TITLE: VARIOUS METHOD TO MONITOR SUBSIDENCE 

THROUGH SURVEYING AND MAPPING TECHNIQUES 

NAME:SONAL SIDHU SHARMA 
ROLL:17MI10037 
DONE UNDER:PROFESSOR DEBASHIS CHAKRABORTY 

INTRODUCTION:
In a mining operation, any noticeable instability can pose a catastrophic threat to the lives of
workers. Slope instability can also disrupt the chain of production in a mine, resulting in a
loss to the business. Due to the potential threat associated with rock mass movement, it is
necessary to be able to predict the time of slope failure. In the past couple of decades,
innovations in slope monitoring equipment have made it possible to scan a broad rock face
in a short period of time with sub-millimeter accuracy. The data collected from instruments
such as Slope Stability Radar (SSR) are commonly used for slope failure predictions,
however, it has been challenging to find a method that can provide the time of failure
accurately. The aim of this process is to demonstrate the use of different methods to
optimize slope failure predictions. Various methods investigated for research presented in
this article include: Minimum Inverse Velocity (MIV), Maximum Velocity (MV), Log Velocity
(LV), Log Inverse Velocity (LIV), and Spline regression (SR). Based on the different methods
investigated, the Minimum Inverse Velocity method provided the most consistent and
accurate results. The use of MIV method resulted in about 75% better predictions than the
other methods.
Both time and deformation data are readily available from the monitoring equipment used for
geotechnical risk management analysis. Some of the traditional and more advanced
technologies include but are not limited to survey network, tension crack mapping, wireline
extensometers, ground-based real aperture radar, synthetic aperture radar, and
satellite-based synthetic aperture radar (Chandarana et al., 2016). In the past decade, there
has been an increased use of ground-based radars, both real and synthetic aperture.
Coupled with simple and cost-effective technologies such as wireline extensometers, prisms
and tension crack mapping enhance active slope monitoring. The top three advantages of
ground-based radars as stated by Dick et al. (2015) include: (i) broad area coverage, (ii)
near real-time slope movement data, and (iii) no additional equipment installation is needed,
reducing the risk of workers being exposed to rock fall hazard. As the radar technology
becomes prevalent in the mining industry for monitoring slope movements, it is essential to
understand the basics of its use. The ground-based radars provide a Line-Of-Sight (LOS)
data set that is used to monitor slopes as well as make necessary slope failure predictions
(Harries et al., 2006).

LITERATURE REVIEW:
The current ongoing research and knowledge to monitor and prevent mine subsidence are:
1.Integration of MODIS data and Short Baseline Subset (SBAS) technique for land
subsidence monitoring in Datong, China
Datong is located in the north of Shanxi Province, which is famous for its old-fashioned
coal-mining preservation in China. Some serious issues such as land subsidence, ground
fissures, mining collapse, and earthquake hazards have occurred over this area for a long
time resulting in significant damages to buildings and roads.
In order to monitor and mitigate these natural man-made hazards, Short Baseline Subsets
(SBAS) InSAR technique with ten Envisat ASAR data is applied to detect the surface
deformation over an area of thousands of square kilometers. Then, five MODIS data are
used to check the atmospheric effects on InSAR interferograms. Finally, nine nonlinear land
subsidence cumulative results during September 2004 and February 2008 are obtained.
Based on the deformation data, three kinds of land subsidence are clearly detected, caused
by mine extraction, underground water withdrawal and construction of new economic zones,
respectively. The annual mean velocity of subsidence can reach 1 to 4 cm/year in different
subsidence areas. A newly designed high-speed railway (HSR) with speeds of 350 km/h will
cross through the Datong hi-tech zone. Special measures should be taken for the long run of
this project. In addition, another two subsidence regions need further investigation to
mitigate such hazards.
2.Mine Subsidence Monitoring Using Multi-source Satellite SAR Images
Ground subsidence due to underground mining has posed a constant threat to the safety of
surface infrastructure such as motorways, railways, power lines, and telecommunications
cables. Traditional monitoring techniques like using levels, total stations and GPS can only
measure on a point-by-point basis and hence are costly and time-consuming. Differential
interferometric synthetic aperture radar (DINSAR) together with GPS and GIS have been
studied as a complementary alternative by exploiting multi-source satellite SAR images over
a mining site southwest of Sydney.
Digital elevation models (DEMs) derived from ERS-1 and ERS-2 tandem images,
photogrammetry, airborne laser scanning, and the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission were
assessed based on ground survey data using levelling as well as GPS-RTK. The identified
high quality DEM was then used in the DINSAR analysis. Repeat-pass acquisitions by the
ERS-1, ERS-2, JERS-1, RADARSAT-1 and ENVISAT satellites were used to monitor mine
subsidence in the region with seven active mine collieries. Sub-centimeter accuracy has
been demonstrated by comparing DINSAR results against ground survey profiles. The ERS
tandem DINSAR results revealed mm-level resolution.

