Python is a simple, easy to learn, powerful, high level and object-oriented programming

language.

Python is an interpreted scripting language also. Guido Van Rossum is known as the founder of
python programming.

Python is a general purpose, dynamic, high level and interpreted programming language.

It supports Object Oriented programming approach to develop applications. It is simple and easy
to learn and provides lots of high-level data structures.

Python is easy to learn yet powerful and versatile scripting language which makes it attractive
for Application Development.

Python's syntax and dynamic typing with its interpreted nature, makes it an ideal language for
scripting and rapid application development.

Python supports multiple programming pattern, including object oriented, imperative and
functional or procedural programming styles.

Python is not intended to work on special area such as web programming. That is why it is
known as multipurpose because it can be used with web, enterprise, 3D CAD etc.

We don't need to use data types to declare variable because it is dynamically typed so we can
write a=10 to assign an integer value in an integer variable.

Python makes the development and debugging fast because there is no compilation step included
in python development and edit-test-debug cycle is very fast.

Python Features

Python provides lots of features that are listed below.

1) Easy to Learn and Use

Python is easy to learn and use. It is developer-friendly and high level programming language.

2) Expressive Language

Python language is more expressive means that it is more understandable and readable.
3) Interpreted Language

Python is an interpreted language i.e. interpreter executes the code line by line at a time. This
makes debugging easy and thus suitable for beginners.

4) Cross-platform Language

Python can run equally on different platforms such as Windows, Linux, Unix and Macintosh etc.
So, we can say that Python is a portable language.

5) Free and Open Source

Python language is freely available at offical web address.The source-code is also available.
Therefore it is open source.

6) Object-Oriented Language

Python supports object oriented language and concepts of classes and objects come into
existence.

7) Extensible

It implies that other languages such as C/C++ can be used to compile the code and thus it can be
used further in our python code.

8) Large Standard Library

Python has a large and broad library and prvides rich set of module and functions for rapid
application development.

9) GUI Programming Support

Graphical user interfaces can be developed using Python.

10) Integrated

It can be easily integrated with languages like C, C++, JAVA etc.

Python Applications

Python is known for its general purpose nature that makes it applicable in almost each domain of
software development. Python as a whole can be used in any sphere of development.

Here, we are specifying applications areas where python can be applied.

1) Web Applications

We can use Python to develop web applications. It provides libraries to handle internet protocols
such as HTML and XML, JSON, Email processing, request, beautifulSoup, Feedparser etc. It
also provides Frameworks such as Django, Pyramid, Flask etc to design and delelop web based
applications. Some important developments are: PythonWikiEngines, Pocoo,
PythonBlogSoftware etc.

2) Desktop GUI Applications

Python provides Tk GUI library to develop user interface in python based application. Some
other useful toolkits wxWidgets, Kivy, pyqt that are useable on several platforms. The Kivy is
popular for writing multitouch applications.

3) Software Development

Python is helpful for software development process. It works as a support language and can be
used for build control and management, testing etc.

4) Scientific and Numeric

Python is popular and widely used in scientific and numeric computing. Some useful library and
package are SciPy, Pandas, IPython etc. SciPy is group of packages of engineering, science and
mathematics.

5) Business Applications

Python is used to build Bussiness applications like ERP and e-commerce systems. Tryton is a
high level application platform.
6) Console Based Application

We can use Python to develop console based applications. For example: IPython.

7) Audio or Video based Applications

Python is awesome to perform multiple tasks and can be used to develop multimedia
applications. Some of real applications are: TimPlayer, cplay etc.

8) 3D CAD Applications

To create CAD application. Fandango is a real application which provides full features of CAD.

9) Enterprise Applications

Python can be used to create applications which can be used within an Enterprise or an
Organization. Some real time applications are: OpenErp, Tryton, Picalo etc.

10) Applications for Images

Using Python several application can be developed for image. Applications developed are:
VPython, Gogh, imgSeek etc.

There are several such applications which can be developed using Python

Installation on Windows

Visit the link https://www.python.org/downloads/ to download the latest release of Python.

Python provides us the two ways to run a program:

o Using Interactive interpreter prompt

o Using a script file

Python provides us the feature to execute the python statement one by one at the interactive
prompt. It is preferable in the case where we are concerned about the output of each line of
our python program.

o To open the interactive mode, open the terminal (or command prompt) and type python

Using a script file

Interpreter prompt is good to run the individual statements of the code. However, we can not
write the code every-time on the terminal.

We need to write our code into a file which can be executed later. For this purpose, open an
editor like notepad, create a file named first.py (python used .py extension) and write the
following code in it.

Print ("hello world"); #here, we have used print() function to print the message on the console.

To run this file named as first.py, we need to run the following command on the terminal.
 On Windows, we have an alternative like notepad or notepad++ to edit the code. However, these
editors are not used as IDE for python since they are unable to show the syntax related
suggestions.

JetBrains provides the most popular and a widely used cross-platform IDE PyCharm to run the
python programs.

Spider is python that comes with Anaconda distribution.

Anaconda Distribution

The Most Trusted Distribution for Data Science.

Anaconda® is a package manager, an environment manager, a Python/R data science
distribution, and a collection of over 1,500+ open source packages. Anaconda is free and easy to
install.

Packages available in Anaconda

 Over 200 packages are automatically installed with Anaconda.

 Over 2000 additional open source packages (including R) can be individually installed
from the Anaconda repository with the conda install command.
 Thousands of other packages are available from Anaconda Cloud.
 You can download other packages using the pip install command that is installed with
Anaconda.
 You can also make your own custom packages using the conda build command, and you
can share them with others by uploading them to Anaconda Cloud, PyPi or other
repositories.

Download Anaconda from : https://www.anaconda.com/distribution/

Python Variables

Variable is a name which is used to refer memory location. Variable also known as identifier and
used to hold value.

In Python, we don't need to specify the type of variable because Python is a type infer language
and smart enough to get variable type.

Variable names can be a group of both letters and digits, but they have to begin with a letter or
an underscore.

It is recomended to use lowercase letters for variable name. Rahul and rahul both are two
different variables.
Identifier Naming

Variables are the example of identifiers. An Identifier is used to identify the literals used in the
program. The rules to name an identifier are given below.

o The first character of the variable must be an alphabet or underscore ( _ ).

o All the characters except the first character may be an alphabet of lower-case(a-z), upper-
case (A-Z), underscore or digit (0-9).
o Identifier name must not contain any white-space, or special character (!, @, #, %, ^, &,
*).
o Identifier name must not be similar to any keyword defined in the language.
o Identifier names are case sensitive for example my name, and MyName is not the same.
o Examples of valid identifiers : a123, _n, n_9, etc.
o Examples of invalid identifiers: 1a, n%4, n 9, etc.

