Chapter 4

OPTICAL RECEIVERS

Fiber-Optic Communications Systems, Third Edition.

Govind P. Agrawal

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CONTENTS
 Basic Concepts: Detector Responsivity. Rise Time
and Bandwidth
 Common Photodetectors: p–n Photodiodes, p–i–n
Photodiodes, Avalanche Photodiodes
 Receiver Noise: Noise Mechanisms, p–i–n Receivers,
APD Receivers
 Receiver Sensitivity: Bit-Error Rate, Minimum
Received Power
 Quantum Limit of Photodetection

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 Principle of PN photodiodes
 Absorbed Light in p-n depletion region
 If (h≥ Eg= Ec - Ev), electrons are pulled up into
the conduction band, leaving holes in their
places in the valance band.
 Apply reverse bias, strong electric field
separates the generated holes and electrons:
holes move to the P-layer and electrons move to
the N-layer.
 These holes and electrons generate a current
flow in a semiconductor are called the carries or
photocurrents Ip.
 This current is collected by an external circuit
(load).

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 Principle of PN photodiodes

 For intrinsic absorption, photons can be absorbed if:

hc hc
hv   Eg   
 where:  Eg
– h: Planck’s constant = 6.625. 10-34 (J.s)
– c: speed of light in vacuum = 3.108 (m/s)
– Eg: Energy of band gap (eV)
– cut-off wavelength: hc 1.24
c ( m)  
Eg Eg
– If the wavelength of incident light ≥c the photodiodes not
work.

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 Example 4.1

A photodiode is made of GaAs, has the bandgap

energy of 1.43 eV at temperature of 3000K.
Calculate its cut-off wavelength?

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 Solution 4.1
hc hc
h   Eg  
 Eg
hc
 C 
Eg
hc 1.24
C [ m]  
Eg Eg [eV ]

hc 1.24 (6.625 1034 j.s)(3 108 m / s)

C [ m]    19
 869nm
Eg Eg [eV ] (1.43eV )(1.6 10 j / eV )

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 Typical operation range
of some types of photodiodes

Material Maximum  Typical operating

Band gap (eV)
(nm) range (nm)
1.17 1060 400 – 1060
Silicon (Si)

0.775 1600 600 -1600

Germanium (Ge)

1.424 870 650 – 870

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

0.73 1700 900-1700

InGaAs

0.75– 1.35 920– 1650 800 - 1650

InGaAsP

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PD Responsivity

 Example:
– Si Photodiode: R = 0.6A/W at wavelength of 900nm.
– Ge Photodiode: R = 0.45A/W at wavelength of 1300nm
– InGaAs Photodiode: R=0.62A/W at wavelength of 1300nm
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and 0.75A/W at 1500nm 11
 Example 4.2

A photodiode has a coefficient of optical-electrical

conversion (responsivity) of 0.65 A/W. If the optical
power level of 10 W, find the photocurrent?

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 Solution 4.2

A photodiode has a coefficient of optical-electrical

conversion (responsivity) of 0.65 A/W. If the optical
power level of 10 W, the photocurrent is calcutated
as follows:
Ipq
R 
P0 h
I p  RP0  (0.65 A / W )(105W )  6.5 A

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 Example 4.3

A photodiode has quantum efficiency =0.6 that

operates at wavelength  = 0.85 m. Find its
responsivity and find the voltage across the load
RL = 50  if power at the receiver is P0 = 10 W
(assuming the light is completely absorbed).

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 Solution 4.3
Ip q q (0.6)(1.6 1019 C )(0.85 106 m)
R     0.4105 A / W
P0 h hc 34
(6.625 10 J .s)(3 10 m / s)
8

I p  RP0  (0.4105 A/W)(10 10 W )  4.1 A

-6

V  RL I P  (50)(4.1106 A)  0.205mV

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P-I-N Photodiodes

 To increase the photon absorption

region , a layer of intrinsic
semiconductor material can be added
betwwen P and N layer.
  can be increased over that of a
simple P-N junction since the
depletion region is almost entirely
contained in the intrinsic region and
the intrinsic can be made long.
 Carrier diffusion effects minimized
since all light absorbed in intrinsic
region

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 Avalanche Photodiode (APD)

 APDs internally multiply the primary

photocurrent before it enters to
following circuit.

 In order to carrier multiplication take

place, the photogenerated carriers must
traverse along a high field region.

 In this region, photogenerated electrons

and holes gain enough energy to ionize
bound electrons in VB upon colliding
with them.

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Avalanche Photodiode (APD)

 This multiplication is known as

impact ionization.

 The newly created carriers in the

presence of high electric field
result in more ionization called
avalanche effect.

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 Example 4.4

An APD generates the current of 100 nA when the incident

power is 5 nW. Wavelength is equal 1.5 m. Find its RAPD
If the quantum efficiency is equal 0.7, find the multiply
factor M.

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 Solution 4.4

Ip 100 109 A
RAPD   9
 20 A / W
P0 5 10 W

q
R APD  M
hc

hc (6.625 1034 J .s)(3 108 m)

M  RAPD  (20 A / W )  23.6
q 19
(0.7)(1,6 10 C )(1.5 10 m)6

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 Receiver Sensitivity vs. Bit Rate

10 9
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 The end of chapter 4

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