International Journal of Sediment Research 29 (2014) 402-413

Near shore waves, long-shore currents and sediment transport along micro-tidal beaches,
central west coast of India
Sajiv Philip CHEMPALAYIL1, V. Sanil KUMAR2, G. Udhaba DORA3, and Glejin JOHNSON4

Abstract
Coastlines are undergoing constant geomorphologic changes with respect to the incident wave climate. Based on
waves measured at 9 m water depth, simulation of near shore wave transformation is done using REFDIF-1
numerical model and the near shore breaker parameters are estimated at two micro-tidal beaches along central
west coast of India. Model results are validated with measured values. From the breaker parameters, long-shore
current and long-shore sediment transport rates (LSTR) are computed by using semi-empirical equations.
Estimated long-shore current and LSTR are showing dramatic variations with respect to seasons. Predominant
direction of LSTR is observed towards north since the approach waves are from south-west direction during
pre-monsoon and post monsoon. During monsoon season, waves are from west south-west and resulted in
southerly transport. The estimated annual net and gross LSTR by Cambridge Environmental Research Consultants
(CERC) at two locations are in the same order whereas LSTR estimated by Walton & Bruno and Kamphuis
equations are showing different estimations because of difference in surf-zone width and foreshore slope between
the two locations. For micro-tidal beaches with length less than 6 km, Kamphuis equation is giving agreeable
estimation of LSTR. Sensitivity analysis of LSTR estimate shows that coastal inclination is the prominent factor in
determining LSTR than incident wave angle.

Key Words: Near-shore sedimentation, Littoral zone, Wave refraction, Wave measurement, Coastal zone
management, Karnataka coast

1 Introduction
Understanding of sediment transport along coastlines is crucial for policy makers in coastal zone management.
Estimation of sediment transport rate and its predominant direction are important input in the planning of shore
protection measures. Near shore waves are prominent among other oceanographic parameters such as winds, tides, and
currents in modifying the coastal geomorphology. Wave forces and wave dominated processes such as wave
transformation in shallow waters cause spatial variation in wave energy leading to beach erosion/accretion (Short, 1999).
Longshore currents generated by the breaking waves are responsible in transporting the sediments along the surf-zone.
In the tropical region, influx of sediments is highly variable with season, and the sediment circulation in the near-shore
and the vicinity of river mouths also changes with season. In response to sediment influx, beaches in the vicinity of the
river mouths and configurations of rivers undergo rapid changes and create management problems especially when the
sediment influx is modified by damming of rivers or if the current pattern is modified by construction activities in the
mouth region (Abadie et al., 2008). Sedimentation in the river mouth, narrowing of river mouths, shoreline erosion, and
rapid changes of the mouth configurations are common problems observed along the central west coast of India (Nayak
et al., 2010). In New Mangalore port, sedimentation is mainly due to deposition of seabed material brought into
suspension by the monsoon waves (Dattatri and Kamath, 1997), whereas in the Sharavathi estuary, sedimentation is
related to the offshore source brought by tidal currents, and interaction of waves and river processes in the channel
(Hegde et al., 2004). Sediment transport rate can be estimated mainly by three methods; (1) from direct measurements
of longshore transport flux, (2) from empirical formulae using hydrodynamic and empirical formulae using
hydrodynamic and sediment data acquired in the field and (3) by inferring net LSTR from observing large scale changes
in shoreline and beach erosion and accretion (Esteves et al., 2009). Approaches (1) and (3) require considerable
resources to acquire the necessary data. Earlier sediment transport studies along the Indian coast are either based on
visual observations of littoral environmental parameters or based on the ship reported data. In the current study we have

1
Senior Research Fellow, CSIR-National Institute of Oceanagraphy, Dona Paula, Goa, India. E-mail: [email protected]
2
Senior Principal Scientist, CSIR-National Institute of Oceanagraphy, Dona Paula, Goa, India. E-mail: [email protected]
3
Senior Research Fellow, CSIR-National Institute of Oceanagraphy, Dona Paula, Goa, India. E-mail:[email protected]
4
Senior Research Fellow, CSIR-National Institute of Oceanagraphy, Dona Paula, Goa, India. E-mail:[email protected]
Note: The original manuscript of this paper was received in Oct. 2012. The revised version was received in May 2013. Discussion
open until Sept. 2015.
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adopted the second methodology by transforming the measured offshore waves by numerical wave model and estimated
the LSTR by using semi empirical equations. The objective of the work is to study the near shore wave characteristics
and compare the LSTR estimate based on different semi empirical equations. Sensitivity of the LSTR estimate with
wave angle and coastal inclination has also been studied.