Declaring Variable and Assigning Values

Python does not bound us to declare variable before using in the application. It allows us to
create variable at required time.

We don't need to declare explicitly variable in Python. When we assign any value to the variable
that variable is declared automatically.

The equal (=) operator is used to assign value to a variable.

 Multiple Assignment

Python allows us to assign a value to multiple variables in a single statement which is also
known as multiple assignment.

We can apply multiple assignments in two ways either by assigning a single value to multiple
variables or assigning multiple values to multiple variables. Lets see given examples.

1. Assigning single value to multiple variables

Eg:

1. x=y=z=50
2. print x
3. print y
4. print z

Output:

1. >>>
2. 50
3. 50
4. 50
5. >>>

2.Assigning multiple values to multiple variables:

Eg:

1. a,b,c=5,10,15
2. print a
3. print b
4. print c

Output:

1. >>>
2. 5
3. 10
4. 15
5. >>>

The values will be assigned in the order in which variables appears.

 Basic Fundamentals:

This section contains the basic fundamentals of Python like :

i)Tokens and their types.

ii) Comments

a)Tokens:

o Tokens can be defined as a punctuator mark, reserved words and each individual word in
a statement.
o Token is the smallest unit inside the given program.

There are following tokens in Python:

o Keywords.
o Identifiers.
o Literals.
o Operators.

Tuples:
o Tuple is another form of collection where different type of data can be stored.
o It is similar to list where data is separated by commas. Only the difference is that list uses
square bracket and tuple uses parenthesis.
o Tuples are enclosed in parenthesis and cannot be changed.

Eg:

1. >>> tuple=('rahul',100,60.4,'deepak')
2. >>> tuple1=('sanjay',10)
3. >>> tuple
4. ('rahul', 100, 60.4, 'deepak')
5. >>> tuple[2:]
6. (60.4, 'deepak')
7. >>> tuple1[0]
8. 'sanjay'
9. >>> tuple+tuple1
10. ('rahul', 100, 60.4, 'deepak', 'sanjay', 10)
11. >>>
 Dictionary:
o Dictionary is a collection which works on a key-value pair.
o It works like an associated array where no two keys can be same.
o Dictionaries are enclosed by curly braces ({}) and values can be retrieved by square
bracket ([]).

Eg:

1. >>> dictionary={'name':'charlie','id':100,'dept':'it'}
2. >>> dictionary
3. {'dept': 'it', 'name': 'charlie', 'id': 100}
4. >>> dictionary.keys()
5. ['dept', 'name', 'id']
6. >>> dictionary.values()
7. ['it', 'charlie', 100]
8. >>>

Python Data Types

Variables can hold values of different data types. Python is a dynamically typed language hence
we need not define the type of the variable while declaring it. The interpreter implicitly binds the
value with its type.

Python enables us to check the type of the variable used in the program. Python provides us
the type() function which returns the type of the variable passed.

Consider the following example to define the values of different data types and checking its type.

1. A=10
2. b="Hi Python"
3. c = 10.5
4. print(type(a));
5. print(type(b));
6. print(type(c));

Output:

<type 'int'>
<type 'str'>
 <type 'float'>

Standard data types

A variable can hold different types of values. For example, a person?s name must be stored as a
string whereas its id must be stored as an integer.

Python provides various standard data types that define the storage method on each of them. The
data types defined in Python are given below.

1. Numbers
2. String
3. List
4. Tuple
5. Dictionary

Numbers

Number stores numeric values. Python creates Number objects when a number is assigned to a
variable. For example;

1. a = 3 , b = 5 #a and b are number objects

Python supports 4 types of numeric data.

1. int (signed integers like 10, 2, 29, etc.)

2. long (long integers used for a higher range of values like 908090800L, -0x1929292L,
etc.)
3. float (float is used to store floating point numbers like 1.9, 9.902, 15.2, etc.)
4. complex (complex numbers like 2.14j, 2.0 + 2.3j, etc.)

Python allows us to use a lower-case L to be used with long integers. However, we must always
use an upper-case L to avoid confusion.

A complex number contains an ordered pair, i.e., x + iy where x and y denote the real and
imaginary parts respectively).

String

The string can be defined as the sequence of characters represented in the quotation marks. In
python, we can use single, double, or triple quotes to define a string.
 String handling in python is a straightforward task since there are various inbuilt functions and
operators provided.

In the case of string handling, the operator + is used to concatenate two strings as the
operation "hello"+" python" returns "hello python".

The operator * is known as repetition operator as the operation "Python " *2 returns "Python
Python ".

The following example illustrates the string handling in python.

1. str1 = 'hello the World of Python

2. ' #string str1
3. str2 = ' how are you' #string str2
4. print (str1[0:2]) #printing first two character using slice operator
5. print (str1[4]) #printing 4th character of the string
6. print (str1*2) #printing the string twice
7. print (str1 + str2) #printing the concatenation of str1 and str2

List
Lists are similar to arrays in C. However; the list can contain data of different types. The items
stored in the list are separated with a comma (,) and enclosed within square brackets [].

We can use slice [:] operators to access the data of the list. The concatenation operator (+) and
repetition operator (*) works with the list in the same way as they were working with the strings.

Consider the following example.

1. l = [1, "hi", "python", 2]

2. print (l[3:]);
3. print (l[0:2]);
4. print (l);
5. print (l + l);
6. print (l * 3);

Output:

[2]
[1, 'hi']
[1, 'hi', 'python', 2]
[1, 'hi', 'python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'python', 2]
[1, 'hi', 'python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'python', 2]
 Tuple

A tuple is similar to the list in many ways. Like lists, tuples also contain the collection of the
items of different data types. The items of the tuple are separated with a comma (,) and enclosed
in parentheses ().

A tuple is a read-only data structure as we can't modify the size and value of the items of a tuple.

Let's see a simple example of the tuple.

1. t = ("hi", "python", 2)
2. print (t[1:]);
3. print (t[0:1]);
4. print (t);
5. print (t + t);
6. print (t * 3);
7. print (type(t))
8. t[2] = "hi";

Output:

('python', 2)
('hi',)
('hi', 'python', 2)
('hi', 'python', 2, 'hi', 'python', 2)
('hi', 'python', 2, 'hi', 'python', 2, 'hi', 'python', 2)
<type 'tuple'>
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "main.py", line 8, in <module>
t[2] = "hi";
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

Dictionary

Dictionary is an ordered set of a key-value pair of items. It is like an associative array or a hash
table where each key stores a specific value. Key can hold any primitive data type whereas value
is an arbitrary Python object.

