The Rules of Capitalization
The Rules of Capitalization
Ralph Waldo Emerson said, "The only way to have a For example:
friend is to be one." My favorite place in the world is Northern Ontario.
Capitalization rule #2 Do not capitalize "north," "south," "east," and "west"
Use capitals for proper nouns. In other words, capitalize when giving directions:
the names of people, specific places, and things. Drive six blocks north, and then turn right.
For example: Capitalization rule #5
We don't capitalize the word "bridge" unless it starts a All large words in the titles of movies, books, and other
sentence, but we must capitalize Brooklyn publications should be capitalized, while all small words
Bridge because it is the name of a specific bridge. (a, an, the, but, and, if, as, or, nor, to name a few)
OR should not be capitalized unless they are the first or last
words in the title:
The word "country" would not normally be capitalized,
but we would have to write China with a capital "C" A Life Less Ordinary (The word "A" would not normally
because it is the name of a specific country. be capitalized, but because it is the first word in the
title, we must capitalize it.)
OR
OR
The word "state", while not normally capitalized, would
be written with a capital if it is in the name of an War of the Worlds (The words "of" and "the" are not
organization, such as The State Board of Education. capitalized because they are small and are not at the
beginning or end of the title, though exceptions to the
Capitalization rule #3 "small words" rule do exist.)
Capitalization rule #6
The first word of a salutation should be capitalized, as 3. C can say /k/ or /s/. C says /s/ before an e, i, or
well as the first word of a closing. For example: y (cent, city, cycle). It says /k/ before everything
else (cat, clip).
Dear Billy,
4. G can say /g/ or /j/. G may say /j/ before an e, i,
OR
or y (gem, giant, gym). It says /g/ before
Regards, everything else (garden, glad).
Specific course titles should, however, be capitalized. After your student has mastered the above spelling
For example: rules and applies them consistently, go on to this next
set of rules.
I don't know what I'm going to do. I have to take Math
101 next year and it looks hard! 1. A, e, o, and u usually say their name at the end
of a syllable (a-pron, me, go, u-nit).
Capitalization rule #8 2. Words do not end in v or j. We add a silent e at
Capitalize when two or more sentences follow a colon. the end of the word (have).
3. Contractions replace letter(s) with an
For example: apostrophe to shorten a phrase
We have set this restriction: Do your chores before (I’ve represents I have).
watching television. That includes washing the dishes. 4. I and o may say /ī/ and /ō/ before two
consonants (kind, sold). /j/ is spelled dge after a
Do not capitalize after a colon if you are writing a list, or short vowel (edge).
if there is only one sentence following the colon: 5. Capitalize the names of places (Florida).
There are many metals hidden away within the earth's
crust: gold, zinc, and lead are just a few examples.
Rules of Punctuation
OR
Spacing With Punctuation
There is a way to remember test information: study a
lot the night before your big midterm! Rule 1
NOTE: For spacing with dashes, click on Dashes. Rule 2. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when
the order of the adjectives is interchangeable.
Periods
Example: He is a strong, healthy man.
Rule 1. Use a period at the end of a complete sentence
We could also say healthy, strong man.
that is a statement.
Example: We stayed at an expensive summer resort.
Example: I know him well.
We would not say summer expensive resort, so no
Rule 2. If the last item in the sentence is an abbreviation comma.
that ends in a period, do not follow it with another
Another way to determine if a comma is needed is to
period.
mentally put and between the two adjectives. If the
Incorrect: This is Alice Smith, M.D.. result still makes sense, add the comma. In the
Correct: This is Alice Smith, M.D. examples above, a strong and healthy man makes
Correct: Please shop, cook, etc. We will do the laundry. sense, but an expensive and summer resort does not.
Rule 3. Question marks and exclamation points replace Rule 3a. Many inexperienced writers run two
and eliminate periods at the end of a sentence independent clauses together by using a comma instead
of a period. This results in the dreaded run-on
Commas sentence or, more technically, a comma splice.
Commas and periods are the most frequently used Incorrect: He walked all the way home, he shut the
punctuation marks. Commas customarily indicate a door.
brief pause; they're not as final as periods.
There are several simple remedies:
Rule 1. Use commas to separate words and word
groups in a simple series of three or more items. Correct: He walked all the way home. He shut the door.