2 Study area
Study area is located along the central west coast of India and is off Honnavar (Fig. 1). Sharavathi River meets the
Arabian Sea at Honnavar and it separates the coastline into two as Pavinkurve beach in the north side and Kasarkod
beach in the south side. Coastline is almost straight and open and it is inclined to west by 17° with respect to true north.
Depth contours appears as almost parallel and the near shore steepens with the 10 m contour occurring at an average
distance of 3.5 km from the coast and the 20 m contour occurring at an average distance of 10.75 km from the coast.
Near-shore bathymetry usually becomes complicated because of presence of islands, sandbars, and shoals and hence
these factors will influence the sediment transport phenomena. Offshore island named Basavrajadurg Island located 1
km offshore of Pavinkurve influences the near-shore wave climate along the Pavinkurve coast. Wind field over the
study area is showing dramatic variations with respect to seasons. During the months June to September which are
generally referred as summer (south-west) monsoon and the winds are southwesterly and its strength is significantly
larger than that during the rest of the year. During November- February referred as winter (north-east) monsoon and the
winds over the study area are observed as northeasterly direction and October and April- May are time of transition
between two monsoons (Shetye et al., 1985). The region experiences a tropical climate marked by heavy rainfall, high
humidity and hot weather conditions in summer. 87% of the annual rainfall is during summer monsoon period and the
remainder during the northeast (winter) and inter-monsoon months with an average annual rainfall of ~3.9 m (IMD,
1999).

Fig. 1 Map of Honnavar coastline. Locations of offshore wave rider buoy and shallow water wave gauge
(S4) are indicated in the figure. Locations of points at which nearshore breaker parameters were
extracted at Pavinkurve and Kasarkod beach were also indicated in the figure as P1 and K1

Sharavathi river influences the sediment dynamics at the river mouth and the river discharge is high during summer
monsoon period and it brings inland sediments into the sea, whereas during other seasons river discharge is low and
hence the input of inland sediments is also low. This variation in the sediment influx into the beach environment results
in a complex adjustment of sediments in the sea and the foreshore in the vicinity of the estuary (Hegde et al., 2009).
Annual mean discharge of the Sharavathi river is 4,545 million m3 (Sugunan, 1995). Sand spit on the southern coast is
growing from south to north and hence the river mouth is shifting northward causing erosion at north side of river
mouth (Vinayraj et al., 2011). Tides of the study area are mixed semi-diurnal dominant and its range is less than 1.5 m
(Kumar et al., 2011) and hence the beach is classified under micro tidal beach. Cross shore sediment transport will
dominate during the flood and ebb tidal conditions especially in the vicinity of the river mouth. Onshore transport of
sediment will occur during the flood tide and offshore transport of sediment will occur during ebb tide (Dean and
Walton, 1975). Masselink and Short (1993) studied the effect of tides on beach morphological changes as RTR=TR/Hb
International Journal of Sediment Research, Vol. 29, No. 3, 2014, pp. 402–413 - 403 -
where RTR is the relative tidal range and TR and Hb are tidal range and breaker height respectively. According to them,
for a micro tidal beach, the ratio will decrease since the tidal range will be always lesser than the breaker height and this
implicates wave dominance over the tide and hence the sediment dynamics of this area is predominantly determined by
the waves.

3 Data and methodology

3.1 Data collection

As a part of long term shoreline studies, various oceanographic parameters are measured around Honnavar. Wave
parameters are measured by a moored Datawell directional wave rider buoy at 9 m depth, 2.5 km offshore of
Pavinkurve (Fig. 1) during 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2009. Wave data are recorded for 30 minutes duration at a
frequency of 1.28 Hz. Wave spectrum is obtained through Fast Fourier transform (FFT). The high frequency cut off is
set at 0.58 Hz. Significant wave height (Hm0) and mean wave period (Tm02) are obtained from the spectral analysis.
Period corresponding to the maximum spectral energy is referred as spectral peak period (Tp) and is estimated from the
wave spectrum. Wave direction (θ) corresponding to the spectral peak is estimated based on circular moments (Kuik et
al., 1988). The meteorological convention is used for presenting the wave direction data (0 and 360° for wave from
North, 90° for East, 180° for South, 270° for West). In order to calibrate the numerical model, breaker parameters at
shallow water is measured by using an S4DW electromagnetic current meter placed at 2 m water depth (Fig. 1) during
21 September 2009 to 31 October 2009. S4DW records pressure that is converted into depth data and the data records
are transformed from the time domain to the frequency domain using the Fast Fourier Transform. The data are sampled
at a rate of 2 Hz at every three hours. Sediment samples collected from various locations of the swash zone are washed
and oven dried. Grain size distribution is carried out in laboratory using electromagnetic sieve shaker machine that
contains six sieves having mesh sizes 2,000, 1,000, 500, 250, 125, 63 μm and pan. Median grain size is obtained using
GRADISTAT package (Blott and Pye, 2001) following logarithmic method (Folk and Ward, 1957).