The items in the dictionary are separated with the comma and enclosed in the curly braces {}.

Consider the following example.

1. d = {1:'Jimmy', 2:'Alex', 3:'john', 4:'mike'};

2. print("1st name is "+d[1]);
3. print("2nd name is "+ d[4]);
4. print (d);
5. print (d.keys());
6. print (d.values());

Output:

1st name is Jimmy

2nd name is mike
{1: 'Jimmy', 2: 'Alex', 3: 'john', 4: 'mike'}
[1, 2, 3, 4]
['Jimmy', 'Alex', 'john', 'mike']

Python Literals

Literals can be defined as a data that is given in a variable or constant.

Python support the following literals:

I. String literals:

String literals can be formed by enclosing a text in the quotes. We can use both single as well as
double quotes for a String.

Eg:

"Aman" , '12345'
 Types of Strings:

There are two types of Strings supported in Python:

a).Single line String- Strings that are terminated within a single line are known as Single line
Strings.

Eg:

1. >>> text1='hello'

b).Multi line String- A piece of text that is spread along multiple lines is known as Multiple line
String.

There are two ways to create Multiline Strings:

1). Adding black slash at the end of each line.

Eg:

1. >>> text1='hello\
2. user'
3. >>> text1
4. 'hellouser'
5. >>>

2).Using triple quotation marks:-

Eg:

1. >>> str2='''welcome
2. to
3. SSSIT'''
4. >>> print str2
5. welcome
6. to
7. SSSIT
8. >>>

III. Boolean literals:

A Boolean literal can have any of the two values: True or False.
 IV. Special literals.

Python contains one special literal i.e., None.

None is used to specify to that field that is not created. It is also used for end of lists in Python.

Eg:

1. >>> val1=10
2. >>> val2=None
3. >>> val1
4. 10
5. >>> val2
6. >>> print val2
7. None
8. >>>

V.Literal Collections.

Collections such as tuples, lists and Dictionary are used in Python.

List:

o List contain items of different data types. Lists are mutable i.e., modifiable.
o The values stored in List are separated by commas(,) and enclosed within a square
brackets([]). We can store different type of data in a List.
o Value stored in a List can be retrieved using the slice operator([] and [:]).
o The plus sign (+) is the list concatenation and asterisk(*) is the repetition operator.

Eg:

1. >>> list=['aman',678,20.4,'saurav']
2. >>> list1=[456,'rahul']
3. >>> list
4. ['aman', 678, 20.4, 'saurav']
5. >>> list[1:3]
6. [678, 20.4]
7. >>> list+list1
8. ['aman', 678, 20.4, 'saurav', 456, 'rahul']
9. >>> list1*2
10. [456, 'rahul', 456, 'rahul']
11. >>>

Python Operators

The operator can be defined as a symbol which is responsible for a particular operation between
two operands. Operators are the pillars of a program on which the logic is built in a particular
programming language. Python provides a variety of operators described as follows.

o Arithmetic operators
o Comparison operators
o Assignment Operators
o Logical Operators
o Bitwise Operators
o Membership Operators
o Identity Operators

Arithmetic operators

Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic operations between two operands. It includes
+(addition), - (subtraction), *(multiplication), /(divide), %(reminder), //(floor division), and
exponent (**).

Consider the following table for a detailed explanation of arithmetic operators.

Operator Description

+ (Addition) It is used to add two operands. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a+b = 30

- (Subtraction) It is used to subtract the second operand from the first operand. If the first operand
is less than the second operand, the value result negative. For example, if a = 20, b
= 10 => a ? b = 10
 / (divide) It returns the quotient after dividing the first operand by the second operand. For
example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a/b = 2

* It is used to multiply one operand with the other. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 =>
(Multiplication) a * b = 200

% (reminder) It returns the reminder after dividing the first operand by the second operand. For
example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a%b = 0

** (Exponent) It is an exponent operator represented as it calculates the first operand power to

second operand.

// (Floor It gives the floor value of the quotient produced by dividing the two operands.
division)

Comparison operator

Comparison operators are used to comparing the value of the two operands and returns boolean
true or false accordingly. The comparison operators are described in the following table.

following table.

Operator Description

== If the value of two operands is equal, then the condition becomes true.

!= If the value of two operands is not equal then the condition becomes true.

<= If the first operand is less than or equal to the second operand, then the condition
becomes true.

>= If the first operand is greater than or equal to the second operand, then the condition
becomes true.

<> If the value of two operands is not equal, then the condition becomes true.
 > If the first operand is greater than the second operand, then the condition becomes true.

< If the first operand is less than the second operand, then the condition becomes true.

Python assignment operators

The assignment operators are used to assign the value of the right expression to the left operand.
The assignment operators are described in the following table.

Operator Description

= It assigns the the value of the right expression to the left operand.

+= It increases the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand and
assign the modified value back to left operand. For example, if a = 10, b = 20
=> a+ = b will be equal to a = a+ b and therefore, a = 30.

-= It decreases the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand and
assign the modified value back to left operand. For example, if a = 20, b = 10
=> a- = b will be equal to a = a- b and therefore, a = 10.

*= It multiplies the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand
and assign the modified value back to left operand. For example, if a = 10, b
= 20 => a* = b will be equal to a = a* b and therefore, a = 200.

%= It divides the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand and
assign the reminder back to left operand. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a
% = b will be equal to a = a % b and therefore, a = 0.

**= a**=b will be equal to a=a**b, for example, if a = 4, b =2, a**=b will assign
4**2 = 16 to a.

//= A//=b will be equal to a = a// b, for example, if a = 4, b = 3, a//=b will assign
 4//3 = 1 to a.

Logical Operators

The logical operators are used primarily in the expression evaluation to make a decision. Python
supports the following logical operators.

Operator Description

and If both the expression are true, then the condition will be true. If a and b are the two
expressions, a → true, b → true => a and b → true.

or If one of the expressions is true, then the condition will be true. If a and b are the two
expressions, a → true, b → false => a or b → true.

not If an expression a is true then not (a) will be false and vice versa.

Membership Operators

Python membership operators are used to check the membership of value inside a data structure.
If the value is present in the data structure, then the resulting value is true otherwise it returns
false.

Operator Description

in It is evaluated to be true if the first operand is found in the second operand (list, tuple, or dictionary).

not in It is evaluated to be true if the first operand is not found in the second operand (list, tuple, or
dictionary).
 Identity Operators

Operator Description

is It is evaluated to be true if the reference present at both sides point to the same object.

is not It is evaluated to be true if the reference present at both side do not point to the same object.