Correct: After he walked all the way home, he shut the
Example: My estate goes to my husband, son, daughter- door.
in-law, and nephew. Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the
Note: When the last comma in a series comes door.
before and or or (after daughter-in-law in the above Rule 3b. In sentences where two independent clauses
example), it is known as the Oxford comma. Most are joined by connectors such as and, or, but, etc., put a
newspapers and magazines drop the Oxford comma in a comma at the end of the first clause.
simple series, apparently feeling it's unnecessary.
However, omission of the Oxford comma can Incorrect: He walked all the way home and he shut the
sometimes lead to misunderstandings. door.
Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the
Example: We had coffee, cheese and crackers and door.
grapes.
Some writers omit the comma if the clauses are both
Adding a comma after crackers makes it clear quite short:
that cheese and crackers represents one dish. In cases
like this, clarity demands the Oxford comma. Example: I paint and he writes.
We had coffee, cheese and crackers, and grapes. Rule 3c. If the subject does not appear in front of the
second verb, a comma is generally unnecessary.
Fiction and nonfiction books generally prefer the Oxford
comma. Writers must decide Oxford or no Oxford and Example: He thought quickly but
not switch back and forth, except when omitting the still did not answer correctly.
But sometimes a comma in this situation is necessary to Rule 5. Use commas to set off nonessential words,
avoid confusion. clauses, and phrases (see Who, That, Which, Rule 2b).
Confusing: I saw that she was busy and prepared to Incorrect: Jill who is my sister shut the door.
leave. Correct: Jill, who is my sister, shut the door.
Clearer with comma: I saw that she was busy, and
Incorrect: The man knowing it was late hurried home.
prepared to leave.
Correct: The man, knowing it was late, hurried home.
Without a comma, the reader is liable to think that
In the preceding examples, note the comma
"she" was the one who was prepared to leave.
after sister and late. Nonessential words, clauses, and
phrases that occur midsentence must be enclosed by
commas. The closing comma is called an appositive
Rule 4a. When starting a sentence with a
comma. Many writers forget to add this important
dependent clause, use a comma after it.
comma. Following are two instances of the need for an
Example: If you are not sure about this, let me know appositive comma with one or more nouns.
now.
Incorrect: My best friend, Joe arrived.
Follow the same policy with introductory phrases. Correct: My best friend, Joe, arrived.
Example: Having finally arrived in town, we went Incorrect: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper
shopping. were on the table.
Correct: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper, were
However, if the introductory phrase is clear and brief on the table.
(three or four words), the comma is optional.
Example: Into the sparkling crystal ball he gazed. The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident.
If such a phrase contains more than one preposition, a We do not know which boy is meant without further
comma may be used unless a verb immediately follows description; therefore, no commas are used.
the phrase. This leads to a persistent problem. Look at the following
Examples: sentence:
Between your house on Main Street and my house on Example: My brother Bill is here.
Grand Avenue, the mayor's mansion stands proudly.
Between your house on Main Street and my house on Now, see how adding two commas changes that
Grand Avenue is the mayor's mansion. sentence's meaning:
Rule 4b. A comma is usually unnecessary when the Example: My brother, Bill, is here.
sentence starts with an independent clause followed by Careful writers and readers understand that the first
a dependent clause. sentence means I have more than one brother. The
Example: Let me know now if you are not sure about commas in the second sentence mean that Bill is my
this. only brother.
Why? In the first sentence, Bill is essential information: Rule 11. Traditionally, if a person's name is followed
it identifies which of my two (or more) brothers I'm by Sr. or Jr., a comma follows the last name: Martin
speaking of. This is why no commas enclose Bill. Luther King, Jr. This comma is no longer considered
mandatory. However, if a comma does
In the second sentence, Bill is nonessential
precede Sr. or Jr., another comma must follow the
information—whom else but Bill could I mean?—hence
entire name when it appears midsentence.
the commas.
Correct: Al Mooney Sr. is here.
Comma misuse is nothing to take lightly. It can lead to a
Correct: Al Mooney, Sr., is here.
train wreck like this:
Incorrect: Al Mooney, Sr. is here.
Example: Mark Twain's book, Tom Sawyer, is a delight.
Rule 12. Similarly, use commas to enclose degrees or
Because of the commas, that sentence states that titles used with names.