3.2 Numerical model (REFDIF-1)

Waves measured at 9 m water depth are transformed by using numerical model REFDIF-1 version 2.5 (Kirby et al.,
1994). This model is a parabolic formulation of the mild slope equation of (Berkhoff, 1972) and it takes into account
both refraction and diffraction and simulates the behavior of monochromatic waves over irregular bathymetry. A large
number of studies have validated this model with measured data (Work and Kaihatu, 1997; Raichle, 1998). Three hourly
wave data are taken for model simulation for computing convenience. Since the coastline is inclined to 17° with respect
to true north, the model domain is rotated clock-wise in order to bring positive x axis of the computation domain normal
to coastline. Grid dimensions are taken as 800×400 and dimension of each grid cell is 9.66×8.33 m. Model is validated
by using the near-shore wave data measured using S4DW located at 2 m water depth (Fig. 1). Model results are
post-processed and long-shore currents and sediment transport is estimated using the semi-empirical formulae.

3.3 Theoretical long-shore currents

Two commonly used equations to estimate the long-shore currents are i) VG = KgmT sin 2θ b (Galvin and Eagleson,
1
1965) and ii) VLH = 20.7 m( gH b ) 2 sin 2θ b (Longuet-Higgins, 1970), where, VG and VLH are mean long-shore current
velocities in the surf zone (m s-1), K is a dimensionless coefficient depending solely on the geometry of the breaking
wave which is taken as 1 (Galvin and Eagleson, 1965), g is acceleration due to gravity (m s-2), m is the foreshore slope,
T is wave period (s), Hb is breaking wave height (m) and θb is breaker angle (angle between the breaking wave crest and
shoreline).

3.4 Long-shore sediment transport

3.4.1 CERC formula (USACE, 1984)

LSTR is calculated from the empirical equation relating the long-shore energy flux in the breaker zone as
KAρgH b 2T sin 2θ b
Q= , where, Q = LSTR (m3 yr-1), K = dimensionless empirical proportionality constant (taken as 0.39)
64π
(Komar and Inman, 1970), ρs = sediment density (kg m-3), ρ = density of water (kg m-3), p = Porosity factor (0.4).

3.4.2 Kamphuis (2002)

Kamphuis (2002) developed following formula which includes beach slope (m) and sediment grain size as
⎛ 2.27 H 2T 1.5 m 0.75 D −0.25 sin θ ⎞
⎜ b p 50 b ⎟
Q=⎜ ⎟⎟ ,where, Tp =peak wave period (s), and D50=median grain size (mm).
⎜ ( ρ s − ρ ) g (1 − ρ )
⎝ ⎠
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3.4.3 Walton and Bruno (1989)
Another formula used to calculate LSTR is that by Walton and Bruno (1989). Using breaker height and long-shore
KAρgH bWVC f
velocity, the LSTR is calculated as Q = where, ⎛⎜ V V ⎞⎟ = theoretical dimensionless long-shore
0.78 5 π ⎛
⎜ ( 2 )⎝
V ⎞
⎟
⎝
V0 ⎠ LH
0 ⎠ LH

current velocity with the mixing parameters as 0.4 (Longuet-Higgins, 1970), W=Surf zone width (m), Cf = friction
coefficient taken as 0.005. The reason for selecting these three semi-empirical equations for the current study is that
these equations have been extensively used by several researchers (e.g., Chandramohan et al., 1994) for estimating
LSTR along Indian coast line. Besides it is possible to understand the influence of various littoral parameters in
determining LSTR using these 3 formulas.