Operator Precedence

The precedence of the operators is important to find out since it enables us to know which
operator should be evaluated first. The precedence table of the operators in python is given
below.

Operator Description

** The exponent operator is given priority over all the others used in the
expression.

~+- The negation, unary plus and minus.

* / % // The multiplication, divide, modules, reminder, and floor division.

+- Binary plus and minus

>> << Left shift and right shift

& Binary and.

^| Binary xor and or

 <= < > >= Comparison operators (less then, less then equal to, greater then, greater then
equal to).

<> == != Equality operators.

= %= /= //= -= Assignment operators

+=
*= **=

is is not Identity operators

in not in Membership operators

not or and Logical operators

Python Comments

Comments in Python can be used to explain any program code. It can also be used to hide the
code as well.

Comments are the most helpful stuff of any program. It enables us to understand the way, a
program works. In python, any statement written along with # symbol is known as a comment.
The interpreter does not interpret the comment.

Comment is not a part of the program, but it enhances the interactivity of the program and makes
the program readable.

Python supports two types of comments:

1) Single Line Comment:

In case user wants to specify a single line comment, then comment must start with ?#?

Eg:

1. # This is single line comment.

2. print "Hello Python"
 Output:

Hello Python

2) Multi Line Comment:

Multi lined comment can be given inside triple quotes.

eg:

1. ''''' This
2. Is
3. Multipline comment'''

eg:

1. #single line comment

2. print "Hello Python"
3. '''''This is
4. multiline comment'''’’’

Output:

Hello Python

Python If-else statements

Decision making is the most important aspect of almost all the programming languages. As the
name implies, decision making allows us to run a particular block of code for a particular
decision. Here, the decisions are made on the validity of the particular conditions. Condition
checking is the backbone of decision making.

In python, decision making is performed by the following statements.

Statement Description

If Statement The if statement is used to test a specific condition. If the condition is true, a block of
code (if-block) will be executed.

If - else The if-else statement is similar to if statement except the fact that, it also provides the
Statement block of the code for the false case of the condition to be checked. If the condition
provided in the if statement is false, then the else statement will be executed.

Nested if Nested if statements enable us to use if ? else statement inside an outer if statement.
Statement

Indentation in Python

For the ease of programming and to achieve simplicity, python doesn't allow the use of
parentheses for the block level code. In Python, indentation is used to declare a block. If two
statements are at the same indentation level, then they are the part of the same block.

Generally, four spaces are given to indent the statements which are a typical amount of
indentation in python.

Indentation is the most used part of the python language since it declares the block of code. All
the statements of one block are intended at the same level indentation. We will see how the
actual indentation takes place in decision making and other stuff in python.
 The if statement

The if statement is used to test a particular condition and if the condition is true, it executes a
block of code known as if-block. The condition of if statement can be any valid logical
expression which can be either evaluated to true or false.

The syntax of the if-statement is given below.

1. if expression:
2. statement

Example 1
1. num = int(input("enter the number?"))
2. if num%2 == 0:
3. print("Number is even")
 Output:

enter the number?10

Number is even

Example 2 : Program to print the largest of the three numbers.

1. a = int(input("Enter a? "));
2. b = int(input("Enter b? "));
3. c = int(input("Enter c? "));
4. if a>b and a>c:
5. print("a is largest");
6. if b>a and b>c:
7. print("b is largest");
8. if c>a and c>b:
9. print("c is largest");

Output:

Enter a? 100
Enter b? 120
Enter c? 130
c is largest

The if-else statement

The if-else statement provides an else block combined with the if statement which is executed in
the false case of the condition.

If the condition is true, then the if-block is executed. Otherwise, the else-block is executed.
 The syntax of the if-else statement is given below.

1. if condition:
2. #block of statements
3. else:
4. #another block of statements (else-block)

Example 1 : Program to check whether a person is eligible to vote or not.

1. age = int (input("Enter your age? "))
2. if age>=18:
3. print("You are eligible to vote !!");
4. else:
5. print("Sorry! you have to wait !!");

Output:

Enter your age? 90

You are eligible to vote !!

Example 2: Program to check whether a number is even or not.

1. num = int(input("enter the number?"))
2. if num%2 == 0:
3. print("Number is even...")
4. else:
5. print("Number is odd...")

Output:

enter the number?10

Number is even

The elif statement

The elif statement enables us to check multiple conditions and execute the specific block of
statements depending upon the true condition among them. We can have any number of elif
statements in our program depending upon our need. However, using elif is optional.

The elif statement works like an if-else-if ladder statement in C. It must be succeeded by an if
statement.

The syntax of the elif statement is given below.

1. if expression 1:
2. # block of statements
3.
4. elif expression 2:
5. # block of statements
6.
7. elif expression 3:
8. # block of statements
9.
10. else:
11. # block of statements
 Example 1
1. number = int(input("Enter the number?"))
2. if number==10:
3. print("number is equals to 10")
4. elif number==50:
5. print("number is equal to 50");
6. elif number==100:
7. print("number is equal to 100");
8. else:
9. print("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");

Output:

Enter the number?15

number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100

Example 2
marks = int(input("Enter the marks? "))
if marks > 85 and marks <= 100:
print("Congrats ! you scored grade A ...")
elif marks > 60 and marks <= 85:
print("You scored grade B + ...")
elif marks > 40 and marks <= 60:
print("You scored grade B ...")
elif (marks > 30 and marks <= 40):
print("You scored grade C ...")
else:
print("Sorry you are fail ?")

Python Loops

The flow of the programs written in any programming language is sequential by default.
Sometimes we may need to alter the flow of the program. The execution of a specific code may
need to be repeated several numbers of times.

For this purpose, The programming languages provide various types of loops which are capable
of repeating some specific code several numbers of times. Consider the following diagram to
understand the working of a loop statement.
Why we use loops in python?

The looping simplifies the complex problems into the easy ones. It enables us to alter the flow of
the program so that instead of writing the same code again and again, we can repeat the same
code for a finite number of times. For example, if we need to print the first 10 natural numbers
then, instead of using the print statement 10 times, we can print inside a loop which runs up to 10
iterations.

Advantages of loops

There are the following advantages of loops in Python.

1. It provides code re-usability.

2. Using loops, we do not need to write the same code again and again.
3. Using loops, we can traverse over the elements of data structures ( lists, tuples,
dictionaries).

There are the following loop statements in Python.

Loop Description
Statement

for loop The for loop is used in the case where we need to execute some part of the code
until the given condition is satisfied. The for loop is also called as a per-tested loop.
It is better to use for loop if the number of iteration is known in advance.

while loop The while loop is to be used in the scenario where we don't know the number of
iterations in advance. The block of statements is executed in the while loop until
the condition specified in the while loop is satisfied. It is also called a pre-tested
loop.

do-while The do-while loop continues until a given condition satisfies. It is also called post
loop tested loop. It is used when it is necessary to execute the loop at least once (mostly
menu driven programs).

