Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst.
, 5, 575–581, 2016
www.geosci-instrum-method-data-syst.net/5/575/2016/
doi:10.5194/gi-5-575-2016
© Author(s) 2016. CC Attribution 3.0 License.
Non-destructive evaluation of moisture content in wood using
ground-penetrating radar
Hamza Reci1 , Tien Chinh Maï2 , Zoubir Mehdi Sbartaï2 , Lara Pajewski3 , and Emanuela Kiri1
1 Institute
of Geosciences, Energy, Water and Environment, Polytechnic University, Tirana, 1024, Albania
2 I2M Laboratory, Department of Environmental Civil Engineering, University of Bordeaux, 33405, Talence, France
3 Department of Information Engineering, Electronics and Telecommunications, Sapienza University of Rome,
00184, Rome, Italy
Received: 1 July 2016 – Published in Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst. Discuss.: 18 July 2016
Revised: 24 October 2016 – Accepted: 6 November 2016 – Published: 16 December 2016
Abstract. This paper presents the results of a series of lab- ordnance, planetary exploration and more (Benedetto and Pa-
oratory measurements, carried out to study how the ground- jewski, 2015; Persico, 2014).
penetrating radar (GPR) signal is affected by moisture vari- Recently, GPR started being used for the non-destructive
ation in wood material. The effects of the wood fibre direc- evaluation of moisture content in wood material. The most
tion, with respect to the polarisation of the electromagnetic common causes of wood deterioration are biological, due to
field, are investigated. The relative permittivity of wood and infestation of fungi and insects. There are several factors in-
the amplitude of the electric field received by the radar are fluencing the biological degradation of wood caused by fungi
measured for different humidity levels using the direct-wave and insects in addition to moisture, for example, the source
method in wide angle radar reflection configuration, in which of infection, substrate (food), oxygen, temperature and more.
one GPR antenna is moved while the other is kept in a fixed However, the moisture content is recognised as one of the
position. The received signal is recorded for different sepa- most critical factors for the development of such organisms.
rations between the transmitting and receiving antennas. Di- Fungal spores do not germinate readily on wood if the mois-
electric constants estimated from direct waves are compared ture content is below the fibre saturation point, commonly
to those estimated from reflected waves: direct and reflected reached around 25–30 %. The percentage of moisture that is
waves show different behaviour when the moisture content required for wood rotting fungi to flourish depends on the
varies, due to their different propagation paths. species of fungi and on the kind of wood. It is therefore ap-
parent that the non-destructive evaluation of moisture content
is of primary importance for the preservation of timber struc-
tures.
1 Introduction Few works in the literature are concerned with the GPR
inspection of wood. In Lualdi et al. (2003), Muller (2003),
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is an effective technique Sbartaï (2011), Martínez-Sala et al. (2013b), Mai et
that uses electromagnetic waves to obtain three-dimensional al. (2015), the properties of wood were estimated using
images of natural or man-made structures and subsoil. It is reflected-wave methods. In Lualdi et al. (2003), GPR was
employed in a large variety of applications for which non- used to detect timber beams and evaluate the type and size of
invasive and non-destructive investigations are required. Ex- their connection to a bearing wall. In Muller (2003), GPR
amples of applications are surveying of transport infrastruc- was employed for the inspection of timber bridges in or-
tures and buildings, detection and location of utilities, in- der to detect piping and rotting defects. In Martínez-Sala
spection of construction materials, geological and geotech- et al. (2013b), GPR was used on samples of sawn timber
nical investigations, archaeological prospecting and cultural- of different species (densities) and interesting results were
heritage diagnostics, detection of landmines and unexploded
Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union.
576 H. Reci et al.: Non-destructive evaluation of moisture content in wood using GPR
found: the propagation velocities, as well as the amplitudes field attenuation, phase shift and polarisation (Lundegren et
of the reflected waves, were always smaller when the electric al., 2006).