4 Results

4.1 Wave characteristics at 9 m water depth

During pre-monsoon season, the predominant directions of swells are SW and seas are NW (Fig. 2). Frequencies of
the occurrence of NW seas are reducing during February to May with increase in the swells. The NW sea waves induce
southward sediment transport. But the percent of occurrence of SW swell waves are higher (56%) than that of NW seas
(41%) and the predominance of SW component of incoming waves will induce net direction of sediment transport
towards north. Hm0 is in the range of 0.3 to 1.9 m with an average value of 0.8 m and is characterized by low energy
waves (83% of waves are with height less than 1 m). In the late pre-monsoon season, wave heights are increasing due to
strengthening of wind seas (Fig. 2A). Kumar et al. (2012) studied the wave characteristics of Honnavar based on one
month data each during three different seasons in 2009 and found predominance of wind seas during the pre-monsoon
season than during other seasons using normalized wave spectral energy density analysis. Sea breeze is very active
during pre-monsoon period and it has an impact on diurnal cycle of sea state along west coast of India. End of
pre-monsoon season is observed as the switching of high energy wind seas to high energy swells and the direction of
wave approach shifts from SW to WSW (Fig. 2). During monsoon season, low energy SW waves become high energy
WSW waves. Compared to other seasons, wave heights are observed as higher during monsoon period and are observed
within the range of 0.5 to 4.3 m with an average value of 1.6 m. Unlike other periods, the mean wave period during this
period is higher than 5 s. This season is characterized as high energy period since 83% of waves are greater than 1 m.
Maximum Hm0 (4.3 m) is observed during the month of July. Kumar et al. (2006) reported Hm0 up to 6 m during
monsoon seasons and less than 1.5 m during rest of the period. Interannual and seasonal variations in near-shore surface
wave parameters off Honnavar over a period of three years (March 2008 to March 2011) indicate that yearly average
wave parameters are the same during different years (Philip et al., 2012). During late monsoon in the month of
September, the period observed as the transition phase from monsoon to post-monsoon, the wave direction of incoming
waves is shifting from WSW to SW. Similar to the monsoon period, swell waves are still dominant over sea waves (Fig.
2A) and 88% of incoming waves are from SW direction, the predominant direction of LSTR is towards north as seen
earlier in the case of pre-monsoon period. Hm0 are observed as low (average value=0.6 m) similar to the pre-monsoon
since 90% of waves are less than 1m. Unusual peak in wave height (2.7 m) during post-monsoon period is during
November due to the cyclonic storm ‘Phyan’ developed over the south-eastern Arabian Sea. Coastline undergoes major
erosional phase during SW monsoon season due to high SW monsoon waves and a secondary but minor period of
erosion during December and January (NE monsoon) and accretion during other months (Chandramohan et al., 1994).

4.2 Near-shore wave characteristics

Near shore wave heights are estimated using REF-DIF-1 numerical model and Snell’s law (analytical method) and are
compared with the measured data. Measured waves at 9 m water depth are transformed by using the REFDIF-1 model
and the model outputs are extracted for two locations (Pavinkurve and Kasarkod). Correlation coefficient estimated for
REFDIF-1 model results and the measured data is 0.82 and that for analytical method is 0.76 which shows that
REFDIF-1 model can give better results than the analytical method (Fig. 3). Monthly average wave heights, breaking
depths, closure depths, surf-zone width, beach slope and D50 values are given in Table 1. Surf-zone width is calculated
by finding the grid distance from zero water depth to shallow water depth at which the monthly offshore wave heights
are likely to break. Breaking depths for the respective average offshore wave heights are estimated by finding the ratio
of average wave height by theoretical breaking criteria (γb=0.78). Since the grid dimension has been taken as fine (< 10
m) and so the low energy breaking wave heights are well reproduced from corresponding grid locations. Closure depths
are calculated by Hallermeier method (1978). At both locations the surf- zone width is narrow since the low energy
waves are breaking at shallow depths during both pre-monsoon and late post-monsoon periods and wider for monsoon
period since the high energy waves are breaking at larger depths. Also beaches undergo accretion during fair weather
period and are characterized by fine sediments with low D50 values, whereas during high energy period beaches undergo
erosion characterized by high D50 values.
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 Table 1 Monthly average wave parameters at Pavinkurve and Kasarkod beach
Pavinkurve beach
offshore Closure Surf zone
Month Breaking depth (m) depth (m) Beach slope Median grain size D50 (μm)
wave height (m) width (m)
January 0.53 0.78 0.9 0.028 28 254
February 0.59 0.78 0.9 0.028 28 289
March 0.64 0.78 1.0 0.028 28 590
April 0.78 1.00 1.1 0.027 37 285
May 1.01 1.22 1.4 0.026 47 303
June 1.51 2.06 2.1 0.024 84 334
July 2.21 2.79 2.9 0.021 131 333
August 1.45 1.87 2.1 0.025 75 313
September 1.17 1.44 1.5 0.026 56 348
October 0.83 1.00 1.1 0.027 37 318
November 0.60 0.78 0.9 0.028 28 300
December 0.68 0.78 0.9 0.028 28 196
Kasarkod beach
January 0.53 0.78 0.9 0.017 47 254
February 0.59 0.78 0.9 0.017 47 289
March 0.64 0.78 1.1 0.014 56 590
April 0.78 1.00 1.2 0.015 65 285
May 1.01 1.22 1.3 0.015 84 303
June 1.51 2.06 1.8 0.014 150 334
July 2.21 2.79 2.7 0.011 262 333
August 1.45 1.87 1.8 0.013 140 313
September 1.17 1.44 1.4 0.014 103 348
October 0.83 1.00 1.1 0.015 65 318
November 0.60 0.78 0.9 0.017 47 300
December 0.68 0.78 0.9 0.017 47 196

