progresses through. the mole
bcale frorn rnaasi\e mountain ranges to a rock formation. arid purification ib achie~ed. all the \\bile using s!ml~olis~nthat
empha4zinp the horizontal. spatial relation~hip betneen a integrates p h sical
~ form ~ \ i t hmental 1 isualization. 43 a ~esult.
temple site and it? surrounding landstape. Borro~ting and t h e maridald. a spiiitual ~ e h i c l ea r d sjrnbol. ensuiei that the
inrorpoiating the lieu oi t h e rnounta~ri surnmit. along xith architectme leaches its original aim: the temple should h r a
integrating the southern slope of the hill. and lia\ing a ] h e r in place to translate. transmit. and transcend from the becular
the fiont. the ternple is ~ i e ~ not
e d in iwlation. but as a \$hole.
u o r l d to ultimate spilitual enlightenment.
nith the mountain> hehind: a literal lIount AIeru in t h e Tibetan
landscape.
154 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

In the Tibetan cultulal landscape. religious architecture and the hIart111nald. llrxandrr n. 199;. llanc/rrlrc c~nd Lcrnd~cnpr Nev Drlhl
I) I\.Pr~ntnorld iP) Ltd
landscape of mountains. mater. ~egetationand sky. are higlil!
integrated. Architectural design arid b!ml~olism instill religious
attributes i n the landscape. and in turn. the landscape, sening
as a matrix. imbues architecture uitli meanings of tirne and
space. Insight into this integrati~erelationship between temple
architecture and the cultural la~ldscape\ \ o d d senre to protect
the unique and sacred realm of Tibet. and enhance our
understanding of the un-separated nature of architecture and
landscape i n general.
1
P
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I uould like to thank Nancj Ilann arid L>nn Lickteig for

editing this papel Thanks to the research grants including
Facult, Research Grants of the Cni~ersit): of Colorado at
~ e n x e ; 1999-2000. IRIPiRT Amard of the University of
Colorado a t Boulder 199'7-1998 and the Beijing k o u n g Group
2002. Also. thanl'b to Duoli Zhao. Zhifei Li. Zhi\un S u and Zhe
Liu for assisting in field inlestigations in Tibet a n d Tibetan
~illagesin China.

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 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 155

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'l'uwi. Giuarppe. (1078) The Tl7eon and Bnctirr. oj ihr Ilairduln. London:
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REFERENCES Ih CHINESE:

Ftp 30. 2 7 1 ~13nilu Temple [c a* budr 111 I4 1 1 4D 117 J ~ a n p .I l h ~ i

h ~ d t u p a m b\ Aiy Xu. 1998)
( P l ~ o t o ~ - r u pnnd
1 56 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

Fig. 31. Ilandnln as n cosmic. model structured thr li'hrtan Buddlzisr landscupr. (BI. Ping -1ir)