field was longitudinal to the grain rather than transverse to it. Let us consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagat-
However, when the field propagated in a random direction, ing through wood in the z direction. The propagation can be
the electromagnetic parameters did not differ significantly. In assumed as governed by a factor e−γ z , with complex propa-
Mai et al. (2015), laboratory measurements were carried out gation constant
with the aim of studying the sensitivity of electromagnetic- √
wave propagation to moisture variation and fibre direction, γ = j ω εr ε0 µr µ0 = a + jβ, (1)
in spruce and pine wood samples. The relative permittivity
(dielectric constant) was measured using the resonance tech- where ω is the angular frequency of the wave, εr = ε 0 −j ε 00 is
nique at 1.26 GHz, and results were compared to GPR mea- the relative permittivity of wood, ε0 = 8.854 × 10−12 F m−1
surements carried out with a 1.5 GHz ground-coupled an- is the permittivity of a vacuum, µr ≈ 1 is the relative perme-
ability of wood; moreover, as is well known, ε0 = 1/ µ0 c02 ,
tenna. The samples were tested in different moisture-content
conditions, ranging from 0 to 30 % by mass. The real part where µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H m−1 is the permeability of a vac-
of the permittivity estimated using the GPR technique turned uum and c0 = 299 792 458 ≈ 3 × 108 m s−1 is the speed of
out to be in good agreement with that measured by the res- light in a vacuum. The real part of γ can be defined as an
onance technique. The effect of moisture content when the attenuation constant
electric field was oriented parallel to the fibre direction was
ω ε 0 p
12
observed to be more significant than when the electric field α= 2
1 + tan δ − 1 , (2)
was oriented orthogonal to the fibres. c0 2
In Laurens et al. (2005), Sbartaï et al. (2006a, b), Martínez-
Sala et al. (2013a), direct-wave methods were used for the and the imaginary part of γ can be defined as a phase con-
non-destructive evaluation of concrete properties, with suc- stant
cessful results. Direct-wave methods are of practical interest, 12
ω ε 0 p
because sometimes it may be difficult to detect the signal re- β= 2
1 + tan δ + 1 , (3)
flected by a sample when applying the technique on site. c0 2
A preliminary example of application of the direct-wave
where tan δ = ε 0 /ε 00 is the loss tangent of wood.
approach to wood assessment can be found in Mai et
As already mentioned, electromagnetic waves propagate
al. (2015). In that paper, tests were carried out on a sample
in a vacuum at an approximate speed of 0.3 m ns−1 . In wood,
of spruce with a humidity of 12 %. Measurements were per-
the electromagnetic velocity can be expressed as follows:
formed with the electric field orthogonal to the wood fibres.
The obtained results showed that the direct-wave signal is ω c0
measurable. In addition, the permittivity values estimated by v= ≈√ . (4)
β εr
employing the direct-wave technique turned out to be lower
than those estimated from the reflected waves. In this work, GPR radargrams are recorded by using two dif-
Our work focuses on using the GPR direct wave to esti- ferent techniques: direct and reflected waves are measured by
mate the properties of wood. Results are compared with those the wide angle radar reflection (WARR) and fixed offset (FO)
obtained by employing a reflected-wave approach. Different methods, respectively, as will be explained in the following.
moisture-content conditions are reproduced in the laboratory Ground-coupled antennas are employed with a central fre-
and analysed. The effects of the wood fibre direction, with quency of 1.5 GHz; the radar system is a GSSI SIR 3000. A
respect to the polarisation of the electromagnetic field, are in- wood sample of Picea (spruce) type is used, which is 600 mm
vestigated. An interesting feature of the direct-wave method long, 190 mm wide and 176 mm thick (see Fig. 1). Measure-
is that the operator simply has to measure the wave propa- ments are carried out in two directions: longitudinal (as in
gating between the transmitter and receiver, without needing Fig. 1a), for which the electric field is polarised orthogonal
a reflector at the bottom of the sample or information about to the wood fibres and transversal (as in Fig. 1b), for which
the sample thickness. the electric field is parallel to the fibres. In order to easily dis-
tinguish between reflected and direct waves, a metallic sheet
is placed under the wood sample.
2 Methods Measurements start at a humidity level of the wood sam-
ple equal to 12 %, known as the reference humidity (water
The electromagnetic signal received by GPR in the presence content) used for wood characterisation. We measured the
of a wood sample is affected by many parameters, such as reference humidity to be 12 %, at the end of the experiments
moisture content, wood density, temperature and direction of by putting the sample to the oven and finding the weight in
fibres (Sahin and Nürgul, 2004; Laurens et al., 2005; Kasal anhydrous mode. The calculated density at zero humidity is
and Tannert, 2010). They influence the electromagnetic- used to correct the humidity values. Afterwards, the sample
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 5, 575–581, 2016 www.geosci-instrum-method-data-syst.net/5/575/2016/
H. Reci et al.: Non-destructive evaluation of moisture content in wood using GPR 577
Table 1. Relative permittivity of wood for different levels of humidity by mass water, for direct- and reflected-wave approaches.