Fig. 2 Time history of measured offshore wave characteristics at 9 m depth (A) Significant wave height Hm0 (m) ,
(B) mean wave period Tm02 (s) and (C) wave direction (deg)
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 Fig. 3 The scatter plot of estimated wave height using numerical model
and analytical wave height with measured wave height

Model simulation for the case of waves coming normal to the shore is shown in the Fig. 4. Here breaker characteristics
at the leeward of island is not considered for the LSTR estimation since the model equations are based on parabolic
approximation of mild slope equation and the model results at the leeward side of Basavrajadurg island will give large
errors in estimation of breaker characteristics (Fengyan Shi, personal communication).

Fig. 4 Model simulated wave propagation for waves approaching normal

to the coast during monsoon season

The 3-hourly variation of breaker height and the breaker angles of Pavinkurve and Kasarkod beach are showing
similar characteristics (Fig. 5A&B). During pre-monsoon period breaker heights varied in the range of 0.4 to 1 m with
an average breaker height of 0.6 m and breaker angles persisted between -28ο to 28ο at both beaches. As discussed
earlier in the first session, during pre-monsoon season, primary waves are from SW (83%) and secondary waves are
from NW (16%). Breaker angle of waves which are from NW are denoted with negative sign and the waves from SW
International Journal of Sediment Research, Vol. 29, No. 3, 2014, pp. 402–413 - 407 -
are denoted with positive sign (Fig. 5C&D). Waves which are from NW will cause sediment transport towards south
and waves which are from SW will cause sediment transport towards north. In the month of May the wave direction
changes from SW to WSW thus the incoming waves are undergoing transition stage (Fig. 2). During monsoon season
the breaker height varied in the range of 0.6 to 2.2 m with an average breaker height of 1.3 m at both beaches.
Percentage occurrence of breakers shows that majority of waves (50%) are from WSW direction and since the coastline
is inclined 17º towards the west, this will cause southward movement of sediments during monsoon period. During late
monsoon period, in the month of September, the wave direction is undergoing transition stage from WSW to SW
indicating switching of SW monsoon to NE monsoon. The breaker heights are observed as 0.2 to 0.8 m with an average
breaker height of 0.5 m. Here maximum breaker height during cyclone Phyan is 0.8 m. Predominant (91%) direction of
breakers are from SW. During the entire year 2009, 80% of the breaker heights are below 1 m and 78% of waves are
coming from SW, 12% are coming from NW and remaining 10% are coming from WSW.

4.3 Long-shore current

The coastline of Honnavar is inclined to 17° to the west and hence the current flow towards 343° is considered as
north and the current flow towards 163° is considered as south. Three hourly variations of calculated long-shore
currents off Pavinkurve and Kasarkod are given in Fig. 5E&F. Similar in the case of near-shore waves, the predominant
direction of average long-shore currents is towards north and average current speeds are 0.44 and 0.3 m s-1 off
Pavinkurve and Kasarkod beach, respectively. The reason for this increased long-shore current off Pavinkurve is due to
increased foreshore slope at Pavinkurve beach. During pre and post monsoon, the estimated long-shore currents are
highly variable and changing its direction with respect to the direction of breakers which are coming from NW and SW
directions (Fig. 5C&D). At Pavinkurve, the estimated long-shore current by Longuet-Higgins varied in the range of
-0.65 to 1.6 m s-1 and by Galvin’s equations varied in the range of -0.9 to 1.3 m s-1. At Kasarkod, the estimated
long-shore current by Longuet-Higgins varied in the range of -0.3 to 1 m s-1 and by Galvin’s equations varied in the
range of -0.7 to 0.8 m s-1. Kumar et al. (2003) reported long-shore currents along the central west coast of India are in
the range of 0.1 to 0.6 m s-1 with an average value of 0.3 m s-1. Here estimated long-shore current by Longuet-Higgins is
taken as long-shore current component in the Walton and Bruno’s equation for the calculation of LSTR.

