Running head: BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY AND

APPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT 1

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory and Applications for Management

Nathaniel Skinner [email protected]

Revised: July 10, 2012

Background

This is a position paper on Ecological Systems Theory and the application of this

theory to management practices. Presented are the critical aspects of Bronfenbrenner, an

evaluation of Ecological Systems Theory, and applications of Ecological Systems Theory

to management and organizational paradigms. The last point is bolstered through

analyzing other theorists and their theories as compare and contrast with Ecological

Systems Theory.

Ecological Systems Theory

Ecological Systems Theory originated in Urie Bronfenbrenner’s work during the

1940s on childhood and friendship patterns (Bronfenbrenner, 1995). Over several

decades the foundations were laid, culminating in Ecological Systems Theory

(Bronfenbrenner, 1999). “The ecological environment is conceived as a set of nested

structures, each inside the next like a set of Russian dolls” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

Within this structure are five layers arranged from the closest to the individual to the

farthest: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem

(Bronfenbrenner, 1994). These systems have continuing impacts an individual’s

development (Bronfenbrenner, 1999).

The most direct level is the microsystem, or impacts upon the individual, such as

work (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). According to Bronfenbrenner, the next levels are the

mesosystem, or linkages between direct impacts, such as the individual’s family and

work, and the exosystem which are indirect impacts on the mesosystem. For example,

the individual themselves may have weathered the great recession with no direct

economic or life impact, but their development will have changed as a result of shifts in
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory and Applications for Management 3

the broader economic and societal spheres. The last two levels are the macrosystem and

the chronosystem. The macrosystem comprises of broad groupings, such as society or

religion, while the chronosystem is both an individual’s passage through time as well as

their position within history.

Evaluating Ecological Systems Theory

Ecological systems theory focuses upon the environmental aspects of

development with a particular focus on youth (Bronfenbrenner, 1999). From an

observer’s perspective, there is little the observer can do about an individual as framed by

the microsystem aside from their individual interactions. Similarly, the macrosystem and

chronosystem are too large for an observer to encompass. However, the macrosystem

and chronosystem are interpretable through understanding various sociological,

environmental, and time factors that influence an individual (Bronfenbrenner, 1994).

Even in this example, Bronfenbrenner (1994) cautions that one needs to go “beyond the

simple labels of class and culture to identify more specific social and psychological

features at the macrosystem level…” (p. 40). The microsystem presents similar

challenges, since one cannot understand all the different elements close to the individual

that impact their development.

The mesosystems and exosystems are easier to observe, since they result from the

interactions between other systems, such as between microsystems. The exosystem is the

external influences upon the microsystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). An example would be

a parent performing less effectively at work because of their child’s difficulty in school.

Bronfenbrenner’s focus upon development, particularly, in children makes

application of ecological systems theory to adults somewhat more difficult than might
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory and Applications for Management 4

otherwise occur. However, the analysis done by Bronfenbrenner (1994) demonstrates

that factors, such as birth weight, mother’s education, and family situation impact

childhood development. The concept of external factors influencing an individual makes

sense. Lastly, understanding that the time one develops in, as well as the passage of time,

both influence psychological development is an important concept.

Application of Ecological Systems Theory to Management

Numerous approaches have utilized Ecological Systems Theory to understand

phenomena observed today. One study looked at dual-earner spouses and the impacts of

employment and home life (Kulik & Rayyan, 2006). Another paper assesses impacts of

changes to higher education by state governments (Poch, 2005). However, a search of

databases such as Emerald Insight, Business Source Complete, ABI/INFORM complete,

and PsychINFO show a lack of articles correlating Ecological Systems Theory or

Bronfenbrenner with either management or leadership.

Instead, I believe that Bronfenbrenner’s theory is best applied in developing a

manager’s understanding of individuals, actions, and interactions. In particular,

understanding the mesosystem and exosystem can benefit managers through

understanding sources of employee satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Kulik and Rayyan

(2006) show in their research, that there is a correlation between job satisfaction, home

satisfaction, and spousal support for dual-earner families. Pock (2005) used Ecological

Systems Theory to create charts showing linkages between microsystems within the

mesosystem and impacts of the mesosystem upon the mesosystem and vice versa.

