Homeostasis

To be able to function efficiently, the human body needs to control

the internal conditions of the body, this is known as Homeostasis.

Some of the physiological factors controlled in homeostasis in

mammals are:

 Core Body Temperature

 Metabolic wasters, particularly carbon dioxide and urea
 Blood pH
 Blood glucose concentration
 Water potential of the blood
 The concentrations in the blood of the respiratory gases,
oxygen and carbon dioxide.

But first we look at the need for mammals to maintain in a stable

internal environment, and then consider a constant body temp.

Internal Environment.

The internal environment refers to all the conditions inside an

organism’s body.

These conditions are in which the cells are able to function. For a cell
its immediate environment is the tissue fluid that surrounds it.

Many features of the tissue fluid influence how well the cell can
functions.

Below are the three features that influence cell activities.

 Temperature: Low temperatures slow down metabolic

reactions; at high temperatures proteins, including
enzymes, are denatured and cannot function.
 Water Potential: If the water potential decreases, water
may move out and cause the metabolic reaction to either
stop or slow down. If the water potential increases, then
the water will enter and cause the cell to swell and
potentially bust.
  Concentration of Glucose: Glucose is the fuel for
respiration, hence lack of it will incidentally cause the
respiration in the cell to slow or stop, depriving the cell
of an energy source; too much glucose may cause the
water to move out and disturb the metabolism of the cell.

So, the homeostatic mechanisms hence only work by controlling the

composition of blood, which therefore controls the composition of
the tissue fluid.

Homeostatic Control

 Most control mechanisms in living organisms use a negative

feedback control loop.

 This involves a receptor, and an effector.

 Effectors include muscles and glands.

 Receptors detect stimuli and are involved with that factor

being regulated.

 Body has receptors that detect internal stimuli.

 These receptors send information about the changes

 This sensory information is known as the input.

 Central control instructs an effector to carry out an action is

called the output.

 Actions are sometimes called corrective actions, as their effect

is to correct the change.

 Continuous monitoring of the factor by receptors produces a

steady stream of information to the control centre.

 Making continuous adjustments to the output.

  As a result, the factor fluctuates around a particular ‘ideal value
or set point.

 Mechanism to keep changed in the factor within narrow limits

is known as negative feedback.

 These systems, an increase in the factor results in something

happening that makes the factor decrease.

 Hence, if there is a decrease in the factor, then something

happens to make it increase.

 Homeostatic mechanisms involve negative feedback, as it

minimises the difference between the actual value of the factor
the ideal value and set point.

 The factor never stays exactly constant, but fluctuates a little

above a little below the set point.

Homeostatic mechanisms in mammals require information to be

transferred between different parts of the body; there are two co-
ordination systems in mammals that do this; the nervous system and
the endocrine system.

 Nervous System: Information in the form of electrical

impulses is transmitted along nerve cells.
 The endocrine System: Uses chemical messengers
called hormones that travel in the blood, forming long
distance cell signalling.

Control of Body Temperature

This process is called thermoregulation and involves both the

nervous and endocrine systems.

The hypothalamus is the central control for body temperature.

. Decrease in temperature 
• Vasoconstriction- blood vessel walls
contract causing restriction in blood flow to extremities
where heat is easily lost 
• Shivering- involuntary movement
of skeletal muscle, generating heat for blood to absorb 
•
Raising body hairs- causing increase in depth of fur, hence
increase the insulation as heat can be trapped 
• Secretion of
adrenaline & Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)- causes
increase in metabolic rate, specially liver 


. Increase in temperature 

• Vasodilation- vessel muscle relaxes, causing it to get

Closer to surface of the skin∴ losing heat to surroundings

. Lowering body hairs- reducing depth of fur, hence less

insulation and more easy to lose heat 

. Increasing sweat production- sweat produced causing 
more
energetic molecules to escape and carry heat away 
8.3

Excretion 


Deamination is the removal of an amine group from a molecule.

