UNIT-1 (LASERS, FIBER OPTICS, INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION)

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. a) Explain interference in thin films by reflected light? What are its applications ? [7M]
b) Define interference? What are its types explain? [3M]
2. a) Explain how Newton’s rings are formed in the reflected light. [4M]
b) Derive an expression for the diameters of dark and bright rings.[ 6M]
3. Explain the procedure to determine the wavelength of sodium light by using Newton’s
rings. [10M]
4. Determine the refractive index of transparent liquid by using Newton’ ring method. [10M]
5. (a) Distinguish between interference and diffraction?[2M]
(b) Give the theory of Fraunhoffer diffraction due to a single slit and hence obtain the
Condition for primary and secondary maxima. Using this obtain intensity Distribution
Curve.[8M]
6. Give the theory of fraunhoffer diffraction due to double slit and compare the results
with that due to single slit. [10M]
7. a) Explain semiconductor laser diode with neat diagram[4M]
b) Derive the relation between the probabilities of spontaneous emission and stimulated emission
in terms of Einstein’s coefficient.
8. a) Explain the purpose of an active medium in a gas laser. [2 M]
b) With the help of suitable diagrams, explain the principle, construction and working of a
helium-neon laser. [8 M]
9. (a) With the help of suitable diagrams, explain the principle, construction and Working of
Nd:YAG LASER [10 M]
10 . a) With the help of a suitable diagram explain the principle, construction and working of an
optical fibre as a wave guide. [7M]
b) Explain energy losses in Optical fibres? [3M]
UNIT II (CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND ULTRASONICS)
1. a) what are the Miller indices? Derive an expression for the inter planar spacing between
two adjacent planes of Miller indices (hkl) in a cubic lattice of edge length ‘a’.[8M]
b) Show that in a simple cubic lattice the separation between the successive lattice
planes (100),(110) and (111) are in the ratio of 1: 0.71: 0.58 [2M]
2. Define the terms “Coordination number “, and atomic radius “.Calculate the above for SC,
BCC an FCC structures. [10M]
3. a) what are the differences between amorphous and crystalline solids [4M]
b) Illustrate Bravais lattices [6M]
4. a) Explain atomic radius , coordination number and packing fraction [6M]
b) Obtain the expression for density of the crystal in terms of lattice constant. [4M]
5. a) Derive Bragg’s law. [4M ]
b) Explain X-ray powder diffraction method to find the structure of a given powder sample[6M]
6. a) Explain production, properties of ultrasonic waves[7M]
b) Chromium has BCC structure. Its atomic radius is 0.1249nm. Calculate the free volume per
unit cell[3M]
7. a) What is primitive cell? How does it different from unit cell? Draw the (111) and (110)
planes and the (112) and (120) directions of a simple cubic crystal. [7M]
b) Monochromatic X- rays of wavelength1.5A.U are incident on a crystal face having an inter
planar spacing of 1.6A.U find the highest order for which bragg’s reflection maximum can be
 seen. [3M]
8. a) Explain seven crystal systems with neat diagrams.[8M]
b) X-rays of wavelength 1.5418 A0 are diffracted by (111) planes in a crystal at an angle
30o in the first order. Calculate the inter atomic spacing. [2M]
9. What is piezoelectric effect? Explain the Production of ultrasonics by piezoelectric method ? [10 M]
10. a) Explain detection of ultrasonic waves [5M]
b) Applications of ultrasonics [5M]

SHORT QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

UNIT-1 (LASERS, FIBER OPTICS, INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION)

1. State the properties of laser beam (or) fundamental characteristics of lasers (or) Name the
properties of laser which are making it suitable for industrial applications.
Ans. (i) The laser beam is highly directional.
(ii) It has high intensity.
(iii) It has purely monochromatic.

(iv) It has coherence.