4.4 Long-shore Sediment Transport Rate

Differences in balance in sediment transport along the coastline will influence the erosion and deposition features
mainly due to wave propagation directions (Horikawa, 1988).
Similar to the case of long-shore currents the direction of LSTR is determined by the breaker height, breaker angle and
the coastal inclination of the beach. Hence during most of the year the primary direction of LSTR is towards north due
to SW breakers and secondary but minor southward transport due to NW and WSW breakers. During pre and post
monsoon periods the estimated LSTR are showing low values since the breaker heights are low. But during the late
pre-monsoon and monsoon high LSTR are observed because the breaker heights are rising up during this period.
Annual estimated net (~ 4.7×105 m3) and gross values (~7.4×105 m3) of LSTR by CERC equation are showing the same
range at both beaches (Fig. 6A&B). Estimated seasonal gross LSTR at the both beaches based on CERC, Walton &
Bruno, and Kamphuis equations during pre and post monsoon seasons are in the same order of 49%. The monsoon
season contributes the remaining 51%. Since the directional window of incoming breakers is limited within the range of
295 to 225º, the waves are coming from the directional sector 225 to 253º and resulted in 84% of the annual net LSTR
in northerly direction and the remaining 16% of estimated annual net LSTR are towards southward due to waves
coming from the directional sector 253 to 295º. The sand spit on the southern bank of the Sharavathi river mouth is
growing towards north due to the net northerly sediment transport. Sand spits formed at the river mouth are of great
significance in understanding the morphodynamics of river inlets (Kraus, 1999). Orientation of a spit is commonly used
as an indicator of the direction of net littoral drift.

5 Discussions

5.1 Influence of different littoral parameters in the estimation of LSTR

The LSTR estimated by Walton & Bruno and Kamphuis equations are showing different estimation at the both
beaches (Fig. 6A&B). Estimated LSTR by Kamphuis equation at Kasarkod is 53% lower in annual gross estimate than
that of Pavinkurve. But the annual gross LSTR estimated by the Walton & Bruno equation at Kasarkod is showing 9%
higher than that of Pavinkurve. The main reason for this difference in the LSTR estimation is due to increased foreshore
slope at Pavinkurve and increased surf-zone width at Kasarkod (Table 1). At Pavinkurve since the foreshore slope is 1.7
times steeper than Kasarkod, the estimated long-shore current is higher at Pavinkurve as discussed earlier. These
estimated long-shore currents are the input in the Walton & Bruno equation. But it is seen that the increased surf-zone
width at Kasarkod has more effect in determining the LSTR estimation in Walton & Bruno equation than long-shore
current. And also, the increased foreshore slope at Pavinkurve is the main reason of increased LSTR estimation by
Kamphuis equation at Pavinkurve. At Pavinkurve, the computed net LSTR using CERC equation is approximately 1.6
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times higher than Walton & Bruno and Kamphuis estimation and the computed LSTR of Walton & Bruno equation is
1.03 times higher than Kamphuis equation. At Kasarkod, the computed LSTR using CERC equation is approximately
1.5 times higher than Walton & Bruno and 2.55 times higher than Kamphuis estimation and the computed LSTR using
Walton & Bruno equation is 1.7 times higher than Kamphuis equation.

Fig. 5 Time series variation of (1) breaker height, Hb (m) in upper two panels (A) Pavinkurve and (B)
Kasarkod, (2) breaker angle θ b (deg) in middle two panels (C) Pavinkurve, (D) Kasarkod and
computed longshore currents in lower two panels (E) Pavinkurve and (F) Kasarkod