Direct-wave (WARR) method Reflected-wave method
Humidity Relative permittivity Relative permittivity Humidity Relative permittivity Relative permittivity
(%) (E ⊥ wood fibres) (E// wood fibres) (%) (E ⊥ wood fibres) (E// wood fibres)
12 1.56 1.67 12 2.24 2.35
18.18 1.57 1.71 18.66 2.36 4.38
23.87 1.71 2 25.46 2.92 6.32
26.89 1.87 2.09 28.99 2.96 6.81
30.15 2.01 2.36 33.01 3.18 7.56
42.9 2.54 2.8 44.69 3.9 8.65
51.6 2.91 – 54.09 4.54 10.69
64.65 3.12 – 66.14 5.72 12.73
Figure 2. Humidity by mass water as a function of the time of im-
mersion into the water.
water. The weight of the sample was measured with a balance
which was sensitive to the gram. As already mentioned, the
size of the sample is 600 × 190 × 176 mm and the density of
the tested wood is about 450 kg m−3 ; therefore the sample at
zero humidity has a mass of about 10 kg and the error due to
balance precision is about 0.01 %.
Figure 2 shows the humidity by mass water of the sample,
as a function of the time of immersion into the water. The
Figure 1. GPR measurements on the wood sample using ground- measurements are performed at the humidity levels listed in
coupled antennas and the WARR technique. (a) Electric field is per- Table 1.
pendicular to the fibres. (b) Electric field is parallel to the fibres.
When applying the WARR technique, a radar antenna is
kept in a fixed position and the other antenna is moved on
is immersed in water to gradually increase its moisture con- the wood surface with a 1 cm step. The distances between
tent. GPR experiments are then repeated at different humidity the two antennas vary from 16 to 26 cm and from 11 to 21 cm
levels. for orthogonal and parallel polarisations of the electric field,
Humidity by mass water (%) is calculated by adopting the respectively. When the FO method is applied, the distances
following expression (Moron et al., 2016): between the antennas are 16 and 11 cm for orthogonal and
parallel polarisation states, respectively. The arrival times are
visualised with Radan software and Matlab. Examples of A-
W − W0
Humidity (%) = 100, (5) scans and B-scans showing the superposition of direct-air
W0
wave, direct wave and reflected wave are provided in Figs. 3
where W0 , is the weight of the sample in anhydrous mode and and 4; here, the polarisation of the electric field is orthogonal
W is the weight of the sample after being immersed into the to the fibres and the humidity level by mass water is 12 %.
www.geosci-instrum-method-data-syst.net/5/575/2016/ Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 5, 575–581, 2016
578 H. Reci et al.: Non-destructive evaluation of moisture content in wood using GPR
Figure 3. A-scans showing the superposition of the direct-air, direct and reflected waves measured over the sample when the polarisation of
the electric field is orthogonal to the fibres and at a 12 % humidity level by mass water.
Figure 4. B-scans showing the direct-air, direct and reflected waves measured over the sample when the polarisation of the electric field was
perpendicular to the fibres and at a 12 % humidity level by mass water.
For the WARR technique, the propagation velocity is es- real is the arrival time of the air wave (reference sig-
where tair
timated from the arrival times of the direct waves, measured nal), t0 is the starting time of electromagnetic impulse, c0 –
at difference distances between the antennas (the arrival time as already mentioned – is the light velocity in a vacuum (as
is the instant corresponding to the first and highest positive is well known, it is reasonable to assume that the velocity of
peak in the radargram). In particular, the propagation velocity light in the air on Earth is the same as in a vacuum), and dTR
is estimated as the slope of the linear regression of the arrival is the distance between the transmitting and receiving anten-
time of the direct wave, as a function of the distance between nas.
antennas. This is shown in Fig. 5, for both polarisation cases For the reflected wave (+R) the arrival time is
and a level of humidity equal to 18.18 %. dR
For the reflected wave, the propagation velocity v in the tr = t0 + trreal = t0 + , (7)
v
wood sample was determined from the peaks of the air wave
(+D) and reflected wave (+R) and the expression derived where trreal is the arrival time of the reflected wave and dR is
in the following was used (Fig. 4). For the direct air wave the length of the propagation path of the reflected wave.