2. What do you mean by population inversion?
Ans. In general, the number of atoms in the ground state will be more than that of the atoms in
the excited state. This is called usual population.The state of achieving more number of atoms in the
excited state than that of the atoms in the ground state is called population inversion.

3. Define metastable state.

It is the state for which the life time is more than the excited state, i.e., it is the more
stable state which lies between the excited state and the lower state.

4. Why is population inversion necessary for laser action? (or) Explain the need of population
inversion in the production of lasers.
When population inversion is achieved, the majority of atoms are in the excited state. So
the absorption coefficient will be negative. The negative absorption coefficient causes the amplification
of the incident beam by stimulated emission. Thus the laser beam is produced.
Hence, population inversion is a must for the production of laser beam.

5. What are Einstein’s coefficients?

The Einstein’s coefficients A and B accounts for spontaneous and stimulated emission /
absorption probabilities of light by a system of particles. It also explains the importance of
metastable states.
6. What is meant by optical resonator? (or) resonance cavity?
 An optical resonator is a feedback system which consists of an active medium kept in
between a 100% mirror and a partial mirror. Here the intensity of light produced in the active
medium is increased by making the light to bounce back and forth between the mirrors. Finally
the laser beam comes through the partial mirror.

7. Can a two level system be used for the production of laser? Why?
No, two level system cannot be used for the production of laser. Because for population inversion
to be achieved at least three levels are required.
8. What is the role played by He in He-Ne laser? (or) What is the function of He in He- Ne laser?
In He-Ne laser, Helium helps to increase the population of atoms from lower level to upper level,
thereby produces population inversion.
9. What is stimulated emission of radiation?
An atom in the excited state is induced to return to ground state thereby resulting in two in
photons of same frequency and energy is called as stimulated emission.
10. Mention the different types of pumping methods in Lasers (or) what are the different
methods of achieving population inversion?
(i) Optical pumping (ii) Direct electron excitation (iii) Inelastic atom-atom collision
(iv) Direct conversion (v) Chemical process
11. Distinguish between spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.
Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

1. The atom in the excited state

returns to ground state without any 1. The atom in the excited state returns to
external triggering. ground state by external triggering.
2. Emitted photon travels in random 2. Emitted photon travels in a
direction. particular direction.
3. The radiation is less intense and 3. The radiation is highly intense,
incoherent. monochromatic and coherent.
4. The photons are not in phase.
4. The photons are in phase.
5. This process is a key factor for
ordinary light emission. 5. This process is a key factor for laser
operation.
12. List out the applications of lasers in Engineering.
(i) High power lasers are useful to blast holes in diamonds and hard steel.
(ii) They are used to test the presence of pores, cracks, blow holes etc. in the materials
(iii) They are used for welding and cutting.

13. What is meant by pumping?

The process of rising atoms from ground state to ex cited state in a material is known as pumping.
14. What is the basic principle of fiber optic communication?
Total internal reflection is the basic principle of fiber optic communication system.
Principle: When light travels from a denser to a rarer medium, at a particular angle of incidence called
critical angle, the ray emerges along the surface of separation. When angle of incidence exceeds the
critical angle, the incident ray is reflected in the same medium and this phenomenon is called total
internal reflection.

15. What is called mode of propagation in optical fibers?

Mode of propagation represents the number of possible directions or path of propagation of light
through the optical fibers. When single ray of light propagate through a path, then it is called single
mode and when many rays propagate through different directions, it is called multimode.

16. What is the role of cladding in optical fiber?

An optical fiber consists of core which is surrounded by cladding. Here the role of
cladding is to make the light to suffer total internal reflection inside the fiber, satisfying the condition that
the light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
17. What are the ways in which an optical fiber is categorized? (or) How are fibers

classified?
Optical fibers are categorized based on (i) material (ii) Number of Modes
(iii) Refractive index profile
Based on material (a) Glass Fiber (b) Plastic Fiber
Based on Number of Modes (a) Single mode fiber (b) Multi mode fiber
Based on Refractive index profile (a) Step index fiber (b) Graded index fiber
18. Define Numerical Aperture.

