Telecommunication

Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, words, writings, images and
sounds or information of any nature bywire, radio, optical or
other electromagnetic systems.[1][2] Telecommunication occurs when the exchange
of information betweencommunication participants includes the use of technology. It is transmitted
either electrically over physical media, such as cables, or viaelectromagnetic radiation.[3][4][5][6][7][8] Such
transmission paths are often divided into communication channels which afford the advantages
of multiplexing. Since the Latin term communicatio is considered the social process of information
exchange, the termtelecommunications is often used in its plural form because it involves many
different technologies.
1 .General cosideration
Modern telecommunication is founded on a series of key concepts that experienced progressive
development and refinement in a period of well over a century.
Basic elements[edit]
Telecommunication technologies may primarily be divided into wired and wireless methods. Overall
though, a basic telecommunication system consists of three main parts that are always present in
some form or another:

 A transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal.

 A transmission medium, also called the physical channel that
carries the signal. An example of this is the "free space channel".
 A receiver that takes the signal from the channel and converts it
back into usable information for the recipient.
For example, in a radio broadcasting station the station's large power amplifier is the transmitter; and
the broadcasting antenna is the interface between the power amplifier and the "free space channel".
The free space channel is the transmission medium; and the receiver's antenna is the interface
between the free space channel and the receiver. Next, the radio receiver is the destination of the
radio signal, and this is where it is converted from electricity to sound for people to listen to.
Sometimes, telecommunication systems are "duplex" (two-way systems) with a single box
of electronics working as both the transmitter and a receiver, or a transceiver. For example,
a cellular telephone is a transceiver.[36] The transmission electronics and the receiver electronics
within a transceiver are actually quite independent of each other. This can be readily explained by
the fact that radio transmitters contain power amplifiers that operate with electrical powers measured
in watts or kilowatts, but radio receivers deal with radio powers that are measured in
the microwatts or nanowatts. Hence, transceivers have to be carefully designed and built to isolate
their high-power circuitry and their low-power circuitry from each other, as to not cause interference.
Telecommunication over fixed lines is called point-to-point communication because it is between one
transmitter and one receiver. Telecommunication through radio broadcasts is called broadcast
communication because it is between one powerful transmitter and numerous low-power but
sensitive radio receivers.[36]
Telecommunications in which multiple transmitters and multiple receivers have been designed to
cooperate and to share the same physical channel are called multiplex systems. The sharing of
physical channels using multiplexing often gives very large reductions in costs. Multiplexed systems
are laid out in telecommunication networks, and the multiplexed signals are switched at nodes
through to the correct destination terminal receiver.
Analog versus digital communications[edit]
Communications signals can be sent either by analog signals or digital signals. There are analog
communication systems and digital communication systems. For an analog signal, the signal is
varied continuously with respect to the information. In a digital signal, the information is encoded as
a set of discrete values (for example, a set of ones and zeros). During the propagation and
reception, the information contained in analog signals will inevitably be degraded by undesirable
physical noise. (The output of a transmitter is noise-free for all practical purposes.) Commonly, the
noise in a communication system can be expressed as adding or subtracting from the desirable
signal in a completelyrandom way. This form of noise is called additive noise, with the understanding
that the noise can be negative or positive at different instants of time. Noise that is not additive noise
is a much more difficult situation to describe or analyze, and these other kinds of noise will be
omitted here.
On the other hand, unless the additive noise disturbance exceeds a certain threshold, the
information contained in digital signals will remain intact. Their resistance to noise represents a key
advantage of digital signals over analog signals.[37]

2.General model of telecommuniction channel

Telecommunication networks[edit]
A telecommunications network is a collection of transmitters, receivers, and communications
channels that send messages to one another. Some digital communications networks contain one or
more routers that work together to transmit information to the correct user. An analog
communications network consists of one or more switches that establish a connection between two
or more users. For both types of network, repeaters may be necessary to amplify or recreate the
signal when it is being transmitted over long distances. This is to combat attenuation that can render
the signal indistinguishable from the noise.[38] Another advantage of digital systems over analog is
that their output is easier to store in memory, i.e. two voltage states (high and low) are easier to
store than a continuous range of states.
Communication channels[edit]
The term "channel" has two different meanings. In one meaning, a channel is the physical medium
that carries a signal between the transmitter and the receiver. Examples of this include
the atmosphere for sound communications, glass optical fibers for some kinds of optical
communications, coaxial cables for communications by way of the voltages and electric currents in
them, and free space for communications using visible light, infrared waves, ultraviolet light,
and radio waves. Coaxial cable types are classified by RG type or "radio guide", terminology derived
from World War II. The various RG designations are used to classify the specific signal transmission
applications.[39] This last channel is called the "free space channel". The sending of radio waves from
one place to another has nothing to do with the presence or absence of an atmosphere between the
two. Radio waves travel through a perfect vacuum just as easily as they travel through air, fog,
clouds, or any other kind of gas.
The other meaning of the term "channel" in telecommunications is seen in the
phrase communications channel, which is a subdivision of a transmission medium so that it can be
used to send multiple streams of information simultaneously. For example, one radio station can
broadcast radio waves into free space at frequencies in the neighborhood of 94.5 MHz (megahertz)
while another radio station can simultaneously broadcast radio waves at frequencies in the
neighborhood of 96.1 MHz. Each radio station would transmit radio waves over a
frequency bandwidth of about 180 kHz (kilohertz), centered at frequencies such as the above, which
are called the "carrier frequencies". Each station in this example is separated from its adjacent
 stations by 200 kHz, and the difference between 200 kHz and 180 kHz (20 kHz) is an engineering
allowance for the imperfections in the communication system.