(+D), the arrival time is s
dTR 2
dR = 2 + h2 , (8)
2
real dTR
tair = t0 + tair = t0 + , (6) where h is the thickness of the wood sample (Fig. 6).
c0
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 5, 575–581, 2016 www.geosci-instrum-method-data-syst.net/5/575/2016/
H. Reci et al.: Non-destructive evaluation of moisture content in wood using GPR 579
Figure 5. Determination of the propagation velocity for the direct Figure 7. Relative permittivity as a function of humidity by mass
wave from the arrival times. Both configurations with electric field water, estimated using the direct-wave (WARR) and reflected-wave
parallel and perpendicular to the fibres are considered. In this case methods for both polarisation cases.
the humidity level was 18.18 %. R 2 is the coefficient for the deter-
mination of linear dependence.
properties of it are strongly influenced from the polarisation
of electric field in relation to wood grains; moreover these
properties are influenced by cellulose and mannan in the case
of parallel polarisation, but in a transverse direction the di-
electric properties are influenced by lignin. Lignin has lower
dielectric properties than cellulose. Therefore, it is expected
that the values of dielectric constants in the parallel polari-
Figure 6. Schematic view of the distances between antennas (blue sation are more influenced by humidity than in a transverse
line), thickness of the wood sample (green line) and reflected-wave direction. In the case of the reflected wave, the electric field
path (black line). can be polarised exactly to the wood grains.
The increase of relative permittivity versus moisture con-
tent is piecewise linear, with a slope change occurring when
From the combination of Eqs. (7) and (8) it is possible the humidity level is about 18 %, in agreement with a previ-
to find the propagation velocity inside the wood sample, as ous publication where more samples were considered (Mai
follows: et al., 2015).
dR For the reflected-wave method, the increase of relative
v= , (9) permittivity versus moisture content is piecewise linear as
1t + dcTR
0 well, with a higher slope than in the case of the direct-wave
real . Finally, the relative permittivity of method. Moreover, the slope strongly depends on the po-
where 1t = trreal − tair
larisation of the electromagnetic field and this is in agree-
the wood sample can be estimated from the following ex-
ment with Martínez-Sala et al. (2013b), Mai et al. (2015).
pression:
When the electric field is orthogonal to the wood fibres, a
εr ≈ (c0 /v)2 . (10) slope change occurs at a humidity level of about 18 %, cor-
responding to the fibre saturation point. The slope change
is less visible and seems to occur at higher humidity levels
3 Results and discussion when the electric field is parallel to the wood fibres; this is
again in agreement with Martínez-Sala et al. (2013b), Mai et
As mentioned in Sect. 2, the wood relative permittivity is al. (2015).
measured for different humidity levels (ranging from 12 to At all humidity levels, the permittivity values measured by
64.5 %) and polarisation cases (electric field orthogonal and the reflected-wave method are consistently higher than those
parallel to the wood fibres). Results are summarised in Ta- measured by the direct-wave method. For both methods, the
ble 1 and plotted in Fig. 7. direction of the fibres does not affect the wood permittivity
When the direct-wave method is used, the estimated value when the moisture content is low, then it becomes more im-
of the relative permittivity does not significantly change if portant in the presence of higher humidity levels.
the polarisation is rotated. When the electric field is parallel It is interesting to notice that the results of the reflected-
to the fibres, the permittivity values are systematically higher wave method are closer to the direct-wave curves when the
than those measured when the electric field is orthogonal to electric field is orthogonal to the wood fibres. When the elec-
the fibres. Wood is an anisotropic media, so the dielectric tric field is polarised in a transverse direction, the dielectric
www.geosci-instrum-method-data-syst.net/5/575/2016/ Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 5, 575–581, 2016
580 H. Reci et al.: Non-destructive evaluation of moisture content in wood using GPR
properties of wood are influenced by lignin. Lignin has lower
dielectric properties than cellulose and this could be the rea-
son for this small change.
The obtained results show that direct waves in wood be-
have differently than reflected waves. This happens because
the direct and reflected waves follow different propagation
paths: the direct waves propagate in the top layer of the sam-
ple and the effect of the electromagnetic-field polarisation is
small; the reflected waves propagate through the whole sam-
ple and, due to the anisotropy of wood, the polarisation has a
stronger effect on the results.