Numerical Aperture (NA) is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle. If n1 and
n2 are the refractive index of the core and cladding respectively, NA =Sin θ0= (n12-n22)1/2
It is a measure of the amount of light that can be accepted by a fiber.
19. What is step index fiber?
In a step index fibre, core is having uniform refractive index . At core and cladding interface ,
refractive index suddenly decreases. Cladding is having uniform refractive index
20. What is graded index fiber?
Refractive index has maximum value at the centre of core. As radial distance from centre of core
increases, refractive index gradually decreases and at core and cladding interface refractive index of core
become equal to refractive index of cladding. Cladding is having uniform refractive index.
21. List the conditions to be satisfied for total internal reflection.
 (i) Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence (i ) on core should be greater than the critical angle ( Ic).
i.e. i> Ic
(iii) The refractive index of the core (n1) should be greater than the refractive index of
the cladding (n2).
i.e. n1> n2
22. Give application of fiber endoscope.
(i) Fiber optic endoscopes are used in medical diagnosis.
(ii) It is used to visualize the inner organs of the body.
(iii) Fiber optic endoscopes are used in various medical fields such as cardioscopy,
Laproscopy, Cytoscopy etc.

23. Distinguish between interference and diffraction.

Ans. The difference between interference and diffraction are as follows:
Diffraction Interference

It is the phenomenon of interaction of light coming

It is the phenomenon of interaction of light
from different parts of the same wave front. coming from two different wave fronts
originating from two coherent sources.

Diffraction fringes are not of the same width.

Interference fringes may or may not be of the same
width.

Points of minimum intensity are not perfectly

Points
dark.of minimum intensity are perfectly dark.

All bright bands are not of the same intensity.

All bright bands are of uniform intensity.

24. What do you understand by coherent source?

Ans. Coherent source are sources which emit waves of the same frequency and possess a constant phase
difference (i.e phase difference remains constant with time). Since two independent sources can never be
coherent so coherent sources are obtained from a source by division of wave front or division of
amplitude techniques.
25. What should be the path difference between two interfering waves for constructive interference and
destructive interference?
Ans. In constructive interference, the path difference between two interfering waves should be integral
multiple of wavelength λ. i.e. x=nλ where n= 0,1,2,3,……………… Similarly, in destructive
interference, the path difference between two interfering waves should be an odd half-integral multiple of
wavelength λ. i.e. x=(2n + 1) λ /2 where n=0,1,2,……………
26 ) Explain Interference
Ans. The phenomenon of modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition of
waves is known as interference. In constructive interference, the path difference(x) between two
interfering waves should be integral multiple of wavelength λ.
i.e. x=nλ where n= 0,1,2,3,………………Similarly, in destructive interference, the path difference
(x)between two interfering waves should be an odd half-integral multiple of wavelength λ. i.e. x= (2n +
1) λ /2 where n=0,1,2,……………
27) Explain diffraction
Ans. Bending of light ray at narrow obstacle whose size is comparable to wavelength of light is known as
diffraction.
28 ) Explain plane transmission grating
Ans. It consists of a number of parallel slits of equal width ‘e’ and separated by equal opaque spaces ‘d’.
A diffraction grating can be constructed by drawing a number of parallel lines by using a fine diamond
point on a thin transparent material like glass .(e+d) is known as grating element. 1/(e+d) represents
number of lines per unit distance.

UNIT-2 (CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND ULTRASONICS)

1. What is meant by crystalline solids?
Crystalline solids have regular periodic arrangement of atoms. Their properties varies with
direction. Hence they are called as anisotropic substances. They have sharp melting points. Examples are
copper, silver ,aluminium, sodium chloride.
2.What is meant by amorphous solids?
They do not have regular periodic arrangement of atoms. Their properties do not vary with
direction. Hence they are called as isotropic substances . they have wide range of melting points.
Examples are glass, plastic, rubber etc
3. What is meant by space lattice?
It is an infinite array of points in three dimensions in which every point has surroundings identical to

that of every other point in the array.