The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes
and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without
regard to its underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse
communication systems with standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system
into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined seven layers.

A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that
provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications
above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise the contents of
that path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized as connected by a horizontal connection in
that layer.

The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).

Communication in the OSI-Model (example with layers 3 to 5)

Contents

 1History
 2Description of OSI layers
o 2.1Layer 1: Physical Layer
o 2.2Layer 2: Data Link Layer
o 2.3Layer 3: Network Layer
o 2.4Layer 4: Transport Layer
 o 2.5Layer 5: Session Layer
o 2.6Layer 6: Presentation Layer
o 2.7Layer 7: Application Layer
 3Cross-layer functions
 4Interfaces
 5Examples
 6Comparison with TCP/IP model
 7See also
 8References
 9External links

History[edit]
In the late 1970s, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) conducted a program to
develop general standards and methods of networking. A similar process evolved at the International
Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, from French: Comité Consultatif
International Téléphonique et Télégraphique). Both bodies developed documents that defined similar
networking models.

In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a standard called The Basic Reference Model
for Open Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually referred to asOpen Systems
Interconnection Reference Model, OSI Reference Model, or simply OSI model. It was published in
1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the
Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union or ITU-T)
as standard X.200.

OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model
or seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols.

The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell
Information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET,
NPLNET, EIN, CYCLADES network and the work in IFIP WG6.1. The new design was documented
in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system was divided into layers.
Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly only
with the layer immediately beneath it, and provided facilities for use by the layer above it.

Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in
another host. Service definitions abstractly describe the functionality provided to an (N)-layer by an
(N-1) layer, where N was one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.

The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU-T as the X.200-series of
recommendations.[1] Some of the protocol specifications were also available as part of the ITU-T X
series. The equivalent ISO and ISO/IEC standards for the OSI model were available from ISO. Not
all are free of charge.[2]
Description of OSI layers[edit]
The recommendation X.200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this
model.

OSI Model

Layer Protocol data unit (PDU) Function[3]

High-level APIs(app prog interfac), including

7 Application
resource sharing, remote file access

Translation of data between a networking

service and an application;
including character encoding, data
compression(In signal processing, data
Presentation(synta
6 compression, source coding, or bit-
x)layer
rate reduction involves
encoding information using
Hos
fewer bits than the original
t
Data representation) and encryption/decryption
laye
rs

Session(The
session layer
provides the
mechanism for Managing communication sessions, i.e.
opening, closing continuous exchange of information in the
5
and managing form of multiple back-and-forth transmissions
a session between between two nodes
end-user
application
processes.)
 Segment, Datagram(A dat
agram is a basic transfer
unit associated with
a packet-switched network.
Datagrams are typically
structured
in header and payload sect Reliable transmission of data segments
ions. Datagrams provide between points on a network,
4 Transport
aconnectionless including segmentation, acknowledgement a
communication service nd multiplexing
across a packet-switched
network. The delivery,
arrival time, and order of
arrival of datagrams need
not be guaranteed by the
network.)

Structuring and managing a multi-node

network,
3 Network Packet
including addressing,routing and traffic
control

Med
ia
Reliable transmission of data frames
laye
2 Data link Frame between two nodes connected by a physical
rs
layer

Transmission and reception of raw bit

1 Physical Symbol
streams over a physical medium

At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data
units (PDUs) by means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data
unit (SDU), along with protocol-related headers or footers.

Data processing by two communicating OSI-compatible devices is done as such:

 1. The data to be transmitted is composed at the topmost layer of the transmitting device
(layer N) into a protocol data unit (PDU).
2. The PDU is passed to layer N-1, where it is known as the service data unit (SDU).
3. At layer N-1 the SDU is concatenated with a header, a footer, or both, producing a layer N-1
PDU. It is then passed to layer N-2.
4. The process continues until reaching the lowermost level, from which the data is transmitted
to the receiving device.
5. At the receiving device the data is passed from the lowest to the highest layer as a series
of SDUs while being successively stripped from each layer's header or footer, until reaching
the topmost layer, where the last of the data is consumed.

Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve all of the layers (See ITU-
T X.800 Recommendation[4]). These services are aimed at improving the CIA triad -
confidentiality, integrity, and availability - of the transmitted data. In practice, the availability of a
communication service is determined by the interaction between network design and network
management protocols. Appropriate choices for both of these are needed to protect against denial of
service.[citation needed]

Layer 1: Physical Layer[edit]

The physical layer is responsible for the transmission and reception of unstructured raw data
between a device and a physical transmission medium. It converts the digital bits into electrical,
radio, or optical signals. Layer specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, the timing
of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, modulation scheme,
channel access method and physical connectors. This includes the layout of pins, voltages,
line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and frequency for wireless devices. Bit rate
control is done at the physical layer and may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex,
and full duplex. The components of a physical layer can be described in terms of a network
topology. Bluetooth, Ethernet, and USB all have specifications for a physical layer.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer[edit]

The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer—a link between two directly connected
nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer. It defines the
protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It also
defines the protocol for flow control between them.

IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:[5]

 Medium access control (MAC) layer – responsible for controlling how devices in a network gain
access to a medium and permission to transmit data.
 Logical link control (LLC) layer – responsible for identifying and encapsulating network layer
protocols, and controls error checking and frame synchronization.

The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi,
and 802.15.4 ZigBee operate at the data link layer.

The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several different
physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.

The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires
(power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that provides
both error correction and flow control by means of a selective-repeat sliding-window protocol.

Layer 3: Network Layer[edit]

The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable
length data sequences (called packets) from one node to another connected in "different networks".
A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has
an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected
to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and
letting the network find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it
through intermediate nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another
on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by
splitting the message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and
reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery errors.

Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer
protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.

A number of layer-management protocols, a function defined in the management annex, ISO

7498/4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management,
network-layer information and error, and network-layer address assignment. It is the function of the
payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them.[6]

Layer 4: Transport Layer[edit]

The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable-length data
sequences from a source to a destination host, while maintaining the quality of service functions.

The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow
control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state- and connection-
oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and re-transmit those
that fail delivery. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data
transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates segments
out of the message received from the application layer. Segmentation is the process of dividing a
long message into smaller messages.

OSI defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also
known as TP0 and provides the fewest features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks,
similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network
layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains
functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP
connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries.
Detailed characteristics of TP0-4 classes are shown in the following table:[7]

Feature name TP0 TP1 TP2 TP3 TP4

Connection-oriented network Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Connectionless network No No No No Yes

Concatenation and separation No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Segmentation and reassembly Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Error recovery No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Reinitiate connectiona No Yes No Yes No

Multiplexing / demultiplexing over single virtual circuit No No Yes Yes Yes

Explicit flow control No No Yes Yes Yes

Retransmission on timeout No No No No Yes

Reliable transport service No Yes No Yes Yes

a If an excessive number of PDUs are unacknowledged.

An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the
dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. A post office inspects only the outer envelope of
mail to determine its delivery. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as
cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly
speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such
as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec.
While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network-layer protocol, if the
encapsulation of the payload takes place only at the endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport
protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete Layer 2 frames or Layer 3 packets to deliver to
the endpoint.L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport segments.

Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI
definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and theUser Datagram
Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4 protocols within
OSI.

Layer 5: Session Layer[edit]

The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages
and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-
duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes procedures for checkpointing, suspending,
restarting, and terminating a session. In the OSI model, this layer is responsible for gracefully closing
a session, which is handled in the Transmission Control Protocol at the transport layer in the Internet
Protocol Suite. This layer is also responsible for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not
usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in
application environments that use remote procedure calls.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer[edit]

The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer entities, in which the
application-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides
a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation protocol data units are
encapsulated into session protocol data units and passed down theprotocol stack.

This layer provides independence from data representation by translating between application and
network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts.
This layer formats data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.[8] The
presentation layer can include compression functions.[9]The Presentation Layer negotiates the
Transfer Syntax.

The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation
One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to anASCII-coded file,
or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML. ASN.1 effectively makes an
application protocol invariant with respect to syntax.

Layer 7: Application Layer[edit]

The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application
layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software
applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the
scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions typically include identifying communication
partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying
communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of
communication partners for an application with data to transmit. The most important distinction in the
application layer is the distinction between the application-entity and the application. For example, a
reservation website might have two application-entities: one using HTTP to communicate with its
users, and one for a remote database protocol to record reservations. Neither of these protocols
have anything to do with reservations. That logic is in the application itself. The application layer per
se has no means to determine the availability of resources in the network.