When the electric field is orthogonal to the wood fibres, di- Figure 8. Amplitude of the signal received by the GPR, as a func-
rect waves can be distinguished even when the humidity lev- tion of the distance between transmitting and receiving antennas
els are above 60 %. When the electric field is parallel to the (WARR method, 18.18 % humidity by mass water).
wood fibres, the direct-wave arrival time cannot be detected
for humidity levels higher than 43 %. We tested humidity lev-
els higher than 43 %, but in such conditions a high dissipation
of electromagnetic energy occurs, the signal is completely at-
tenuated in the parallel polarisation and it is not possible to
extract signal parameters.
A further goal of this work is to study how the distance be-
tween the radar antennas affects the amplitude of the received
signal. For each considered humidity level, the amplitude of
the direct wave is then measured with antennas placed at 30
different distances. In Fig. 8, the direct-wave amplitude nor-
malised to the amplitude of the direct-air wave is plotted as
a function of the distance between transmitting and receiv- Figure 9. Normalised amplitude of direct wave with respect to hu-
ing antennas, when the humidity by mass water is 18.18 %. midity, for perpendicular and parallel polarisation of the electric
As expected, the amplitude shows an exponential attenuation field.
when the distance increases. In Fig. 9, the normalised ampli-
tude of the direct wave is plotted as a function of the humid-
4 Conclusions
ity level for both parallel and orthogonal polarisation cases,
when the distance between the antennas is 11 and 16 cm, re- In this work, the sensitivity of ground-penetrating radar
spectively. It can be noticed that, when the moisture content (GPR) signal to moisture variation in wood material was in-
increases, the normalised amplitude at short distances turns vestigated. The relative permittivity of a Picea wood sample
out to be higher than one when the electric field is orthog- was measured at different humidity levels and for different
onal to the wood fibres. This may be due to a superposition polarisation states of the electromagnetic field.
of direct and direct-air waves. In particular, in this configu- Results obtained by using direct waves in wide angle radar
ration the distance T –R is small and the dielectric constant reflection (WARR) configuration, in which one GPR antenna
is also small; hence the velocity is high and the propagation is moved while the other is in a fixed position, were compared
time is small, which allows for the superposition of direct to results obtained by using reflected waves in the so-called
and direct-air waves. fixed offset configuration in which the distance between GPR
For small humidity levels, the normalised amplitude in- antennas is fixed. Additionally, when the WARR method was
creases with moisture content, then when moisture content is applied, it was investigated how the attenuation of the re-
further increased, the normalised amplitude starts to decrease ceived signal varies as a function of the distance between the
(this happens at about 30 and 25 % humidity by mass water radar antennas.
for orthogonal and parallel polarisation, respectively). This The presented results prove that direct and reflected waves
phenomenon should be investigated more in depth by car- have different behaviours when the moisture content varies,
rying out further measurements on different kinds of wood due to their different propagation paths. Overall, when the
(with different densities) in order to have a clear picture of it. humidity levels increase, the difference between the permit-
tivity values estimated by using the reflected- and direct-
wave approaches becomes larger.
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 5, 575–581, 2016 www.geosci-instrum-method-data-syst.net/5/575/2016/
H. Reci et al.: Non-destructive evaluation of moisture content in wood using GPR 581
For the reflected waves, the wood anisotropy affects the Laurens, S., Balayssac, J. P., Rhazi, J., Klysz, G., and Arliguie, G.:
variation of the relative permittivity as a function of the mois- Non-destructive evaluation of concrete moisture by GPR: exper-
ture content; the effect is stronger when the electric field is imental study and direct modelling, Mater. Struct., 38, 827–832,
parallel to the wood fibres. This is in good agreement with 2005.
results available in the literature. Regarding direct waves, Lualdi, M., Zanzi, L., and Binda, L.: Acquisition and processing
requirements for high-quality 3D reconstructions from GPR in-
the measured values of the relative permittivity turn out to
vestigations, International Symposium (NDT-CE 2003): Non-
be weakly affected by the polarisation of the electromag- Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering (NDT-CE) Berlin, 16–
netic field. They are close to the values obtained by using 19 September 2003.
reflected waves with the electric field orthogonal to the wood Lundegren, N., Hagman, O., and Johansson, J.: Prediciting mois-
fibres. Apparently, the propagation paths are similar in the ture content and density distribution of Scots pine by microwave
two cases. scanning of sawn timber II: evaluation of models generated on a
Overall, our results show that the proposed measurement pixel level, J. Wood Sci., 52, 39–43, 2006.
approach is effective at estimating the permittivity behaviour Mai, T. C., Razafindratsima, S., Sbartaï, Z. M., Demontoux, D., and
of wood material as a function of moisture content. The Frédéric Bos, F.: Non-destructive evaluation of moisture content
GPR technique is promising for moisture evaluation in tim- of wood material at GPR frequency, Constr. Build. Mater., 77,
ber structures and their early-stage diagnosis. 213–217, 2015.