Similar analysis could be done to aid management.

As a brief example, a small business could be considered a mesosystem. Within it

are the various individuals or the microsystem. Other impacts, such as competitors or

participants in the supply chain are all exosystem impacts. The environment, such as the

economy and government, in which these various subsystems exist, forms the

macrosystem. An effective manager could understand these systems and use it to benefit

the organization as a whole. It could occur through differing compensation schemes,

understanding opposing businesses, or through regulatory affairs. Any of these

applications impact the individuals in the organization.

Other Theorists

Other theorists support various levels of Bronfenbrenner’s theory. Chronosystem

and macrosystem impacts are examined by Elder (1998) in his research. In particular he

looks at temporal impacts for generations, such as major upheavals for countries

including wars and economic turmoil (Elder, 1998). The chronosystem and macrosystem

impacts then alter individual development. Bronfenbrenner (1999) considers the timing

of events, as they occur within other activities during an individuals life, as important to

overall development.

Maslow (2000) notes in his hierarchy of needs that individuals only can achieve

self-actualization once other needs are met. Helping to determine the needs, such as

safety or esteem can be understood through Ecological Systems Theory. As Maslow

(2000) notes, “we all have all sorts of implicit axioms, truisms which we have taken for

granted.” (p. 117). Bronfenbrenner would likely support this notion through the

understanding that different cultures, either through time or geographic area, support

different axioms or truisms (Bronfenbrenner, 1995).

Moral stages are impacted by the variances of culture, time, and other factors such

as the family’s own morality. The stages of morality are defined by these other

influences (Kohlberg & Hersh, 1977). Kohlberg and Hersh (1977) frame the stages of

moral development within the framework of accepted cultural and familial norms. This

corresponds with the individual development by the microsystem through the

chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1994).

Conclusion

Applying Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory to management and

organizational applications is a challenge. I was unable to find any direct references to

the application of the theory to these applications. However, simply because there has

not been research directly related to management does not mean that the theory is either

ill-suited or inapplicable to management. Instead, using Ecological Systems Theory

provides a powerful tool to understand the influences upon a person’s life and how it

influences other parts of their development. Similarly, it helps understand how broad

aspects such as time or culture influence individual development. All of these factors can

greatly impact a business, management, and an organization.

Elder, Kohlberg, and Maslow all provide theories or analysis that can be

strengthened through the lens of Ecological Systems Theory, or aid in validating specific

aspects of the theory. Although none of these other theories directly validate or disprove

the application of Ecological Systems Theory, they were able to help me gain insight into

different strengths and weaknesses of those theories. Although not yet in broad

employment, I believe Ecological Systems Theory provides a valuable tool for scholars
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory and Applications for Management 7

and practitioners to understand individual development in order to become more effective

managers and leaders.

References

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). A future perspective. In The ecology of human development:

Experiments by nature and design (pp. 3-13). Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In International

Encyclopedia of Education (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 1643-1647). Oxford: Elsevier.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1995). The bioecological model from a life course perspective:

Reflections of a participant observer. In Examining lives in context: Perspectives

on the ecology of human development (pp. 599-618). Washington, DC: American

Psychological Association.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1999). Environments in developmental perspective: Theoretical and

operational models. In Measuring environment across the life span : emerging

methods and concepts (1st ed., pp. 3-28). Washington DC: American

Psychological Association.

Elder, G. H. (1998). The life course as developmental theory. Child Development, 69(1),

1. doi:10.2307/1132065

Kohlberg, L., & Hersh, R. (1977). Moral development: A review of the theory. Theory

into Practice, 16(2), 53-59.

Kulik, L., & Rayyan, F. (2006). Relationships between dual-earner spouses, strategies for

coping with home–work demands and emotional well-being. Community, Work &

Family, 9(4), 457-477. doi:10.1080/13668800600925100

Poch, S. (2005). Higher education in a box. International Journal of Educational

Management, 19(3), 246-258. doi:10.1108/09513540510591020