3.The external digital elevation model (DEM) error​ is one of the main factors that affect
the accuracy of mine subsidence monitored by two-pass differential interferometric synthetic
aperture radar (DInSAR), which has been widely used in monitoring mining-induced
subsidence. The theoretical relationship between external DEM error and monitored
deformation error is derived based on the principles of interferometric synthetic aperture
radar (DInSAR) and two-pass DInSAR. Taking the Dongtan and Yangcun mine areas of
Jining as test areas, the difference and accuracy of 1:50000, ASTER GDEM V2, and SRTM
DEMs are compared and analyzed. Two interferometric pairs of Advanced Land Observing
Satellite Phased Array L-band SAR covering the test areas are processed using two-pass
DInSAR with three external DEMs to compare and analyze the effect of three external DEMs
on monitored mine subsidence in high- and low-coherence subsidence regions. Moreover,
the reliability and accuracy of the three DInSAR-monitored results are compared and verified
with leveling-measured subsidence values. Results show that the effect of external DEM on
mine subsidence monitored by two-pass DInSAR is not only related to radar look angle,
perpendicular baseline, slant range, and external DEM error, but also to the ground
resolution of DEM, the magnitude of subsidence, and the coherence of test areas.

COMPARISON OF VARIOUS TECHNIQUES TO MONITOR SUBSIDENCE:

IN THE FOLLOWING METHODS VARIOUS SATELLITE AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEYING
DATA ARE BEING IMPLEMENTED TO COMPUTE AND FIND THE DESIRED
RESULTS.THE DATA SUCH AS THE DIMENSION OF THE ROCK ETC CAN BE FOUND
USING VARIOUS SURVEYING AND MAPPING TECHNIQUES.HERE , WE HAVE COME
UP WITH THE CALCULATIONS WE CAN DO WITH THE INPUT DATA.
1.Assessment of radar interferometry performance for ground subsidence monitoring
due to underground mining:
This describes the results from the recently launched SAR satellites for the purpose of
subsidence monitoring over underground coal mine sites in the state of New South Wales,
Australia, using differential interferometric synthetic aperture radar (DInSAR) technique. The
quality of the mine subsidence monitoring results is mainly constrained by noise due to the
spatial and temporal decorrelation between the interferometric pair and the phase
discontinuities in the interferogram. This process reports on the analysis of the impact of
these two factors on the performance of DInSAR for monitoring ground deformation.
Simulations were carried out prior to real data analyses. SAR data acquired using different
operating frequencies, for example, X-, C- and L-band, from the TerraSAR-X, ERS-1/2,
ENVISAT, JERS-1 and ALOS satellite missions, were examined. The simulation results
showed that the new satellites ALOS, TerraSAR-X and COSMO-SkyMed perform much
better than the satellites launched before 2006. ALOS and ENVISAT satellite SAR images
with similar temporal coverage were searched for the test site. The ALOS PALSAR DInSAR
results have been compared to DInSAR results obtained from ENVISAT ASAR data to
investigate the performance of both satellites for ground subsidence monitoring. Strong
phase discontinuities and decorrelation have been observed in almost all ENVISAT
interferograms and hence it is not possible to generate the displacement maps without
errors. However these problems are minimal in ALOS PALSAR interferograms due to its
spatial resolution and longer wavelength. Hence ALOS PALSAR is preferred for ground
subsidence monitoring in areas covered by vegetation and where there is a high rate ground
deformation.
2.The application of the Intermittent SBAS (ISBAS) InSAR method to the South Wales
Coalfield, UK:
Satellite radar interferometry is a well-documented technique for the characterisation of
ground motions over large spatial areas. However, the measurement density is often
constrained by the land use, with best results obtained over urban and semi urban areas.
We use an implementation of the Small Baseline Subset (SBAS) methodology, whereby
areas exhibiting intermittent coherence are considered alongside those displaying full
coherence, in the final result, to characterise the ground motion over the South Wales
Coalfield, United Kingdom. 55 ERS-1/2 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) C-band images for
the period between 1992 and 1999 are processed using the ISBAS (Intermittent Small
BAseline Subset) technique, which provides 3.4 times more targets, with associated
measurements than a standard SBAS implementation. The dominant feature of the
observed motions is a relatively large spatial area of uplift. Uplift rates are as much as 1
cm/yr. and are centred on the part of the coalfield which was most recently exploited.
Geological interpretation reveals that this uplift is most likely a result of mine water rebound.
Collieries in this part of the coalfield required a ground water to be pumped to enable safe
coal extraction; following their closure pumping activity ceased allowing the water levels to
return to equilibrium. The ISBAS technique offers significant improvements in measurement
density ensuring an increase in detection of surface motions and enabling easier
interpretation.
3.Mining collapse monitoring with SAR imagery data: a case study of Datong mine,
China:
Subsidence (or collapse) and earthquakes caused by mining activities have become severe
environmental issues that many developing countries are facing, which are not only a danger
for buildings and infrastructures built on this area and for inhabitants living in this area, but
also the disruption of mine scheduling and hidden trouble for coal miners. Therefore, it is
very useful for the mining industry to monitor, predict, and manage the scope of
mining-induced surface deformations.
Recently, two main techniques were frequently used for surface stability monitoring, i.e.,
surveying techniques and geotechnical methods. For surveying techniques, there are many
instruments utilized for data collection, such as levels, theodolites, total stations, GPS
receivers, and photogrammetric cameras.​1​,​2​ Some specialized instruments are employed in
geotechnical monitoring methods to measure the deformation or displacement over a
relatively short measurement range, such as crack measuring pins, extensometers, and
inclinometers. The advantage of these techniques is a high accuracy of deformation
measurement. However, their disadvantages are complicated instrumentation, a small
number of observations, and the high cost of frequent surveys.
In the last two decades, the satellite-based interferometric SAR (InSAR) technique has been
utilized for mining-related deformation monitoring, such as differential interferometric
methods,​3​4.​5.​6.​–​7​ a small baseline subset, and persistent scatterer InSAR.​8​9.​10.​–​11​ The
precision of deformation measurements from InSAR phase images range from centimeters
to subcentimeters,​12​,​13​ while it is tens of centimeters with L-band SAR data from the offset
correlation technique based on SAR images.​14​,​15
In most cases, mining-induced displacements have such characteristics as large
deformation gradient, spatial discontinuity, and temporal nonlinearity. Such large surface
displacements often cause a loss of InSAR coherence, resulting in the loss of information in
areas of high deformation gradients.​12​,​13​,​16​ Even for coherent areas, the interferometric
fringes are often too saturated and aliased to be restored with phase unwrapping
algorithms.​17​ Consequently, it is still a challenging issue to accurately monitor the surface
deformation in mining regions with SAR imagery data.
In this process, in order to recover both large-gradient and high-accuracy surface
deformations, three InSAR processing schemes are introduced to deal with mapping
deformation fields with large gradients. The process is organized as follows. Three InSAR
schemes are introduced in Sec. ​2​, aiming to monitor the large-gradient deformation. Then,
SAR data and interferometric settings are given in Sec. ​3​. The test results and their analyses
are carried out in Sec. ​4​. Finally, some conclusions are drawn in the last section.

CONCLUSION:
There are multiple ways to study the slope stability and monitor subsidence but none of them
can guarantee 100% accuracy.Therefore new methods and ways should be adopted and
worked upon. Several modern methods such as the use of AI and fuzzy logic neural network
can be used which are faster than traditional calculator.In the end , the life of mine workers
matter more ,therefore accuracy should be the prime concern in the evaluation of the output.
References:
1.NASA Astrophysics Data System
Yuan, W.; Wang, Q.; Fan, J.; Li, H.
2017-09-01
2.NASA Astrophysics Data System
Sun, N.; Wang, Y. J.
2018-04-01
3.Fredlund, DG; Krahn, J (1977), "Comparison of slope stability methods of analysis",
Canadian Geotechnical Journal,​ 14 (3): 429–439
4.Carnec, C., D. Massonnet, and C. King, Two examples of the use of SAR
interferometry on displacement fields of small spatial extent, ​Geophys. Res. Lett.​,
23(24), 3579–3582, 1996.