Martínez-Sala, R., Rodríguez-Abad, I., and del Val, I.: Effect of pen-
etration of water under pressure in hardened concrete on GPR
signals, in: 7th International Workshop on Advanced Ground
5 Data availability Penetrating Radar (IWAGPR), 2–5 July 2013, Nantes, France,
doi:10.1109/IWAGPR.2013.6601523, 2013a.
GPR data in wood, relative to this paper are available Martínez-Sala, R., Rodríguez-Abad, I., Diez Barra R., and Capuz-
in the online repository of IGEWE, http://www.geo.edu.al/ Lladró, R.: Assessment of the dielectric anisotropy in timber us-
newweb/?fq=brenda&gj=gj2&kid=38. ing the nondestructive GPR technique, Constr. Build. Mater., 38,
903–911, doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.09.052, 2013b.
Moron, C., Garcia-Fuentevilla, L., Garcia, A., and Moron, A.: Mea-
Acknowledgements. The authors are grateful to COST (Euro- surement of moisture in wood for application in the restoration
pean Cooperation in Science and Technology, www.cost.eu) for of old buildings, Sensors, 16, 607–705, 2016.
funding the Action TU1208 “Civil Engineering Applications of Muller, W.: Timber girder inspection using Ground Penetrating
Ground Penetrating Radar” (www.GPRadar.eu). The experimental Radar, OR Insight, 45, 809–812, 2003.
results presented in this paper were collected at the University of Persico, R.: Introduction to Ground Penetrating Radar: Inverse Scat-
Bordeaux, France, during a 1-month short-term scientific mission tering and Data Processing, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken,
supported by TU1208. We acknowledge also the French National NJ, 2014.
Research Agency (ANR) for supporting this study through the Reci, H., Sbart’i, Z. M., Pajewski, L., and Marciniak, M.: Moisture
Xylo-plate project, Equipex XYLOFOREST. The authors are evaluation of wood material using GPR with WARR method –
grateful to the EGU GI Division President, Francesco Soldovieri, COST Action TU1208, EGU General Assembly, Vienna Austria,
the chief-executive editor of the Geoscientific Instrumentation, 17–22 April 2016, EGU2016-18414-1, 2016.
Methods and Data Systems journal, Jothiram Vivekanandan and Sahin, H. and Nürgul, A.: Dielectric properties of hardwood species
the executive editors, Ari-Matti Harri and Håkan Svedhem, for at microwave frequencies, J. Wood Sci., 50, 375–380, 2004.
inviting them to submit this paper, which resumes and extends the Sbartaï, Z. M.: Ground Penetrating Radar, in: In situ assessment of
presentation (Reci et al., 2016) given during the GI3.1 Session of structural timber, edited by: Kasal, B. and Tannert, T., Springer
the 2016 EGU GA (Vienna, Austria, 17–22 April 2016). Netherlands, 7, 25–37, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0560-9_3, 2011.
Sbartaï, Z. M., Laurens, S., Balayssac, J. P., Ballivy, G., and
Edited by: L. Eppelbaum Arliguie, G.: Effect of concrete moisture on radar signal ampli-
Reviewed by: two anonymous referees tude, ACI Mater. J., 103, 419–426, 2006a.
Sbartaï, Z. M., Laurens, S., Balayssac, J. P., Arliguie, G., and Bal-
livy, G.: Ability of the direct wave of radar ground-coupled an-
tenna for NDT of concrete structures, NDT&E Int., 39, 400–407,
2006b.
References
Benedetto, A. and Pajewski, L. (Eds.): Civil engineering applica-
tions of Ground Penetrating Radar, in: Springer Transactions
in Civil and Environmental Engineering, Springer International
Publishing, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-04813-0, 2015.
Kasal, B. and Tannert, T. (Eds.): In situ assessment of structural tim-
ber: State of the art report of the RILEM Technical Committee
215-AS, in: RILEM state of the art reports, Springer, Heidelberg,
New York, Series Volume 7, 2010.
www.geosci-instrum-method-data-syst.net/5/575/2016/ Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 5, 575–581, 2016