The print() function inserts a new line at the end, by default. In Python 2, it can be suppressed
by putting ',' at the end. In Python 3, "end =' '" appends space instead of newline.

The print Function

Most notable and most widely known change in Python 3 is how the printfunction is used. Use
of parenthesis () with print function is now mandatory. It was optional in Python 2.

print "Hello World" #is acceptable in Python 2

print ("Hello World") # in Python 3, print must be followed by ()

The print() function inserts a new line at the end, by default In Python 3, "end =' '" appends
space instead of newline.

print x, # Trailing comma suppresses newline in Python 2

print(x, end=" ") # Appends a space instead of a newline in Python 3

Python for loop

 The for loop in Python is used to iterate the statements or a part of the program several times. It
is frequently used to traverse the data structures like list, tuple, or dictionary.

The syntax of for loop in python is given below.

1. for iterating_var in sequence:

2. statement(s)
 Example
1. i=1
2. n=int(input("Enter the number up to which you want to print the natural numbers?"))
3. for i in range(0,10):
4. print(i,end = ' ')

Output:

0123456789

Python for loop example : printing the table of the given number
1. i=1;
2. num = int(input("Enter a number:"));
3. for i in range(1,11):
4. print("%d X %d = %d"%(num,i,num*i));

Output:

Enter a number:10
10 X 1 = 10
10 X 2 = 20
10 X 3 = 30
10 X 4 = 40
10 X 5 = 50
10 X 6 = 60
10 X 7 = 70
10 X 8 = 80
10 X 9 = 90
10 X 10 = 100

Nested for loop in python

Python allows us to nest any number of for loops inside a for loop. The inner loop is executed n
number of times for every iteration of the outer loop. The syntax of the nested for loop in python
is given below.

1. for iterating_var1 in sequence:

2. for iterating_var2 in sequence:
3. #block of statements
4. #Other statements
 Example 1
1. n = int(input("Enter the number of rows you want to print?"))
2. i,j=0,0
3. for i in range(0,n):
4. print()
5. for j in range(0,i+1):
6. print("*",end="")

Output:

Enter the number of rows you want to print?5

*
**
***
****
*****

# Program to multiply two matrices using nested loops

# take a 3x3 matrix

A = [[12, 7, 3],
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]]

# take a 3x4 matrix

B = [[5, 8, 1, 2],
[6, 7, 3, 0],
[4, 5, 9, 1]]

result = [[0, 0, 0, 0],

[0, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 0]]

# iterating by row of A
for i in range(len(A)):

# iterating by coloum by B
for j in range(len(B[0])):

# iterating by rows of B
for k in range(len(B)):
result[i][j] += A[i][k] * B[k][j]

for r in result:
print(r)
Output:
 [114, 160, 60, 27]
[74, 97, 73, 14]
[119, 157, 112, 23]

Using else statement with for loop

Unlike other languages like C, C++, or Java, python allows us to use the else statement with the
for loop which can be executed only when all the iterations are exhausted. Here, we must notice
that if the loop contains any of the break statement then the else statement will not be executed.

Example 1
1. for i in range(0,5):
2. print(i)
3. else:print("for loop completely exhausted, since there is no break.");

In the above example, for loop is executed completely since there is no break statement in the
loop. The control comes out of the loop and hence the else block is executed.

Output:

0
1
2
3
4

for loop completely exhausted, since there is no break.

Example 2
1. for i in range(0,5):
2. print(i)
3. break;
4. else:print("for loop is exhausted");
5. print("The loop is broken due to break statement...came out of loop")

In the above example, the loop is broken due to break statement therefore the else statement will
not be executed. The statement present immediate next to else block will be executed.
 Output:

The loop is broken due to break statement...came out of loop

Python while loop

The while loop is also known as a pre-tested loop. In general, a while loop allows a part of
the code to be executed as long as the given condition is true.

It can be viewed as a repeating if statement. The while loop is mostly used in the case
where the number of iterations is not known in advance.

The syntax is given below.

1. while expression:
2. statements

Here, the statements can be a single statement or the group of statements. The expression
should be any valid python expression resulting into true or false. The true is any non-zero
value.
 Example 1
1. i=1;
2. while i<=10:
3. print(i);
4. i=i+1;

Output:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Example 2
i=1
number=0
b=9
number = int(input("Enter the number?"))
while i<=10:
print("%d X %d = %d \n"%(number,i,number*i));
i = i+1;

Output:

Enter the number?10

10 X 1 = 10

10 X 2 = 20

10 X 3 = 30

10 X 4 = 40

10 X 5 = 50

10 X 6 = 60

10 X 7 = 70

10 X 8 = 80

10 X 9 = 90

10 X 10 = 100

Infinite while loop

If the condition given in the while loop never becomes false then the while loop will never
terminate and result into the infinite while loop.

Any non-zero value in the while loop indicates an always-true condition whereas 0 indicates
the always-false condition. This type of approach is useful if we want our program to run
continuously in the loop without any disturbance.
 Example 1
1. while (1):
2. print("Hi! we are inside the infinite while loop");

Output:

Hi! we are inside the infinite while loop

(infinite times)

Example 2
1. var = 1
2. while var != 2:
3. i = int(input("Enter the number?"))
4. print ("Entered value is %d"%(i))

Output:

Enter the number?102

Entered value is 102
Enter the number?102
Entered value is 102
Enter the number?103
Entered value is 103
Enter the number?103
(infinite loop)

Using else with Python while loop

Python enables us to use the while loop with the while loop also. The else block is executed
when the condition given in the while statement becomes false. Like for loop, if the while
loop is broken using break statement, then the else block will not be executed and the
statement present after else block will be executed.

Consider the following example.

1. i=1;
2. while i<=5:
3. print(i)
4. i=i+1;
5. else:print("The while loop exhausted");

Output:

1
2
3
 4
5
The while loop exhausted

Example 2
1. i=1;
2. while i<=5:
3. print(i)
4. i=i+1;
5. if(i==3):
6. break;
7. else:print("The while loop exhausted");

Output:

1
2

Python break statement

The break is a keyword in python which is used to bring the program control out of the loop.
The break statement breaks the loops one by one, i.e., in the case of nested loops, it breaks
the inner loop first and then proceeds to outer loops. In other words, we can say that break
is used to abort the current execution of the program and the control goes to the next line
after the loop.

The break is commonly used in the cases where we need to break the loop for a given
condition.