Twain wrote only one book. In fact, he wrote more than
Example: Al Mooney, M.D., is here.
two dozen of them.
Rule 13a. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct
Rule 7a. Use a comma after certain words that
quotations.
introduce a sentence, such as well, yes, why, hello,
hey, etc. Examples:
He said, "I don't care."
Examples:
"Why," I asked, "don't you care?"
Why, I can't believe this!
No, you can't have a dollar. This rule is optional with one-word quotations.
Rule 7b. Use commas to set off expressions that Example: He said "Stop."
interrupt the sentence flow (nevertheless, after all, by
Rule 13b. If the quotation comes before he said, she
the way, on the other hand, however, etc.).
wrote, they reported, Dana insisted, or a similar
Example: I am, by the way, very nervous about this. attribution, end the quoted material with a comma,
even if it is only one word.
Rule 8. Use commas to set off the name, nickname,
term of endearment, or title of a person directly Examples:
addressed. "I don't care," he said.
"Stop," he said.
Examples:
Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me? Rule 13c. If a quotation functions as a subject or object
Yes, old friend, I will. in a sentence, it might not need a comma.
Good day, Captain.
Examples:
Rule 9. Use a comma to separate the day of the month Is "I don't care" all you can say to me?
from the year, and—what most people forget!—always Saying "Stop the car" was a mistake.
put one after the year, also.
Rule 13d. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the
Example: It was in the Sun's June 5, 2003, edition. question mark replaces a comma.
No comma is necessary for just the month and year. Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.
Example: It was in a June 2003 article. Rule 14. Use a comma to separate a statement from a
question.
Example: I'm from the Akron, Ohio, area. Rule 15. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a
sentence.
Example: That is my money, not yours. Rule 3. Use a semicolon to separate units of a series
when one or more of the units contain commas.
Rule 16a. Use a comma before and after certain
introductory words or terms, such as namely, that is, Incorrect: The conference has people who have come
i.e., e.g., and for instance, when they are followed by a from Moscow, Idaho, Springfield, California, Alamo,
series of items. Tennessee, and other places as well.
Example: You may be required to bring many items, Note that with only commas, that sentence is hopeless.
e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.
Correct: The conference has people who have come
Rule 16b. A comma should precede the term etc. Many from Moscow, Idaho; Springfield, California; Alamo,
authorities also recommend a comma after etc. when it Tennessee; and other places as well. (Note the final
is placed midsentence. semicolon, rather than a comma, after Tennessee.)
Example: Sleeping bags, pans, warm clothing, etc., are Rule 4. A semicolon may be used between independent
in the tent. clauses joined by a connector, such as and, but, or,
nor, etc., when one or more commas appear in the first
Semicolons
clause.
It's no accident that a semicolon is a period atop a
Example: When I finish here, and I will soon, I'll be glad
comma. Like commas, semicolons indicate an audible
to help you; and that is a promise I will keep.
pause—slightly longer than a comma's, but short of a
period's full stop.
Semicolons have other functions, too. But first, a Rule 5. Do not capitalize ordinary words after a
caveat: avoid the common mistake of using a semicolon semicolon.
to replace a colon (see the "Colons" section).
Incorrect: I am here; You are over there.
Incorrect: I have one goal; to find her. Correct: I am here; you are over there.
Correct: I have one goal: to find her.
Colons
Rule 1a. A semicolon can replace a period if the writer
A colon means "that is to say" or "here's what I mean."
wishes to narrow the gap between two closely linked
Colons and semicolons should never be used
sentences.
interchangeably.
Examples:
Rule 1a. Use a colon to introduce an item or a series of
Call me tomorrow; you can give me an answer then.
items. Do not capitalize the first item after the colon
We have paid our dues; we expect all the privileges
(unless it's a proper noun).
listed in the contract.
Examples:
Rule 1b. Avoid a semicolon when a dependent clause
You know what to do: practice.
comes before an independent clause.
You may be required to bring many things: sleeping
Incorrect: Although they tried; they failed. bags, pans, utensils, and warm clothing.
Correct: Although they tried, they failed. I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour.
I need an assistant who can do the following: input
Rule 2. Use a semicolon before such words and terms
data, write reports, and complete tax forms.
as namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example,
e.g., for instance, etc., when they introduce a complete Rule 1b. A capital letter generally does not introduce a
sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after word, phrase, or incomplete sentence following a colon.
these words and terms.