This is done in the liver when there is an excess of protein, rather
than wasting a useful energy source 
• The –NH2 along with a
hydrogen atom are removed leaving behind a keto acid 
• The
keto acid may enter the Krebs cycle and be respired, or converted
to glucose/glycogen/fat storage


Urea formation 

• Since ammonia is very soluble and highly toxic compound it is
converted immediately to urea 
2NH3 + CO2 CO (NH2) 2+
H2O 

• Urea is the main nitrogenous excretory product, 
however we
also produce creatinine and uric acid 

• Creatine is made in the liver from amino acids that is 
used as
an energy store in muscles 

• Uric acid is made from the breakdown of purines 
8.4

Structure of the Kidney 


• Structures found above in the cortex are o Bowman’s capsule
o
proximal convoluted tubule (PVC)
o distal convoluted tubule DCT
• Lower down in the medulla are o Loop of henle
o Collecting duct

8.5 Ultrafiltration
Medulla

Occurs in the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule 


• It is caused by the hydrostatic pressure that builds up in 
the
glomerulus due to the afferent arteriole having 
wider
diameter than the efferent arteriole 

• This causes the water potential of the blood 
(glomerulus) to
rise above the Bowman’s capsule, hence 
water travels down
its concentration gradient 

• There is a 3 cell layer lining that separates the two: 
o
Endothelium: one cell thick cell with many holes o Basement
Membrane: make up inner lining of 
bowman’s capsule
o
Podocytes: inner lining of bowman’s capsule 

• The endothelium & podocytes have large holes that allow
substances to pass through
it. However, basement membrane acts
as a filter and stops larger molecules/cells from entering such as
protein, RBCs and WBCs

8.6 Selective Reabsorption

• The glomerular filtrate is almost identical to the plasmas
concentration of substances except no plasma proteins 

• Many of the substances however are needed to be kept in the
body, so in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) selectively
reabsorbs back into the blood 

• Adaptation of PCT cells: 
o Microvilli to increase surface area
of inner surface
o Many mitochondria to provide ATP for
(Na+–K+) pump 
on outer membrane of cells
o Co-
transporter proteins in membrane facing lumen 

1. Na+ & Cl- are actively transported out of higher end of ascending
limb, causing increase of conc. in tissue fluid
2. Water is therefore lost from the descending limb and Na+ & Cl-
ions diffuse in causing descending limb to become very concentrated
as it reaches the bottom
3. Na+ & Cl- diffuses out initially in the ascending limb and no water
enters as ascending limb impermeable
Distal Convoluted Tubule
• First part functions the same way as ascending limb
• Second part
functions the same way as collecting duct

Collecting Duct
• Na+ actively pumped out into tissue fluid where they pass into
the blood 

• K+, however is actively transported into the tubule 

• The rate at which these two ions are moved into and out 
of
nephron can be varied, regulating the ions in blood 
8.8
Control of Blood Water Potential 

• Osmoregulation: control of water potential in body fluids 

• Specialized sensory cells (osmoreceptors) constantly 
monitor
blood in the hypothalamus 

• When a water potential decreases below a set point 
nerve
impulses are sent to the posterior pituitary gland 

• Stimulating release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) that

targets the collecting duct increasing reabsorption

Decrease in blood water level
4. ADH secreted and travels through blood until reaching
receptor proteins on cell surface membrane of collecting
duct cells 

5. This activates enzyme inside cell & causes readymade
vesicles that contain aquaporin fuse to membrane 

6. This causes duct to become

permeable to water hence water moves

out down its conc. gradient 


• Na+–K+ pumps in the basal membrane cells

use ATP pumping 3 Na+ out and 2K+ in. 

• Basal membrane is folded to give a large
surface area for many of these protein pumps 

 • Concentration of Na+ decreases, so Na+ passively moves into
the cell from the lumen by a Co-transporter protein that brings
along a molecule of glucose/amino acid 

• This is considered to be a secondary active transport as energy
was not used for pumping sodium into the PCR cell but has
occurred as a result of active transport 

• All of glucose, amino acids, vitamins and Na+/Cl- are
reabsorbed hence increasing water potential in filtrate, so
water and urea are also reabsorbed but only partially 

• Note: volume of urine decreases and become conc. PAGE 23 OF 34

Increase in blood water level

• Osmoreceptors no longer stimulate ADH production, so
aquaporin’s moved back into cytoplasm as vesicle, hence
becoming impermeable again 

• This process is very slow because ADH molecules take 15-20
mins to be broken down in the blood and another 15-20 mins
for aquaporin’s to be removed 


8.9 Control of Blood Glucose 


• When glucose is in low concentration our cells may not have
enough glucose for respiration, hence might not be able to
carry out its normal function 

• On the contrary, high concentrations can effect normal
behavior of cells as they may lose water due to the
concentration gradient built (cells become flaccid) 