4.What is meant by basis?
Each point in the space lattice is associated with one atom or group of atoms. That atom or group
of atoms is called as basis. space lattice + Basis = crystal structure

5.Explain unit cell and primitive cell

Unit cell is the smallest geometrical figure repetition of which in three dimensional space gives
entire crystal structure. if unit cell contains one atom it is called as primitive cell.
6. Explain lattice parameters

a,b,c,α,β,γ are called as lattice parameters. a,b, c are length of unit cell along three
crystallographic axes. They are called as primitives. α,β,γ are angles between three crystallographic
axes and they are called as interfacial angles. Lattice parameters are required to decide type of crystal
system of a given crystal.
7) What is meant by Bravais lattices?
 space lattice is an infinite array of points in three dimensions in which each point has identical
environment. Bravais found that there are fourteen different types of space lattices. They are called as
Bravais lattices.
8)Define nearest neighboring distance.
It is half of the distance between centers of two nearest neighboring atoms
9) Define atomic radius
It is half of the distance between two nearest neighboring atoms in a crystal.

10) Define coordination number

It is number of equidistant nearest neighboring atoms an atom has in a given crystal structure .
The co-ordination number for Simple cubic is 6, for BCC it is 8 and for FCC it is 12.
11) Define atomic packing factor
It is the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms in an unit cell to the total volume of unit cell.
packing fraction = total volume of atoms in an unit cell / volume of unit cell.
The packing fraction for Simple cubic is 0.52, for BCC it is 0.68 and for FCC it is 0.74
12. What is meant by closely packed structure? Give an example.
Closely packed structure has the highest packing fraction of 0.74. Here the atoms are closely
packed and small vacant space is available in the structure. Example: Face centered cubic
structure(copper, gold, silver, Aluminium) & hexagonal closely packed structure (Magnesium, zinc,
cadmium)

13.What are Miller indices?

Miller indices are three small integers which have same ratio as that of reciprocals of intercepts of
the plane on three crystallographic axes.
14. What is Bragg’s law ?
According to Bragg’s law 2d sin θ = n λ .
d = interplanar distance , n = Order of diffraction , λ = wavelength of incident radiation .
When X rays passes through a crystal ,they under go diffraction into different directions .
Crystal planes which satisfy Bragg’s law produce maximum reflections . Crystal planes which do
not satisfy Bragg’s law produce feeble reflections .
15 What are ultrasonics ?
The sound waves having frequencies above audible range are known as ultrasonic waves.
16 Explain their properties of Ultrasonic waves:

1) Ultrasonic waves are highly energetic, high frequency inaudible sound waves .
 2) They shown negligible diffraction due to their small wavelength.
3) They require material medium for their propagation.
4) During their propagation, they are reflected, scattered, refracted and diffracted
5) They set up standing waves in liquid baths and in turn produces an acoustical grating.
17. Explain piezo- electric effect

When crystals like quartz, rochellesalt, tourmaline, etc undergo mechanical deformation along
the mechanical axis then an electric potential difference is produced along electric axis perpendicular to
mechanical axis.
18. Explain inverse piezoelectric effect.
When an alternating potential difference is applied along the electrical axis, the crystal is set into
elastic vibrations along the mechanical axis. This is known as inverse piezoelectric effect.
19 . What is meant by non destructive testing method ?
The method of detecting the defects (flaws) inside the material without disturbing material
properties is known as nondestructive testing method . Ultrasonic waves were extensively used for
nondestructive testing of the materials .
20 . Explain the detection of Ultrasonic waves using sensitive flame method .
When a narrow sensitive flame is moved in a medium where ultrasonic waves are present . the
flame remains stationary at antinodes and flickers at nodes . Hence this method can be used to detect
ultrasonic waves .