The syntax of the break is given below.

1. #loop statements
2. break;
 Example 2
1. str = "python"
2. for i in str:
3. if i == 'o':
4. break
5. print(i);

Output:

p
y
t
h

Example 3: break statement with while loop

1. i = 0;
2. while 1:
3. print(i," ",end=""),
4. i=i+1;
5. if i == 10:
6. break;
7. print("came out of while loop");

Output:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 came out of while loop

Example 3: break statement with while loop

1. i = 0;
2. while 1:
3. print(i," ",end=""),
4. i=i+1;
5. if i == 10:
6. break;
7. print("came out of while loop");

Output:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 came out of while loop

Example 3
1. n=2
2. while 1:
3. i=1;
4. while i<=10:
5. print("%d X %d = %d\n"%(n,i,n*i));
6. i = i+1;
7. choice = int(input("Do you want to continue printing the table, press 0 for
no?"))
8. if choice == 0:
9. break;
10. n=n+1

Output:

Pass Statement
The pass statement is a null operation since nothing happens when it is executed. It is used
in the cases where a statement is syntactically needed but we don?t want to use any
executable statement at its place.

For example, it can be used while overriding a parent class method in the subclass but don't
want to give its specific implementation in the subclass.

Pass is also used where the code will be written somewhere but not yet written in the
program file.

The syntax of the pass statement is given below.

 Example
1. list = [1,2,3,4,5]
2. flag = 0
3. for i in list:
4. print("Current element:",i,end=" ");
5. if i==3:
6. pass;
7. print("\nWe are inside pass block\n");
8. flag = 1;
9. if flag==1:
10. print("\nCame out of pass\n");
11. flag=0;

Output:

Current element: 1 Current element: 2 Current element: 3

We are inside pass block

Came out of pass

Current element: 4 Current element: 5

Python Pass
In Python, pass keyword is used to execute nothing; it means, when we don't want to
execute code, the pass can be used to execute empty. It is same as the name refers to. It
just makes the control to pass by without executing any code. If we want to bypass any
code pass statement can be used.

Python Pass Syntax

1. pass

Python Pass Example

1. for i in [1,2,3,4,5]:
2. if i==3:
3. pass
4. print "Pass when value is",i
5. print i,

Output:

1. >>>
2. 1 2 Pass when value is 3
3. 3 4 5
4. >>>

Python String
Till now, we have discussed numbers as the standard data types in python. In this section of the
tutorial, we will discuss the most popular data type in python i.e., string.

In python, strings can be created by enclosing the character or the sequence of characters in the
quotes. Python allows us to use single quotes, double quotes, or triple quotes to create the string.

Consider the following example in python to create a string.

1. str = "Hi Python !"

Here, if we check the type of the variable str using a python script

1. print(type(str)), then it will print string (str).

In python, strings are treated as the sequence of strings which means that python doesn't support
the character data type instead a single character written as 'p' is treated as the string of length 1.

Strings indexing and splitting

Like other languages, the indexing of the python strings starts from 0. For example, The string
"HELLO" is indexed as given in the below figure.
As shown in python, the slice operator [] is used to access the individual characters of the string.
However, we can use the : (colon) operator in python to access the substring. Consider the
following example.
 Here, we must notice that the upper range given in the slice operator is always exclusive i.e., if
str = 'python' is given, then str[1:3] will always include str[1] = 'p', str[2] = 'y', str[3] = 't' and
nothing else.

Reassigning strings
Updating the content of the strings is as easy as assigning it to a new string. The string object
doesn't support item assignment i.e., A string can only be replaced with a new string since its
content can not be partially replaced. Strings are immutable in python.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. str = "HELLO"
2. str[0] = "h"
3. print(str)
 Output:

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "12.py", line 2, in <module>
str[0] = "h";
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

However, in example 1, the string str can be completely assigned to a new content as specified in
the following example.

Example 2
1. str = "HELLO"
2. print(str)
3. str = "hello"
4. print(str)

Output:

HELLO
hello

String Operators
Operator Description

+ It is known as concatenation operator used to join the strings given either side of the opera

* It is known as repetition operator. It concatenates the multiple copies of the same string.

[] It is known as slice operator. It is used to access the sub-strings of a particular string.

[:] It is known as range slice operator. It is used to access the characters from the specified ra

in It is known as membership operator. It returns if a particular sub-string is present in the sp

not in It is also a membership operator and does the exact reverse of in. It returns true if a partic
the specified string.
 r/R It is used to specify the raw string. Raw strings are used in the cases where we need to prin
characters such as "C://python". To define any string as a raw string, the character r or R is

% It is used to perform string formatting. It makes use of the format specifiers used in C prog
their values in python. We will discuss how formatting is done in python.

Example
Consider the following example to understand the real use of Python operators.

1. str = "Hello"
2. str1 = " world"
3. print(str*3) # prints HelloHelloHello
4. print(str+str1)# prints Hello world
5. print(str[4]) # prints o
6. print(str[2:4]); # prints ll
7. print('w' in str) # prints false as w is not present in str
8. print('wo' not in str1) # prints false as wo is present in str1.
9. print(r'C://python37') # prints C://python37 as it is written
10.print("The string str : %s"%(str)) # prints The string str : Hello

Output:

HelloHelloHello
Hello world
o
ll
False
False
C://python37
The string str : Hello

Python Formatting operator

Python allows us to use the format specifiers used in C's printf statement. The format specifiers
in python are treated in the same way as they are treated in C. However, Python provides an
additional operator % which is used as an interface between the format specifiers and their
values. In other words, we can say that it binds the format specifiers to the values.

Consider the following example.

1. Integer = 10;
2. Float = 1.290
3. String = "Ayush"
4. print("Hi I am Integer ... My value is %d\nHi I am float ... My value is %f\nHi I am
string ... My value is %s"%(Integer,Float,String));

Output:

Hi I am Integer ... My value is 10

Hi I am float ... My value is 1.290000
Hi I am string ... My value is Ayush

Built-in String functions

Python provides various in-built functions that are used for string handling. Many String fun

Method Description

capitalize() It capitalizes the first character of the String. This

function is deprecated in python3

casefold() It returns a version of s suitable for case-less

comparisons.

center(width ,fillchar) It returns a space padded string with the original

string centred with equal number of left and right
spaces.

count(string,begin,end) It counts the number of occurrences of a substring in

a String between begin and end index.

decode(encoding = 'UTF8', errors = Decodes the string using codec registered for
'strict') encoding.

encode() Encode S using the codec registered for encoding.