• The homeostatic control is carried out in the pancreas by a
tissue called the islets of Langerhans which consisting two
types of cells: 
o 𝛼 cells which secrete glucagon 
o 𝛼 cells
which secrete insulin 

• After a meal containing carbohydrates, glucose is 
digested
and passed into the blood 


When Blood glucose levels rise
• The 𝛼 and 𝛼 cells detect

the change 
o 𝛼 responds by stopping secretion of glycogen 
o 𝛼
responds by secreting insulin into the blood 

• Insulin is a signaling molecule that targets the liver and

muscle cells and can not pass through the membrane (as 
it’s
a protein) so it binds to a receptor 

 • This stimulates the cells to increase rate of glucose

absorption by making vesicles carrying glucose transporter
proteins (GLUT) bind onto cell membrane 

• Increases use of glucose in respiration 

• Glycogenesis; condensing glucose molecules to glycogen •

When blood glucose levels fall (or adrenaline level rise) 
o

𝛼 responds by secreting glycogen into the blood o 𝛼 responds by
stopping secretion of insulin 

• Glycogen binds on to a receptor which activates;
• G protein that in
turn activates;
• Enzyme that catalyses conversion of ATP to cyclic
AMP • Cyclic AMP binds to kinase enzymes that activates other
Enzyme cascade reactions which finally catalyses the break down of
glycogen to form glucose

8.10 Diabetes
• There are two forms of sugar diabetes:

 Insulin dependent diabetes, Type1

The pancreas is incapable of secreting sufficient insulin, can be due to

gene that codes for production, or because of attack on 𝛼 cells by
own immune system.
 Non insulin dependent diabetes, Type 2


Pancreas secretes insulin but liver and muscle cells do not

respond properly.

8.11 Urine Analysis

• Much easier to collect than blood samples
• Urine tests can give
early indications of health problems
o Diabetes: presence of excessive glucose and ketones in
urine, as blood glucose level rises above renal threshold
and so not all reabsorbed
o High blood pressure/kidney infection: presence of
proteins as they are too large to be filtered out

8.12 Dipsticks and Biosensors.

o Dipsticks are used to measure different factors such as pH,

glucose, ketones and proteins.
 o Glucose dipsticks contain glucose oxidase and peroxidase
o Glucose Oxidase oxidised glucose form gluconolactone and
hydrogen peroxide
o Peroxidase catalyses reaction of hydrogen peroxide and
chromogen forming a brown compound.
o The colour formed is compared to a chart, the more glucose
present, the darker the colour would be
o Biosensors allow people with diabetes to monitor their blood
glucose concentration
o They also contain glucose oxidase which catalyses the same
reaction releasing H+ generating an electric current
o Current is detected and gives a reading with seconds
o The more the glucose present the greater is the reading

Homeostasis

o Stomata has daily rhythms of opening and closing even if kept

in constant light/dark
o Opening during day maintains inward diffusion of CO2 and
outward diffusion of O2 and water vapour
o Closing during the night as it doesn’t not respire and conserves
water
o Stomata open when:
 Increase in light intensity
 Low CO2 concentrations
o Stomata close in:
 Darkness
 High CO2 concentrations
 Low humidity
 High Temperature
 Water Stress

Opening and closing of stomata

Opening of Stomata

 ATP powered proton pumps actively move H+ ions out of the

guard cells
 This causes potassium channels to open and move into the cell
due to the electrochemical gradient produced
 Electrochemical gradient is the combination of electrical
gradient caused by the release of H+ ions and of a
concentration gradient due to low levels of K+

 Potassium ions enters the cell lowering solute potential and

hence the water potential, causing water to enter the cell.
 The stomata has uneven cell wall thickening, walls adjacent to
pore is very thick whereas the walls furthest from pore is thin
 So water when it enters the cells become turgid, inner cells are
thicker and so more difficult for it to bend, hence the cells on
the outer end lengthen cause the guard cells to bend and open.
 Stomata close when hydrogen ion pumps stop and potassium
ions leave the guard cells.
 Water then leaves the cells and cause it to become flaccid and
so close the stomata

Abscisic acid and stomatal closure

 ABA also known as the stress hormone causes the closure of

stomata in difficult conditions within minutes
 It is synthesised by any cells in the plant that contain
chloroplasts
 It is believed that ABA binds to receptors that inhibit the
proton pump and stimulate movement of Ca+ ions into the cell
which stimulate channel proteins to allow negatively charged
ions to move in potassium ions to move out.