Examples:
Example: Bring any two items; however, sleeping bags He got what he worked for: a promotion
and tents are in short supply. He got what he worked for: a promotion that paid a
higher wage.
Rule 2. Avoid using a colon before a list if it directly sentence explains, illustrates, paraphrases, or expands
follows a verb or preposition that would ordinarily need on the first sentence.
no punctuation in that sentence.
Example: He got what he worked for: he really earned
Not recommended: I want: butter, sugar, and flour. that promotion.
Recommended: I want butter, sugar, and flour.
If a complete sentence follows a colon, as in the
OR
previous example, authorities are divided over whether
Here is what I want: butter, sugar, and flour.
to capitalize the first word. Some writers and editors
Not recommended: I've seen the greats, including: feel that capitalizing a complete sentence after a colon
Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep. is always advisable. Others advise against it. Still others
Recommended: I've seen the greats, including regard it as a judgment call: If what follows the colon is
Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep. closely related to what precedes it, there is no need for
a capital. But if what follows is a general or formal
statement, many writers and editors capitalize the first
Rule 3. When listing items one by one, one per line, word.
following a colon, capitalization and ending punctuation
Example: Remember the old saying: Be careful what you
are optional when using single words or phrases
wish for.
preceded by letters, numbers, or bullet points. If each
point is a complete sentence, capitalize the first word Rule 5. Capitalize the first word of a complete or full-
and end the sentence with appropriate ending sentence quotation that follows a colon.
punctuation. Otherwise, there are no hard and fast
Example: The host made an announcement: "You are all
rules, except be consistent.
staying for dinner."
Examples:
Rule 6. Capitalize the first word after a colon if the
information following the colon requires two or more
I want an assistant who can do the following:
complete sentences.
a. input data
Example: Dad gave us these rules to live by: Work hard.
b. write reports Be honest. Always show up on time.
These are the pool rules: Rule 8. For extended quotations introduced by a colon,
some style manuals say to indent one-half inch on both
1. Do not run. the left and right margins; others say to indent only on
2. If you see unsafe behavior, report it to the the left margin. Quotation marks are not used.
lifeguard. Example: The author of Touched, Jane Straus, wrote in
3. Did you remember your towel? the first chapter:
4. Have fun! Georgia went back to her bed and stared at the intricate
patterns of burned moth wings in the translucent glass
of the overhead light. Her father was in "hyper mode"
Rule 4. A colon instead of a semicolon may be used again where nothing could calm him down.
between independent clauses when the second
Rule 9. Use a colon rather than a comma to follow the Examples:
salutation in a business letter, even when addressing "I don't care," he said.
someone by his or her first name. (Never use a "Stop," he said.
semicolon after a salutation.) A comma is used after the
Rule 3c. If a quotation functions as a subject or object in
salutation in more informal correspondence.
a sentence, it might not need a comma.
Examples:
Examples:
Dear Ms. Rodriguez:
Is "I don't care" all you can say to me?
Dear Dave,
Saying "Stop the car" was a mistake.
Quotation Marks
Example: Here are some do's and don'ts. In serious writing, this rule must be followed no matter
how strange or awkward the results.
In that sentence, the verb do is used as a plural noun,
and the apostrophe was added because the writer felt Rule 2e. Never use an apostrophe to make a name
that dos was confusing. Not all writers agree; some see plural.
no problem with dos and don'ts.
Incorrect: The Wilson's are here.
However, with single lowercase letters, it is advisable to Correct: The Wilsons are here.
use apostrophes.
Incorrect: We visited the Sanchez's.
Example: My a's look like u's.
Correct: We visited the Sanchezes.
Imagine the confusion if you wrote that sentence
Rule 3. With a singular compound noun (for
without apostrophes. Readers would see as and us, and
example, mother-in-law), show possession with an
feel lost.
apostrophe + s at the end of the word.
Rule 2c. English also has many irregular nouns (child,
Example: my mother-in-law's hat
nucleus, tooth, etc.). These nouns become plural by
changing their spelling, sometimes becoming quite If the compound noun (e.g., brother-in-law) is to be
different words. You may find it helpful to write out the made plural, form the plural first (brothers-in-law), and
entire irregular plural noun before adding an then use the apostrophe + s.
apostrophe or an apostrophe + s.