Default encoding is 'utf-8'.
endswith(suffix It returns a Boolean value if the string terminates
,begin=0,end=len(string)) with given suffix between begin and end.

expandtabs(tabsize = 8) It defines tabs in string to multiple spaces. The

default space value is 8.

find(substring ,beginIndex, It returns the index value of the string where

endIndex) substring is found between begin index and end
index.

format(value) It returns a formatted version of S, using the passed

value.

index(subsring, beginIndex, It throws an exception if string is not found. It works

endIndex) same as find() method.

isalnum() It returns true if the characters in the string are

alphanumeric i.e., alphabets or numbers and there is
at least 1 character. Otherwise, it returns false.

isalpha() It returns true if all the characters are alphabets and

there is at least one character, otherwise False.

isdecimal() It returns true if all the characters of the string are

decimals.

isdigit() It returns true if all the characters are digits and

there is at least one character, otherwise False.

isidentifier() It returns true if the string is the valid identifier.

islower() It returns true if the characters of a string are in

lower case, otherwise false.
isnumeric() It returns true if the string contains only numeric
characters.

isprintable() It returns true if all the characters of s are printable

or s is empty, false otherwise.

isupper() It returns false if characters of a string are in Upper

case, otherwise False.

isspace() It returns true if the characters of a string are white-

space, otherwise false.

istitle() It returns true if the string is titled properly and false

otherwise. A title string is the one in which the first
character is upper-case whereas the other characters
are lower-case.

isupper() It returns true if all the characters of the string(if

exists) is true otherwise it returns false.

join(seq) It merges the strings representation of the given

sequence.

len(string) It returns the length of a string.

ljust(width[,fillchar]) It returns the space padded strings with the original

string left justified to the given width.

lower() It converts all the characters of a string to Lower

case.

lstrip() It removes all leading whitespaces of a string and

can also be used to remove particular character from
 leading.

partition() It searches for the separator sep in S, and returns

the part before it, the separator itself, and the part
after it. If the separator is not found, return S and
two empty strings.

maketrans() It returns a translation table to be used in translate

function.

replace(old,new[,count]) It replaces the old sequence of characters with the

new sequence. The max characters are replaced if
max is given.

rfind(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) It is similar to find but it traverses the string in

backward direction.

rindex(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) It is same as index but it traverses the string in

backward direction.

rjust(width,[,fillchar]) Returns a space padded string having original string

right justified to the number of characters specified.

rstrip() It removes all trailing whitespace of a string and can

also be used to remove particular character from
trailing.

rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit = -1) It is same as split() but it processes the string from
the backward direction. It returns the list of words in
the string. If Separator is not specified then the
string splits according to the white-space.

split(str,num=string.count(str)) Splits the string according to the delimiter str. The

 string splits according to the space if the delimiter is
not provided. It returns the list of substring
concatenated with the delimiter.

splitlines(num=string.count('\n')) It returns the list of strings at each line with newline

removed.

startswith(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) It returns a Boolean value if the string starts with

given str between begin and end.

strip([chars]) It is used to perform lstrip() and rstrip() on the

string.

swapcase() It inverts case of all characters in a string.

title() It is used to convert the string into the title-case i.e.,

The string meEruT will be converted to Meerut.

translate(table,deletechars = '') It translates the string according to the translation

table passed in the function .

upper() It converts all the characters of a string to Upper

Case.

zfill(width) Returns original string leftpadded with zeros to a

total of width characters; intended for numbers,
zfill() retains any sign given (less one zero).

rpartition()

Python Functions
 Functions are the most important aspect of an application. A function can be defined as the
organized block of reusable code which can be called whenever required.

Python allows us to divide a large program into the basic building blocks known as function.
The function contains the set of programming statements enclosed by {}. A function can be
called multiple times to provide reusability and modularity to the python program.

In other words, we can say that the collection of functions creates a program. The function
is also known as procedure or subroutine in other programming languages.

Python provide us various inbuilt functions like range() or print(). Although, the user can
create its functions which can be called user-defined functions.

Advantage of functions in python

There are the following advantages of C functions.

o By using functions, we can avoid rewriting same logic/code again and again in a
program.
o We can call python functions any number of times in a program and from any place
in a program.
o We can track a large python program easily when it is divided into multiple functions.
o Reusability is the main achievement of python functions.
o However, Function calling is always overhead in a python program.

Creating a function
In python, we can use def keyword to define the function. The syntax to define a function in
python is given below.

1. def my_function():
2. function-suite
3. return <expression>

The function block is started with the colon (:) and all the same level block statements
remain at the same indentation.

A function can accept any number of parameters that must be the same in the definition
and function calling.

Function calling
In python, a function must be defined before the function calling otherwise the python
interpreter gives an error. Once the function is defined, we can call it from another function
 or the python prompt. To call the function, use the function name followed by the
parentheses.

A simple function that prints the message "Hello Word" is given below.

1. def hello_world():
2. print("hello world")
3.
4. hello_world()

Output:

hello world

Parameters in function
The information into the functions can be passed as the parameters. The parameters are
specified in the parentheses. We can give any number of parameters, but we have to
separate them with a comma.

Consider the following example which contains a function that accepts a string as the
parameter and prints it.

Example 1
1. #defining the function
2. def func (name):
3. print("Hi ",name);
4.
5. #calling the function
6. func("Ayush")

Example 2
1. #python function to calculate the sum of two variables
2. #defining the function
3. def sum (a,b):
4. return a+b;
5.
6. #taking values from the user
7. a = int(input("Enter a: "))
8. b = int(input("Enter b: "))
9.
10. #printing the sum of a and b
11. print("Sum = ",sum(a,b))
 Output:

Enter a: 10
Enter b: 20
Sum = 30

Call by reference in Python

In python, all the functions are called by reference, i.e., all the changes made to the
reference inside the function revert back to the original value referred by the reference.

However, there is an exception in the case of mutable objects since the changes made to
the mutable objects like string do not revert to the original string rather, a new string object
is made, and therefore the two different objects are printed.

Example 1 Passing Immutable Object (List)

1. #defining the function
2. def change_list(list1):
3. list1.append(20);
4. list1.append(30);
5. print("list inside function = ",list1)
6.
7. #defining the list
8. list1 = [10,30,40,50]
9.
10. #calling the function
11. change_list(list1);
12. print("list outside function = ",list1);

Output:

list inside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]

list outside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]

Example 2 Passing Mutable Object (String)

1. #defining the function
2. def change_string (str):
3. str = str + " Hows you";
4. print("printing the string inside function :",str);
5.
6. string1 = "Hi I am there"
7.
8. #calling the function
9. change_string(string1)
10.
11. print("printing the string outside function :",string1)

Output:

printing the string inside function : Hi I am there Hows you

printing the string outside function : Hi I am there

Types of arguments
There may be several types of arguments which can be passed at the time of function
calling.