Major shortcomings of CERC equation are that there is no dependence of wave period, beach slope, breaker type and
grain-sizes (Smith, 2006) unlike the case of Kamphuis equation. Miller (1999) measured the LSTR during storms and
compared the values with CERC equations and found that the LSTR estimate by CERC equation sometimes over
predict and sometimes under predict the LSTR. Hence Miller suggested that additional terms are required in CERC
equation to predict the LSTR during storm conditions. Wang et al. (2002) examined laboratory LSTR for waves having
similar wave heights but differing breaker types and they found that the difference in the LSTR between spilling and
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breaking wave is nearly the factor of three. Since the CERC equation is not dependant on sediment grain size, it gives
only bulk transport rate. The LSTR estimate by CERC equation pertains only to the sediment grain size range of
approximately 0.2 to 0.4 mm (Smith, 2006). In the present study, majority (92%) of measured grain sizes of sediments
are within this range (Table 1). The estimations of LSTR using CERC is made based on the assumption of long and
open sandy coast with adequate supply of sediments. Here the study is made at 6 km long sandy beach which is
partially obstructed by an offshore island. Similar kind of LSTR measurement made at a pocket beach bounded by
headlands (Kumar et al., 2003) showed that the estimation of LSTR using CERC resulted in high estimation of LSTR.
Also another study was made by Wang and Kraus (1999) in measuring the total long-shore sediment transport rate in
the surf-zone at a temporary groin installed at Indian Rocks beach, west central Florida. They have found that the
coefficient K which appears in the CERC formula is not constant and other factors may enter such as, breaker type,
turbulent intensity and threshold for sediment transport. In modifying the K value in the CERC equation, Dean and
Darlymble (2002) have concluded that LSTR should decrease with increase in grain size of the sediment. Earlier,
Komar (1988) analyzed the available field data and found some relationship between K and grain size as K value
decreases with grain size increases. For sand sized grains, he recommended the value of K(rms) as 0.57. Schoones and
Theron (1993) compiled and reviewed 273 measurements of bulk transport rate. They divided the datasets into those
with grain sizes finer than 1 mm and those with coarser grain sizes. They obtained the best fit K(sig) as 0.41 for grain
sizes less than 1 mm from the highest quality field datasets and obtained correlation coefficient as 0.77. For the grain
sizes greater than 1mm they obtained the best fit as K(sig) as 0.01with the correlation coefficient of only 0.11. Also,
CERC formulation assumes all of the energy is associated with a single peak in wave spectra. Kumar et al. (2002)
compared the LSTR estimate based on CERC formula including the sea and swell waves, and Walton and Bruno
incorporation of site specific measurement of long-shore currents and found that both the estimates are reasonably
agreeing well for a long and open sandy beach. The presence of Basavrajadurg island off Pavinkurve influences the
estimation of breaker parameters off Pavinkurve. Based on measured total LSTR by the streamer traps and short term
impoundment along the low wave energy coasts, Wang et al. (1998) found that the measured rates are lower than that
predicted by various empirical formulas. Using the root mean square wave height in the CERC formula, the empirical
coefficient K is found to be 0.08 instead of 0.78 used in the Shore Protection Manual. In the present study K value is
taken as 0.39 since significant wave height is used in place of root mean square wave height values (USACE, 1984).
Wang et al. (1998) found that the values of LSTR calculated using CERC formula is nine times greater than trap
measured values. The LSTR estimates by CERC equation can be accepted as reasonable confidence (±50%) only if the
K is calibrated with site specific environmental parameters. Kumar et al. (2003) compared the LSTR values based on
Walton and Bruno with measured values and they found that the average measured LSTR is found to be 0.65 times the
value calculated using Walton & Bruno equation. They measured LSTR during pre-monsoon months (February to May)
and obtained gross transport as 726 m3 day-1. Among the estimated LSTR values at selected locations along Honnavar
coast during the months February to May, Kamphuis equation is giving much closer values as 946 m3 day-1 at
Pavinkurve and as 700 m3 day-1 at Kasarkod against the measured value of 726 m3 day-1. Hence LSTR values estimated
by Kamphuis equation can be considered as quite acceptable estimation along Honnavar coast. Wang et al. (2002)
compared the results obtained from both CERC and Kamphuis equation with measured data in a large scale flume and
found that Kamphuis equation is giving more accurate estimates than CERC equation.

Fig. 6 Annual LSTR calculated using CERC, Walton & Bruno and Kamphuis equations
for (A) Pavinkurve and (B) Kasarkod beach

5.2 Sensitivity analysis of LSTR estimate

5.2.1 Variation of LSTR with respect to change in offshore wave angles

In order to analyze sensitivity of estimated LSTR values to the offshore wave parameters, the LSTR values are
estimated by varying the offshore wave conditions in two seasons, one for monsoon and the other for post monsoon.
The location off Kasarkod is selected for the sensitivity analysis since it is an open beach and is not obstructed by
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offshore island as in the case of Pavinkurve. During monsoon season as discussed earlier, waves are coming from WSW
and hence normal to the coast. Here the sensitivity of LSTR is analyzed by varying the offshore angle, θ to θ+1, θ+3
and θ+5 and the estimated gross LSTR for each case is compared with the original estimation (Fig. 7A). While
increasing the offshore wave angles from θ to θ+1, θ+3, θ+5, the estimated gross LSTR reduced. As the offshore wave
angle increases, the WSW breakers switches to more SW breakers and this will cause decrease in southward LSTR and
hence both net and gross LSTR will get reduced. Whereas when the offshore angles are reduced from θ to θ-1, θ-3, θ-5,
and the WSW breakers switches their direction to more NW directions and this induces more southward LSTR and
hence both net and gross LSTR will get increase. During post-monsoon season, the waves are from SW and resulted in
northerly LSTR. When the offshore angles are varied from θ to θ+1, θ+3, θ+5, the incoming waves are from more SW
and resulted in increased net northward transport and hence both net and gross LSTR will increase (Fig. 7A). Whereas
when the offshore angle is reduced from θ to θ-1, θ-3, θ-5, the incoming waves which are from SW becomes more
WSW and hence the net northward transport will reduce and hence both net and gross LSTR will also get reduced. It is
observed that the offshore wave angle and offshore wave height during monsoon season has more influence on the
LSTR estimation than during the post monsoon season.