Example: my two brothers-in-law's hats
Incorrect: two childrens' hats
Rule 4a. If two people possess the same item, put the
The plural is children, not childrens.
apostrophe + s after the second name only.
Correct: two children's hats (children + apostrophe + s)
Example: Cesar and Maribel's home is constructed of
Incorrect: the teeths' roots redwood.
Correct: the teeth's roots
However, if one of the joint owners is written as a
Rule 2d. Things can get really confusing with the pronoun, use the possessive form for both.
possessive plurals of proper names ending in s, such
as Hastings and Jones. Incorrect: Maribel and my home
Incorrect: Mine and Maribel's home
Correct: Maribel's and my home
Incorrect: he and Maribel's home Some write M.D.'s to give the s separation from the
Incorrect: him and Maribel's home second period.
Correct: his and Maribel's home
Single-digit numbers are usually spelled out, but when
Incorrect: you and Maribel's home they aren't, you are just as likely to see 2s and 3s as 2's
Incorrect: yours and Maribel's home and 3's. With double digits and above, many (but not
Correct: Maribel's and your home everyone) regard the apostrophe as superfluous: I
scored in the high 90s.
Note: As the above examples demonstrate, when one of
the co-owners is written as a pronoun, use possessive There are different schools of thought about years and
adjectives (my, your, her, our, their). Avoid possessive decades. The following examples are all in widespread
pronouns (mine, yours, hers, ours, theirs) in such use:
constructions.
Examples:
It should be mentioned that compound possessives are the 1990s
often clunky as well as confusing. For instance, a picture the 1990's
of her and Cesar's house could refer to a photo of "her" the '90s
in front of the house that Cesar owns or a photo of the the 90's
house that she and Cesar co-own. Big difference. Such
Awkward: the '90's
ambiguous sentences should just be rewritten.
Rule 7. Amounts of time or money are sometimes used
Rule 4b. In cases of separate rather than joint
as possessive adjectives that require apostrophes.
possession, use the possessive form for both.
Incorrect: three days leave
Examples:
Correct: three days' leave
Cesar's and Maribel's homes are both lovely.
They don't own the homes jointly.
Incorrect: my two cents worth
Correct: my two cents' worth
Cesar and Maribel's homes are both lovely.
The homes belong to both of them. Rule 8. The personal pronouns hers, ours, yours, theirs,
its, whose, and the pronoun oneself never take an
Rule 5. Use an apostrophe with contractions. The
apostrophe.
apostrophe is placed where a letter or letters have been
removed. Examples:
Correct: Feed a horse grain. It's better for its health.
Examples: doesn't, it's, 'tis, can't, you'd, should've, rock
'n' roll, etc.
Incorrect: Who's glasses are these?
Incorrect: does'nt
Correct: Whose glasses are these?
Rule 6. There are various approaches to plurals for
abbreviations, single letters, and numerals. Incorrect: Talking to one's self in public is odd.
Correct: Talking to oneself in public is odd.
Many writers and editors prefer an apostrophe after
single capitalized letters. Rule 9. When an apostrophe comes before a word or
number, take care that it's truly an apostrophe (’) rather
Example: I made straight A's.
than a single quotation mark (‘).
With groups of two or more capital letters, apostrophes
Incorrect: ‘Twas the night before Christmas.
seem less necessary.
Correct: ’Twas the night before Christmas.
Examples:
There are two new MPs on the base. Incorrect: I voted in ‘08.
He learned his ABCs. Correct: I voted in ’08.
She consulted with three M.D.s. OR She consulted with
NOTE
three M.D.'s.
Serious writers avoid the word 'til as an alternative Incorrect: 300—325 people
to until. The correct word is till, which is many centuries Incorrect: 300 - 325 people
older than until. Correct: 300-325 people
Rule 10. Beware of false possessives, which often occur Hyphens' main purpose is to glue words together. They
with nouns ending in s. Don't add apostrophes to noun- notify the reader that two or more elements in a
derived adjectives ending in s. Close analysis is the best sentence are linked. Although there are rules and
guide. customs governing hyphens, there are also situations
when writers must decide whether to add them for
Incorrect: We enjoyed the New Orleans' cuisine.
clarity.
In the preceding sentence, the word the makes no
Hyphens Between Words
sense unless New Orleans is being used as an adjective
to describe cuisine. In English, nouns frequently become Rule 1. Generally, hyphenate two or more words when
adjectives. Adjectives rarely if ever take apostrophes. they come before a noun they modify and act as a
single idea. This is called a compound adjective.
Incorrect: I like that Beatles' song.
Correct: I like that Beatles song. Examples:
an off-campus apartment
Again, Beatles is an adjective, modifying song.
state-of-the-art design
Incorrect: He's a United States' citizen.
When a compound adjective follows a noun, a hyphen
Correct: He's a United States citizen.
is usually not necessary.
Rule 11. Beware of nouns ending in y; do not show
Example: The apartment is off campus.
possession by changing the y to ies.
However, some established compound adjectives are
Correct: the company's policy
always hyphenated. Double-check with a dictionary or
Incorrect: the companies policy
online.
To show possession when a noun ending in y becomes
Example: The design is state-of-the-art.
plural, write ies'. Do not write y's.
Rule 2a. A hyphen is frequently required when forming
Correct: three companies' policies
original compound verbs for vivid writing, humor, or
Incorrect: three company's policies
special situations.
Exception: Names and other proper nouns ending
Examples:
in y become plural simply by adding an s. They do not
The slacker video-gamed his way through life.
form their plurals with an apostrophe, or by changing
Queen Victoria throne-sat for six decades.
the y to ies.
Rule 2b. When writing out new, original, or unusual
Correct: The Flannerys are coming over.
compound nouns, writers should hyphenate whenever
Incorrect: The Flannery's are coming over.
doing so avoids confusion.
Incorrect: The Flanneries are coming over.
Examples:
Correct: The Flannerys' house was robbed.
I changed my diet and became a no-meater.
Incorrect: The Flanneries' house was robbed.
No-meater is too confusing without the hyphen.
Hyphens
The slacker was a video gamer.
There are two commandments about this Video gamer is clear without a hyphen, although some
misunderstood punctuation mark. First, hyphens must writers might prefer to hyphenate it.
never be used interchangeably with dashes (see
the Dashes section), which are noticeably longer. Writers using familiar compound verbs and nouns
Second, there should not be spaces around hyphens. should consult a dictionary or look online to decide if
these verbs and nouns should be hyphenated.
Rule 3. An often overlooked rule for hyphens: The With no hyphen, we can only guess: Was the weapons
adverb very and adverbs ending in ly are not permit hidden from sight, or was it a permit for
hyphenated. concealed weapons? The hyphen makes concealed-
weapons a compound adjective, so the reader knows
Incorrect: the very-elegant watch
that the writer meant a permit for concealed weapons.
Incorrect: the finely-tuned watch
Rule 6. When using numbers, hyphenate spans or
This rule applies only to adverbs. The following two
estimates of time, distance, or other quantities.
examples are correct because the ly words are not
Remember not to use spaces around hyphens.
adverbs:
Examples:
Correct: the friendly-looking dog
3:15-3:45 p.m.
Correct: a family-owned cafe
1999-2016
300-325 people
Rule 4. Hyphens are often used to tell the ages of Note: Most publishers use the slightly longer en
people and things. A handy rule, whether writing about dash instead of a hyphen in this situation.
years, months, or any other period of time, is to use
Examples:
hyphens unless the period of time (years, months,
3:15–3:45 p.m.
weeks, days) is written in plural form:
1999–2016
With hyphens: 300–325 people
We have a two-year-old child.
Here is how to type an en dash: On a PC, hold down the
We have a two-year-old.
ALT key and type 0150 on the numeric keypad located
No hyphens: The child is two years old. (Because years is on the far right of the keyboard. On a Mac, hold down
plural.) the Option key and type the minus sign located at the
top of the keyboard.
Exception: The child is one year old. (Or day, week,
month, etc.) Rule 7. Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-
one through ninety-nine.
Note that when hyphens are involved in expressing
ages, two hyphens are required. Many writers forget Examples:
the second hyphen: thirty-two children
one thousand two hundred twenty-one dollars
Incorrect: We have a two-year old child.
A prefix (a, un, de, ab, sub, post, anti, etc.) is a letter or I must re-press the shirt.
set of letters placed before a root word. The Omitting the hyphen would cause confusion
word prefix itself contains the prefix pre. Prefixes with repress.
expand or change a word's meaning, sometimes
radically: the prefixes a, un, and dis, for example, The stamps have been reissued.
change words into their opposites A hyphen after re- is not needed because there is no
(e.g., political, apolitical; friendly, unfriendly; confusion with another word.
honor, dishonor).
Rule 6. Writers often hyphenate prefixes when they feel
Rule 1. Hyphenate prefixes when they come before a word might be distracting or confusing without the
proper nouns or proper adjectives. hyphen.
Examples: Examples:
trans-American de-ice
mid-July With no hyphen we get deice, which might stump
readers.
co-worker
With no hyphen we get coworker, which could be Examples:
distracting because it starts with cow. You are the friend, the only friend, who offered to help
me.
A suffix (y, er, ism, able, etc.) is a letter or set of letters
You are the friend—the only friend—who offered to help
that follows a root word. Suffixes form new words or
me.
alter the original word to perform a different task. For
I pay the bills; she has all the fun.
example, the noun scandal can be made into the
I pay the bills—she has all the fun.
adjective scandalous by adding the suffix ous. It
I wish you would … oh, never mind.
becomes the verb scandalize by adding the suffix ize.
I wish you would—oh, never mind.
Rule 1. Suffixes are not usually hyphenated. Some
Rule 1. Words and phrases between dashes are not
exceptions: -style, -elect, -free, -based.
generally part of the subject.
Examples:
Example: Joe—and his trusty mutt—was always
Modernist-style paintings
welcome.
Mayor-elect Smith
sugar-free soda Rule 2. Dashes replace otherwise mandatory
oil-based sludge punctuation, such as the commas
after Iowa and 2013 in the following examples:
Rule 2a. A question mark replaces a period at the end Do you agree with the saying, "All's fair in love and
of a sentence. war"?
The question Do you agree with the saying? is outside
Incorrect: Will you go with me?. the quotation.
Rule 2b. Because of Rule 2a, capitalize the word that Rule 5b. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the
follows a question mark. question mark replaces a comma.
Some writers choose to overlook this rule in special Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.
cases.
The slash has always been a handy tool for taking notes Red beans and rice is my mom's favorite dish.
and writing rough outlines. 8. If one of the words "each," "every," or "no" comes
Substituting w/o for without, y/o for years old, before the subject, the verb is singular.
and b/c for because can save valuable time and space.
No smoking or drinking is allowed.
However, most slashes can—and should—be removed Every man and woman is required to check in.
from a final draft. Writers should replace a construction
like any man/woman with any man or woman in their 9. If the subjects are both singular and are connected by
finished work. the words "or," "nor," "neither/nor," "either/or," and
"not only/but also" the verb is singular.
"The virgule is a mark that doesn't appear much in first-
rate writing," says Bryan A. Garner in A Dictionary of Jessica or Christian is to blame for the accident.
Modern American Usage. "Use it as a last resort." 10. The only time when the object of the preposition
factors into the decision of plural or singular verb forms
is when noun and pronoun subjects like "some," "half,"
Rules of Subject Verb Agreement "none," "more," or "all" are followed by a prepositional
1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number. This is the phrase. In these sentences, the objectof the preposition
cornerstone rule that forms the background of the determines the form of the verb.
concept. In these examples the subject is underlined All of the chicken is gone. All of the chickens are gone.
and the verb is in italics
11. The singular verb form is usually used for units of
The dog growls when he is angry. The dogs growl when measurement or time.
they are angry.
Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running.
2. Don't get confused by the words that come between
the subject and verb; they do not affect agreement. 12. If the subjects are both plural and are connected by
the words "or," "nor," "neither/nor," "either/or," and
The dog, who is chewing on my jeans, is usually very "not only/but also" the verb is plural.
good.
Dogs and cats are both available at the pound.
3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb
usually do not affect agreement. 13. If one subject is singular and one plural and the
words are connected by the words "or," "nor,"
The colors of the rainbow are beautiful.
"neither/nor," "either/or," and "not only/but also", you the) will be used after the comparative degree. The
use the verb form of the subject that is nearest the structure will be …….the + Comparative + of the…………
verb.
Example - Lucknow is the better of the two cities.
Either the bears or the lion has escaped from the
Sachin is the better of the two players.
zoo. Neither the lion nor the bears have escaped from
the zoo. Similarly if the choice is to be made between more than
two things or persons the superlative degree will be
14. Indefinite pronouns typically take singular verbs. *
used.
