Chapter 2: BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS

A computer performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective of their

1) Computer accepts data or instructions by way of input, (INPUT)

This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. Computer
takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data.
Therefore, the input unit takes data from user to the computer in an organized manner for
processing.

Fig. 2.1 Basic computer Operations

2) Computer stores data,

The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to
be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing
speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU
with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access
and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is
designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions.

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The storage unit performs the following major functions:

· All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
· Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

3) Computer process data as required by the user-(Processing)

The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the
storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the
type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit. The computer system is
divided into three separate units for its operation. They are 1) arithmetic logical unit, 2)
control unit, and 3) central processing unit.

· Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU): After you enter data through the input device
it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and
instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations
performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic
and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required.
After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further
processing or getting stored.
· Control Unit (CU): The next component of computer is the Control Unit,
which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. The
control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and
instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main
memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units
of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when
several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the
activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and
output. Therefore it is the manager of all operations mentioned in the previous
section.

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 · Central Processing Unit (CPU): The ALU and the CU of a computer system
are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain
of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions,
makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer
functions by activating and controlling the operations.

HARDWARE SOFTWARE

4) Computer gives results in the form of output, and

This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept
somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again
the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.

5) Computer controls all operations inside a computer.

The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed.
Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control
unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer.

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Personal Computer Configuration

Now let us identify the physical components that make the computer work. These are

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

2. Computer Memory (RAM and ROM)

3. Data bus

4. Ports

5. Motherboard

6. Hard disk

7. Output Devices

8. Input Devices

All these components are inter-connected for the personal computer to work.

MEMORY SYSTEM IN A COMPUTER

There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary. Primary memory is
accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of primary memory. As
soon as the computer is switched off the contents of the primary memory is lost. You can
store and retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary
memory. Secondary memory such as floppy disks, magnetic disk, etc., is located outside
the computer. Primary memory is more expensive than secondary memory. Because of
this the size of primary memory is less than that of secondary memory. We will discuss
about secondary memory later on. Computer memory is used to store two things:

i) instructions to execute a program and

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When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be processed are stored in the
primary memory. This data may come from an input device like keyboard or from a
secondary storage device like a floppy disk. Inside the computer, the steps followed are
quite different from what we see on the monitor or screen.

In computer’s memory both programs and data are stored in the binary form. The binary
system has only two values 0 and 1. These are called bits. As human beings we all
understand decimal system but the computer can only understand binary system. It is
because a large number of integrated circuits inside the computer can be considered as
switches, which can be made ON, or OFF. If a switch is ON it is considered 1 and if it is
OFF it is 0. A number of switches in different states will give you a message like this:
110101....10. So the computer takes input in the form of 0 and 1 and gives output in the
form 0 and 1 only.

The primary memory in the computer is in the form of IC’s (Integrated Circuits). These
circuits are called Random Access Memory (RAM). Each of RAM’s locations stores one
byte of information. (One byte is equal to 8 bits). A bit is an acronym for binary digit,
which stands for one binary piece of information. This can be either 0 or 1. The Primary
or internal storage section is made up of several small storage locations (ICs) called cells.
Each of these cells can store a fixed number of bits called word length.

Each cell has a unique number assigned to it called the address of the cell and it is used to
identify the cells. The address starts at 0 and goes up to (N-1). You should know that the
memory is like a large cabinet containing as many drawers as there are addresses on
memory. Each drawer contains a word and the address is written on outside of the
drawer. The following terms related to memory of a computer are discussed below:

1. Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random

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 disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. The
memories, which loose their content on failure of power supply, are known as
volatile memories .So now we can say that RAM is volatile memory.
2. Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which is
called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the
ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM
stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to
operate the personal computer. The basic input/output program is stored in the
ROM that examines and initializes equipment attached to the PC when the switch
is made ON. The memories, which do not loose their content on failure of power
supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.
3. PROM There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). It is not possible to modify or erase
programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in
PROM chip. Once the programs are written it cannot be changed and remain
intact even if power is switched off. Therefore programs or instructions written in
PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed.
4. EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which
over come the problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed
time and again by erasing the information stored earlier in it. Information stored
in EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet light and it erases chip is
reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the EPROM is in use
information can only be read.
5. Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access
time of main memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the
slow speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a
small memory chip is attached between CPU and Main memory whose access
time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called CACHE memory.
CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is used to
store programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used
by the CPU. So each memory makes main memory to be faster and larger than it

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 really is. It is also very expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its
size is normally kept small.
6. Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed, there is also
movement of data between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer
the processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a number of special
memory units called registers. They are not part of the main memory but they
store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by the control unit.

SECONDARY STORAGE

The operating speed of primary memory or main memory should be as fast as possible to
cope up with the CPU speed. These high-speed storage devices are very expensive and
hence the cost per bit of storage is also very high. Again the storage capacity of the main
memory is also very limited. Often it is necessary to store hundreds of millions of bytes
of data for the CPU to process. Therefore additional memory is required in all the
computer systems. This memory is called auxiliary memory or secondary storage.

In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating speed is
slower than that of the primary storage. Huge volume of data are stored here on
permanent basis and transferred to the primary storage as and when required. Most
widely used secondary storage devices are magnetic tapes and magnetic disk.

1. Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe
computers where large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also you
can use tapes in the form of cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is
inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently. The
deck is connected to the central processor and information is fed into or read from
the tape through the processor. It similar to cassette tape recorder.

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 Fig. 2.3 Magnetic Tape

2. Magnetic Disk: You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular
like a disk and coated with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer
are made on the same principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the
computer drive. Data is stored on both the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are
most popular for direct access storage device. Each disk consists of a number of
invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on tracks of a
disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot
represents one bit and its absence represents zero bit. The information stored in a
disk can be read many times without affecting the stored data.
3. Floppy Disk: It is similar to magnetic disk discussed above. They are 5.25 inch or
3.5 inch in diameter. It is cheaper than any other storage devices and is portable.
The floppy is a low cost device particularly suitable for personal computer
system.

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 4. Optical Disk: With every new application and software there is greater demand
for memory capacity. It is the necessity to store large volume of data that has led
to the development of optical disk storage medium. Optical disks can be divided
into the following categories:

1. Compact Disk/ Read Only Memory (CD-ROM): CD-ROM disks are made of
reflective metals. CD-ROM is written during the process of manufacturing by
high power laser beam. Here the storage density is very high, storage cost is very
low and access time is relatively fast. As the CD-ROM can be read only we
cannot write or make changes into the data contained in it.
2. Write Once, Read Many (WORM): The inconvenience that we can not write any
thing in to a CD-ROM is avoided in WORM. A WORM allows the user to write
data permanently on to the disk. Once the data is written it can never be erased
without physically damaging the disk. Here data can be recorded from keyboard,
video scanner, OCR equipment and other devices.
3. Erasable Optical Disk: These are optical disks where data can be written, erased
and re-written. This also applies a laser beam to write and re-write the data. These
disks may be used as alternatives to traditional disks. Erasable optical disks are
based on a technology known as magnetic optical (MO).

INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES

A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external environment.
Various types of I/O devices are used for different types of applications. They are also
known as peripheral devices because they surround the CPU and make a communication
between computer and the outer world. Input devices are necessary to convert our
information or data in to a form which can be understood by the computer and output
helps in displaying that information in the form of pictures or sound. Such as keyboards,
scanners, mouse (Input) and Monitor, printer, speakers (Output).