5.2.2 Variation of LSTR with respect to change in coastal orientation

Sensitivity analysis for LSTR estimation is also done for varying the coastal orientation of Kasarkod. Here the coastal
inclination is varied by changing the coastal orientation with respect to north. The actual coastal orientation of Kasarkod
is 343º and the orientation is changed to 344, 346, 348, 350, 352 and 353º and LSTR is estimated for each case and
compared with the original LSTR value. When the coastal inclination is increased, it is observed that the sediment
transport towards south is increasing because some of the SW breakers which are contributing northward sediment
transport turning southward and induces more southward sediment transport (Fig. 7B). Hence both net and gross LSTR
decreased. Whereas while decreasing the coastal inclination to 342, 340, 338, 336, 334, 333º, northward LSTR
increased since some of the NW breakers which are contributing southward sediment transport are turned northwards
and resulted in more LSTR towards north. Hence both net and gross LSTR values increased. It is clear that the coastal
inclination has more influence in the estimation of LSTR than breaker angles (Fig. 7A&B).

Fig. 7 Variation of LSTR with respect to variation in (A) offshore wave angle
and (B) coastal inclination at Kasarkod beach

5.2.3 Variation of LSTR with different data intervals

Continuous coastal observations are costly and laborious affair. Hence many studies have reported the LSTR values
based on daily, weekly and biweekly basis. The change in LSTR estimate based on different durations ranging from
3-hourly to bi-weekly is studied (Table 2). It is observed that there is no considerable variation in the LSTR values
when it is estimated for the data interval up to 12 h. Beyond 12 h, the variation of gross LSTR are highly variable.
Hence the estimated LSTR values are reliable up to the maximum data interval of 12 h.

6 Conclusions
• Near-shore wave transformation is done using both numerical model and Snell’s method. By comparing with the
measured data, REF-DIF-1 model gave better results than Snell’s method.
• Offshore wave characteristics are changing with seasons. It is observed that 78% of breaker waves are from SW, 12%
from NW and remaining 10% are from WSW. Average breaker heights during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon are 0.6
and 0.5 m respectively and average breaker height during monsoon season is 1.3 m.
International Journal of Sediment Research, Vol. 29, No. 3, 2014, pp. 402–413 - 411 -
 Table 2 Estimated LSTR by Kamphuis equation for different time intervals
Data interval Net LSTR (m3) Gross LSTR (m3) Percentage difference in gross estimation
3hourly 186,094 275,337 -1.3
6hourly 183,355 278,946 -0.7
12hourly 187,582 277,305 -3
24hourly 206,413 283,778 6.3
Weekly 168,736 257,981 14.6
Biweekly 115,425 235,243 -1.3

• Breaker heights and breaker angles are showing similar characteristics at both Pavinkurve and Kasarkod beach. But
the observed fore-shore slope and surf-zone width are different for both of the beaches. Since the foreshore slope at
Pavinkurve beach is higher than that of Kasarkod beach, the estimated long-shore currents are higher at Pavinkurve
beach. Although the estimated LSTR by CERC is giving similar estimates of LSTR at both beaches, the estimated
LSTR by Walton & Bruno and Kamphuis equation are giving different LSTR estimates. It is observed that even the
long-shore current off Pavinkurve is higher; the LSTR estimated by Walton & Bruno equation is higher off Kasarkod
since surf-zone width at Kasarkod beach is higher and this influences the LSTR estimate than long-shore currents.
• Kamphuis equation is giving much agreeable estimation of LSTR compared to CERC and Walton & Bruno equations.
Hence the estimated net and gross LSTR by Kamphius equation can be considered as acceptable LSTR estimate.
• About 51% of annual sediment transport occurs in monsoon period during which average breaker heights is about
two times that of other seasons which occurs about one-fourth of the study period and 49% of annual sediment transport
occurs during pre and post-monsoon period which is three-fourth of the study period. Among these estimates, 84% of
annual LSTR are towards north by the waves coming from the directional sector 225° to 253° and 16% of annual LSTR
are towards south by the waves coming from the directional sector 253° to 295°.
• Sensitivity analysis of LSTR estimation shows that the coastal inclination is more affecting factor than the breaker
angle.
• Reliability check of LSTR estimation with different data intervals is showing that the LSTR estimates are reliable up
to 12 h data interval.

Acknowledgement
We thank ICMAM PD, Ministry of Earth Sciences, New Delhi and CSIR, New Delhi for funding the measurement
program. Directors of CSIR-NIO, Goa and ICMAM PD, Chennai provided encouragement to carry out the study. We
thank Mr. P. Pednekar and Mr. Jai Singh for help during the measurement. This work forms part of the Ph.D thesis of
the first author and is NIO contribution 5389.

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