Everybody wants to be loved.
The structure will be …….the + Superlative degree + of
15. * Except for the pronouns "few," "many," "several," the…………
"both," "all," and "some" that always take the plural
Example- Rahul is the best of all the batsmen in the
form.
Indian cricket team.
Few were left alive after the flood.
English is the easiest of all the languages taught in the
16. If two infinitives are separated by "and" they take school.
the plural form of the verb.
Rule 3: In comparative degree (adjective + er ) + than is
To walk and to chew gum require great skill. used. ‘Than’ is used in case of comparison between two
persons or things and an adjective of comparative
17. When gerunds are used as the subject of a
degree will be used with it.
sentence, they take the singular form of the verb; but,
when they are linked by "and," they take the plural Example - Mary is taller than her sister.
form.
Rule 4: If an adjective is to be used between “as………as”
Standing in the water was a bad idea. Swimming in the and “so……….as” the adjective should be in positive
ocean and playing drums are my hobbies. degree.
18. Collective nouns like "herd," "senate," "class," and As…..as is used to show that something is equally good
"crowd," usually take a singular verb form. or bad.
19. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as So…….as is used to show something is not as good or as
singular and take a singular verb. bad.
The Burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks. Example- Bhopal is not so developed as Delhi.
20. Final Rule - Remember, only the subject affects the This rule is also applicable in adverbs.
verb!
Example- Geeta danced as gracefully as Anita.
Rules of Adjective
Rule 5: Article ‘the’ is used before superlative degree as
Rule 1: While making comparisons between two things it becomes definite.
the comparative degree is used and not the superlative
Example- Ludhiana is the most polluted city of Punjab.
degree.
Rule 6: If two qualities are to be compared of the same
Example - He is the richest of the two brothers.
person or thing then we don’t use the comparative
(Incorrect)
degree. Comparative degree is used for comparison
He is the richer of the two brothers. (Correct) between two different things or persons. Instead of
using the comparative degree more and positive degree
Rule 2: If a choice has to be made between two persons
will be used.
or things the comparative degree will be used. Article
the will be used before the comparative degree and ( of Example - Rahul is luckier than hardworking. (Incorrect)
(Two qualities of the same person that is Rahul are Rule 10: The same word can be an adjective in a
being compared (his luck and his hard work). So, sentence and a noun in another sentence. For certain
comparative degree can’t be used. words that are mostly used as nouns if they are used as
an adjective in a sentence they can’t be used in the
Example: Rahul is more lucky than hardworking.
plural form.
(Correct)
Example - The tables cloth was washed, ironed and
Rule 7: Puneet is taller than any boy in the class.
spread on the table.
(Incorrect)
Table is a noun but here it is used as an adjective. So
Puneet is taller than any other boy in the class. (Correct)
tables can’t be used but table will be used.
In both these sentences we are comparing Puneet to
Rule 11: If two adjectives are being used for the same
any boy in the class but one at a time. In such sentences
noun or pronoun then the adjective should be in the
where we wish to state that someone or something is
same degree.
better or worse than the rest but is to be taken one at a
time any other will be used. Example - India is the greatest and tolerant country.
(Incorrect)
Rule 8: Certain adjectives can’t be used in comparative
and superlative degree. India is a great and tolerant country. (Correct)
11. The words there, their and they're are three 16. Use the indefinite article a/an for countable nouns
different words with different meanings. in general. Use the definite article the for specific
countable nouns and all uncountable nouns.
There was nobody at the party.
I saw a bird and a balloon in the sky. The
I saw their new car. bird was blue and the balloon was yellow.
Do you think they're happy? He always saves some of the money that he
12. The contraction he's can mean he is OR he has. earns.
Similarly, she's can mean she is OR she has, and it's can 17. Use the indefinite article a with words beginning
mean it is OR it has, and John'scan mean John with a consonant sound. Use the indefinite
is OR John has. article an with words beginning with a vowel
He is working sound. see When to Say a or an
John has divorced his wife. 18. Use many or few with countable nouns.
Use much/a lot or little for uncountable
13. The contraction he'd can mean he had OR he nouns. see Quantifiers
would. Similarly, they'd can mean they had OR they
would. How many dollars do you have?