1. Required arguments
2. Keyword arguments
3. Default arguments
4. Variable-length arguments

Required Arguments
Till now, we have learned about function calling in python. However, we can provide the
arguments at the time of function calling. As far as the required arguments are concerned,
these are the arguments which are required to be passed at the time of function calling with
the exact match of their positions in the function call and function definition. If either of the
arguments is not provided in the function call, or the position of the arguments is changed,
then the python interpreter will show the error.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #the argument name is the required argument to the function func
2. def func(name):
3. message = "Hi "+name;
4. return message;
5. name = input("Enter the name?")
6. print(func(name))

Output:

Enter the name?John

Hi John
 Example 2
1. #the function simple_interest accepts three arguments and returns the simple interest accor
dingly
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4. p = float(input("Enter the principle amount? "))
5. r = float(input("Enter the rate of interest? "))
6. t = float(input("Enter the time in years? "))
7. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(p,r,t))

Output:

Enter the principle amount? 10000

Enter the rate of interest? 5
Enter the time in years? 2
Simple Interest: 1000.0

Example 3
1. #the function calculate returns the sum of two arguments a and b
2. def calculate(a,b):
3. return a+b
4. calculate(10) # this causes an error as we are missing a required arguments b.

Output:

TypeError: calculate() missing 1 required positional argument: 'b'

Keyword arguments
Python allows us to call the function with the keyword arguments. This kind of function call
will enable us to pass the arguments in the random order.

The name of the arguments is treated as the keywords and matched in the function calling
and definition. If the same match is found, the values of the arguments are copied in the
function definition.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #function func is called with the name and message as the keyword arguments
2. def func(name,message):
3. print("printing the message with",name,"and ",message)
4. func(name = "John",message="hello") #name and message is copied with the values John
and hello respectively
 Output:

printing the message with John and hello

Example 2 providing the values in different order at the calling

1. #The function simple_interest(p, t, r) is called with the keyword arguments the order of arg
uments doesn't matter in this case
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(t=10,r=10,p=1900))

Output:

Simple Interest: 1900.0

If we provide the different name of arguments at the time of function call, an error will be
thrown.

Consider the following example.

Example 3
1. #The function simple_interest(p, t, r) is called with the keyword arguments.
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4.
5. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(time=10,rate=10,principle=1900)) # doesn?t find
the exact match of the name of the arguments (keywords)

Output:

TypeError: simple_interest() got an unexpected keyword argument 'time'

The python allows us to provide the mix of the required arguments and keyword arguments
at the time of function call. However, the required argument must not be given after the
keyword argument, i.e., once the keyword argument is encountered in the function call, the
following arguments must also be the keyword arguments.

Consider the following example.

Example 4
1. def func(name1,message,name2):
2. print("printing the message with",name1,",",message,",and",name2)
3. func("John",message="hello",name2="David") #the first argument is not the keyword argu
ment
 Output:

printing the message with John , hello ,and David

The following example will cause an error due to an in-proper mix of keyword and required
arguments being passed in the function call.

Example 5
1. def func(name1,message,name2):
2. print("printing the message with",name1,",",message,",and",name2)
3. func("John",message="hello","David")

Output:

SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument

Default Arguments
Python allows us to initialize the arguments at the function definition. If the value of any of
the argument is not provided at the time of function call, then that argument can be
initialized with the value given in the definition even if the argument is not specified at the
function call.

Example 1
1. def printme(name,age=22):
2. print("My name is",name,"and age is",age)
3. printme(name = "john") #the variable age is not passed into the function however the defa
ult value of age is considered in the function

Output:

My name is john and age is 22

Example 2
1. def printme(name,age=22):
2. print("My name is",name,"and age is",age)
3. printme(name = "john") #the variable age is not passed into the function however the defa
ult value of age is considered in the function
4. printme(age = 10,name="David") #the value of age is overwritten here, 10 will be printed
as age

Output:

My name is john and age is 22

My name is David and age is 10
 Variable length Arguments
In the large projects, sometimes we may not know the number of arguments to be passed
in advance. In such cases, Python provides us the flexibility to provide the comma
separated values which are internally treated as tuples at the function call.

However, at the function definition, we have to define the variable with * (star) as
*<variable - name >.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. def printme(*names):
2. print("type of passed argument is ",type(names))
3. print("printing the passed arguments...")
4. for name in names:
5. print(name)
6. printme("john","David","smith","nick")

Output:

type of passed argument is

printing the passed arguments...
john
David
smith
nick

Scope of variables
The scopes of the variables depend upon the location where the variable is being declared.
The variable declared in one part of the program may not be accessible to the other parts.

In python, the variables are defined with the two types of scopes.

1. Global variables
2. Local variables

The variable defined outside any function is known to have a global scope whereas the
variable defined inside a function is known to have a local scope.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. def print_message():
2. message = "hello !! I am going to print a message." # the variable message is local to th
e function itself
3. print(message)
4. print_message()
5. print(message) # this will cause an error since a local variable cannot be accessible here.

Output:

hello !! I am going to print a message.

File "/root/PycharmProjects/PythonTest/Test1.py", line 5, in
print(message)
NameError: name 'message' is not defined

Example 2
1. def calculate(*args):
2. sum=0
3. for arg in args:
4. sum = sum +arg
5. print("The sum is",sum)
6. sum=0
7. calculate(10,20,30) #60 will be printed as the sum
8. print("Value of sum outside the function:",sum) # 0 will be printed

Output:

The sum is 60
Value of sum outside the function: 0

The range() Function

If you do need to iterate over a sequence of numbers, the built-
in function range() comes in handy. It generates arithmetic progressions:

>>>
>>> for i in range(5):
... print(i)
...
0
1
2
3
4

The given end point is never part of the generated sequence; range(10) generates 10
values, the legal indices for items of a sequence of length 10. It is possible to let
the range start at another number, or to specify a different increment (even negative;
sometimes this is called the ‘step’):

range(5, 10)
5, 6, 7, 8, 9

range(0, 10, 3)
0, 3, 6, 9

range(-10, -100, -30)

-10, -40, -70

To iterate over the indices of a sequence, you can combine range() and len() as
follows:

>>>

>>> a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']

>>> for i in range(len(a)):
... print(i, a[i])
...
0 Mary
1 had
2 a
3 little
4 lamb
The function range() returns an object (also called iterable), which returns the
successive items of the desired sequence when you iterate over it, but it doesn’t
really make the list, thus saving space. We have seen that the for statement is
such an iterator. The function list() is another; it creates lists from iterables: