AIRPLANE DESIGN PRELIMINARY CALCULATION OF AERODYNAMIC, THRUST AND POWER CHARACTERISTICS by Dr. Jan Roskam Ackers Distinguished Professor of Aerospace Engineering The University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE REPRODUCED WITHOUT PERMISSION FROM THE AUTHOR Copyright: Roskam Aviation and Engineering Corporation Rt4, Box 274, Ottawa, Kansas, 66067 Tel. 913-2421624 First Printing: 1987TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF SYMBOLS xiii ‘ACKNOWLEDGEMENT xxix 1, INTRODUCTION 1 2, IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS 3 2.1 FLOW REGIME DEFINITIONS 3 2.1.1 Subsonic Flow Regime 3 2.1.2 Transonic Flow Regime 5 2.1.3 Supersonic Flow Regime 8 2,2 IMPORTANT GEOMETRIC DEFINITIONS 8 2.2.1 Wing Planform Geometries 8 21212 Empennage Planform Geometries 10 3. SUMMARY OD DRAG CAUSES AND DRAG MODELLING 13 3.1 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF DRAG 13 3.2 DRAG BREAKDOWN METHOD 16 3.3 DRAG MODELLING FOR PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS = 16 DRAG POLAR PREDICTION METHODS 22 4.1 DRAG BREAKDOWN PROCEDURE 2a 4.2 WING DRAG COEFFICIENT PREDICTION 23 Subsonic Wing Drag Coefficient 23 4.2.1.1 Wing zero-lift drag coefficient 23 4.2.1.2 Wing drag coefficient due to lift 27 4.2.2 Transonic Wing Drag Coefficient 28 4.2.2.1 Wing zero-lift drag coefficient 28 4.21212 Wing drag coefficient due to lift 34 ic Wing Drag Coefficient 36 3.1 Wing zefo-lift “drag coefficient 36 12 Wing drag coefficient due to lift 40 4.3 FUSELAGE DRAG COEFFICIENT PREDICTION 44 4.3.1 Subsonic Fuselage Drag Coefficient 44 4.3.1.1 Fuselage zero-lift drag coefficient 44 4.3.1.2 Puselage drag coefficient due to lift 46 4.3.2 Transonic Fuselage Drag Coefficient 48 4.3.2.1 Fuselage zero-lift drag coefficient 48 4.3.2.2 Puselage drag coefficient due to lift 49 4.3.3 Supersonic Fuselage Drag Coefficient 49 Part VI Contents Page iPart VI 4.3.3.1 Fuselage zero-lift drag coefficient 4.3.3.2 Fuselage drag coefficient due to ligt 4.3.4 The Area Rule Concept EMPENNAGE DRAG COEFFICIENT PREDICTION 4.4.1 Subsonic Empennage Drag Coefficient 4.4.1.1 Empennage zero-lift drag coefficient 4.4.1.2 Empennage drag coefficient due to lift 4.4.2 Transonic Empennage Drag Coefficient 4.4.2.1 Empennage zero-lift drag coefficient 4.4.2.2 Empennage drag coefficient due to lift 4.4.3 Supersonic Empennage Drag Coefficient 4.4.3.1 Empennage zero-lift drag coefficient 4.4.3.2 Empennage drag coefficient due to lift NACELLE/PYLON DRAG COEFFICIENT PREDICTION 4.5.1 Isolated Nacelle/Pylon Drag Coefficient 4.5.1.1 Nacelle drag coefficient 4.5.1.2 Pylon drag coefficient 4.5.2 Installed Nacelle/Pylon Drag Coefficient Increment 4.5.2.1 Wing/nacelle interference drag coefficient 4.5.2.2 Puselage/nacelle interference drag coefficient 4.5.2.3 Cooling drag coefficient increment 4.5.3 Windmilling Drag and Propeller Drag Coefficients 4.5.3.1 Windmilling drag coefficient due to jet engines 4.5.3.2 Windmilling drag coefficient due to propellers 4.5.3.3 Drag coefficient due to a stopped propeller ‘LAP DRAG PREDICTION -6.1 Flap Profile Drag Increment +6,2 Induced Drag Increment due to Flaps +6.3 Interference Drag Increment due to Flaps LANDING GEAR DRAG PREDICTION CANOPY/WINDSHIELD DRAG PREDICTION 4.8.1 Canopy Drag Prediction 4.8.2 Windshield Drag Prediction STORE DRAG PREDICTION F 4 4 4 Contents Page 66 67 69 69 70 70 1 1 12 13 15 15 17 19 19 19 19 a1 a1 82 a6 86 90 98 98 98 103 ii4,10 TRIM DRAG PREDICTION 104 4.10.1 Trim Drag Due to Lift 104 4.10.2 Trim Drag Due to Profile Drag 105 4.11 INTERFERENCE DRAG PREDICTION 107 4,12 MISCELLANEOUS DRAG PREDICTION 107 4.12.1 Drag Due to Spoilers (or Speed Brakes)107 4.12.2 Drag Due to Surface Roughness 110 4.12.3 Drag Due to Other Causes aii 4.13 DRAG ADJUSTMENTS FOR LAMINAR FLOW 113 5. AIRPLANE DRAG DATA 117 5.1 DRAG POLARS 117 5.2 EQUIVALENT PARASITE AREAS 128 5.3 OSWALD'S EFFICIENCY FACTORS 128 5.4 EXAMPLES OP WETTED AREA BREAKDOWNS 128 5.5 VERIFICATION OF REALISM OF COMPUTED DRAG POLARS 135 6. INSTALLED POWER AND THRUST PREDICTION METHODS 139 6.1 POWER EXTRACTION REQUIREMENTS 141 6.1.1 Piston-propeller Driven Airplanes 141 6.1.2 Turbopropeller and Jet Driven Airplanes 145 6.2 INLET SIZING AND INTEGRATION 147 6.2.1 General Inlet Arrangements 152 6.2.1.1 Piston engine inlets 152 6.2.1.2 Turbopropeller inlets 152 6.2.1.3 Jet engine inlets: subsonic 152 6.2.1.4 Jet engine inlets: supersonic 159 6.2.2 Inlet Sizing 165 6.2.2.1 Piston engine installations 165 6.2.2.2 Turbopropeller installations 167 6.2.2.3 Jet engine installations: subsonic 168 6.2.2.4 Jet engine installations: supersonic 170 6.2.3 Inlet Pressure Loss Estimation 173 6.2.3.1 Piston engine inlets 1% 6.2.3.2 Turbopropeller inlets 174 +2.3.3 Jet engine inlets: subsonic 175 6.2.3.4 Jet engine inlets: supersonic 177 6.2.4 Inlet Extra Drag Estimation 180 6.2.4.1 Piston engine inlet extra drag 180 6.2.4.2 Turbopropeller inlet extra drag 180 6.2.4.3 Jet engine inlet extra drag: subsonic 180 6.2.4.4Jet engine inlet extra drag: supersonic 381 6.3 EXHAUST OR NOZZLE SIZING AND INTEGRATION 183 6.3.1 General Exhaust/Nozzle Arrangements 183 6.3.1.1 Piston engine exhausts 183 6.3.1.2 Turbopropeller nozzles 184 Part VI Contents Page iii6.3.1.3 Jet engine nozzles: subsonic 184 6.3.1.4 Jet engine nozzles: supersonic 184 6.3.2 Exhaust/Nozzle Sizing 184 6.3.2.1 Piston engine exhausts 188 6.3.2.2 Turbopropeller nozzles 188 6.3.2.3 Jet engine nozzles: subsonic 189 6.3.2.4 Jet engine nozzles: supersonic 189 6.3.3 Estimation of Exhaust/Nozzle Extra Drag 190 6.3.3.1 Piston engines 190 6.3.3.2 Turbopropeller engines 190 6.3.3.3 Jet engines: subsonic 190 6.3.3.4 Jet engines: supersonic 192 6.4 PREDICTION OF INSTALLED POWER AND THRUST 193 6.4.1 Propeller Driven Airplanes 193 6.4.1.1 Piston propeller driven airplanes 193 6.4.1.2 Turbopropeller driven airplanes 195 6.4.2 Jet Driven Airplanes 198 6.4.2.1 Subsonic operations 198 6.4.2.2 Supersonic operations 198 7, INSTALLED POWER AND THRUST DATA 203 7,1 PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANES 203 7.1.1 Piston Propeller Driven Airplanes 203 7.1.2 Turbopropeller Driven Airplanes 204 7,2 JET DRIVEN AIRPLANES 208 7.2.1 Subsonic Operations 208 7.2.2 Supersonic Operations 209 8. LIPT AND PITCHING MOMENT PREDICTION METHODS 213 8.1 PREDICTION OF LIFT COEFFICIENT VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK 214 8.1.1 Airfoil Lift and Maximum Lift: Flaps Up 215 8.1.1.1 Airfoil zero-lift angle of attack: a 215 1 8.1.1.2 Airfoil lift curve slope: c) 215 8.1.1.3 Airfoil linear range of angle of attack: a* 218 8.1.1.4 Airfoil angle of attack for maximum lift: a, 218 °1 max 8.1.1.5 Airfoil maximm lift coeffi- cient: cy 218 max 8.1.1.6 Construction of airfoil lift curve: flaps up 225 Part VI Contents Page ivPart VI 8.4.2 8.1.4 Airfoil Lift and Maximum Lift: Flaps Down 226 8.1.2.1 Airfoil lift increment due to flaps: Ac, 226 8.1.2.2 Airfoil lift curve slope due to flaps: (c) ), 238 « 8.1.2.3 Airfoil maximm lift increment due to flaps: Ac) 238 ‘max 8.1.2.4 Construction of airfoil lift curve: flaps down 243 Wing Lift and Maxim Lift: Flaps Up 245 8.1.3.1 Wing zero-lift angle of attack: 6, 245 w 8.1.3.2 Wing lift curve slope: C,” 248 w 8.1.3.3 Wing linear range of angle of attack: a,* 248 8.1.3.4 Wing maxim lift coefficient: c, and wing angle of attack ‘max, w for maximm lift: (@, ) 256 . Dax 8.1.3.5 Construction of wing lift curve: flaps up 257 Wing Lift and Maximm Lift: Flaps Down 259 8.1.4.1 Wing lift increment due to flaps: AC, 259 w 8.1.4.2 Wing lift curve slope due to flaps: (C) ), 259 8.1.4.3 Wing maximum lift increment due to flaps: AC, 262 ‘max, 8.1.4.4 Construction of the wing lift curve: flaps down 264 Airplane Lift and Maximm Lift: Flaps Up 265 8.1.5.1 Airplane zero-lift angle of attack: es 268 L Contents Page v8.1.5.2 Airplane zero-angle-of-attack lift coefficient: Cc, 268 ‘0 8.1.5.3 Airplane lift curve slope: C, 272 8.1.5.4 Airplane linear range of angle of attack: a,* 275 8.1.5.5 Airplane maximm lift coefficient: ¢, and airplane angle of attack Tmax for maximm lift: a, 215 L, ‘max 8.1.5.6 Construction of airplane lift curve: flaps up 275 8.1.6 Airplane Lift and Maximm Lift: Flaps Down 277 8.1.6.1 Airplane lift increment due to Plaps: AC) 277 8.1.6.2 Airplane lift curve due to flaps: (C, ), 278 a 8.1.6.3 Airplane maximm lift increment due to flaps: AC, 280 ‘max 8.1.6.4 Construction of airplane lift curve: flaps down 280 8.1.7 Airplane Lift in Ground Effect 281 8.1.7.1 High aspect ratio configura- tions: transports 281 8.1.7.2 Low aspect ratio configura- tions: fighters 283 8.1.8 Power Effects on Airplane Lift 286 8.2 PREDICTION OF PITCHING MOMENT COEFFICIENT VERSUS LIFT COEFFICIENT 289 8.2.1 Airfoil Pitching Moment: Flaps Up 289 8.2.1.1 Airfoil zero-lift pitching mo- ment coefficient: c, 289 ‘o 8.2.1.2 Airfoil aerodynamic center: x,, 291 and airfoil center of Pressure: xo 291 8.2.1.3 Airfoil pitching moment varia~ tion with lift coefficient: 295 Part VI dc, /dey Contents Page viPart VI 8.2.4 8.2.5 8.2.1.4 Airfoil linear range for pitching moment: ¢," 295 8.2.1.5 Construction of airfoil pitching moment curve: flaps up 295 Airfoil Pitching Moment: Flaps Down 297 8.2.2.1 Airfoil pitching moment incre- ment due to flaps: 4c, 297 8.2.2.2 Construction of the flaps-down airfoil pitching moment curve 299 Wing Pitching Moment: Flaps-Up 302 8.2.3.1 Wing zero-lift pitching moment coefficient: C, 302 My 7 8.2.3.2 Slope of the wing pitching moment curve: (dC, /dC,) 305 nf Ap) y 8.2.3.3 Prediction of stable or unstable pitch break 310 8.2.3.4 Construction of the wing pitching moment curve: £1aps-up 310 Wing Pitching Moment: Flaps-Down 311 3.2.4.3 Wing pitching moment increment due to flaps:aC,, 311 7 8.2.4.2 Slope of the wing pitching moment curve, flaps-down: (AC, /4C,)¥, 327 8.2.4.3 Prediction of stable or unstable pitch break: flaps-down 317 8.2.4.4 Construction of the wing pitching moment curve: flaps-down 317 Airplane Pitching Moment: Flaps Up 318 $.2,5-1 Airplane zero-lift pitching moment coefficient: C, 320 0 8.2.5.2 Airplane pitching moment coeffi- cient variation with lift coef- ficient: aC, /ac, 324 8.2.5.3 Calculation of the aerodynamic center shift due to the fuselage: A¥,, 325 8.2.5.4 Prediction of stable or unstable pitch break 326 Contents Page vii8.2.5.5 Construction of airplane pitching moment coefficient versus lift coefficient 328 8.2.6 Airplane Pitching Moment: Flaps Down 329 7 8.2.6.1 Airplane pitching moment coeffi- | cient increment due to flaps: ac, 329 1 8.2.6.2 Slope of the airplane piching mo- ment curve flaps down: (ac, /AC,) g 330 8.2.6.3 Prediction of stable or unstable pitch break: flaps down 330 8.2.6.4 Construction of the airplane flaps | down pitching moment curve 330 8.2.7 Airplane Pitching Moment in Ground Effect 332 8.2.7.1 Ground effect on downwash and on upwash a 333 8.2.8 Power Effects on Airplane Pitching i Moment 337 ! 8.2.8.1 Power effect on pitching moment at zero lift coefficient: Cn 337 8.2.8.2 Power effect on longitudinal stability: A(dC,/dC,)q_ 340 8.3 PREDICTION OF TRIMMED LIFT AND TRIMMED MAXIMUM 4 LIFT COEFFICIENT 344 8.3.1 Stable Airplane with Stable Pitch Break 347 8.3.2 Unstable Airplane with Stable Pitch Break 352 8.3.3 Stable Airplane with Unstable Pitch Break 353 { 8.3.4 Unstable Airplane with Unstable Pitch Break 353 9, AIRPLANE HIGH LIPT DATA 355 9,1 AIRFOIL HIGH LIFT DATA: FLAPS UP AND FLAPS DOWN 355 i 9.2 AIRPLANE HIGH LIFT DATA: PLAPS UP AND FLAPS t DOWN 355 : 9.3 MACH NUMBER EFFECT ON HIGH LIFT 356 10, STABILITY, CONTROL AND HINGE MOMENT DERIVATIVES 371 10.1 STEADY STATE COEFFICIENTS 371 10,2 STABILITY DERiVATIVES 376 | 10.2.1 Speed Derivatives: Cy, C, , ‘a Cy and ¢, 376 Thy u u Part VI Contents Page viii10,2,1.1 Aerodynamic Speed Derivatives: Cy. SC, and C. 376 Dy Ly : Tm, 10,2,1,2 Thrust versus speed derivatives: ¢, and C, 377 7 ee oy 10.2.2 Angle-of-Attack Derivatives: C) . a c ¢, a and ony 379 10,2.2,1 Aerodynamic angle-of-attack de- rivatives: Cy ¢ and C, 379 a Le mM 10.2,2,2 Thrust versus angle-of-attack derivative: C 381 2 10.2.3 Rate of Angle-of-Attack Derivatives: Spe Cy and Cy 381 10.2,4 Angle-of-Sideslip Derivatives: LX Cy) > p48 c, and ¢ 383 p ir, ® 10.2.4,1 Aerodynamic angle-of-sideslip derivatives: C, , Cy Ys and c, 383 10.2.4,.2 Thrust versus sideslip deriva- tive: C, 398 Dy 6 10.2.5 Rate of Angle-of-Sideslip Derivatives: Cc, . C. and C 401 Yp’ 1p Rp 10.2.6 Roll Rate Derivatives: c. and C, PD 417 *p 10.2.7 Pitch Rate Derivatives: Cp ¢ and C ‘q 424 Me 10.2.8 Yaw Rate Derivatives: C, , and C, Ye 428 ny 10,3 CONTROL DERIVATIVES 435 Contents Page ix10.4 Part VI 10.3.1 10.3.2 10.3.3 10.3.4 10.3.5 10.3.6 10.3.7 10.3.8 Stabilizer Control Derivatives: C, » Cy and Cy 435 h h Elevator Control Derivatives: Cy . Cc, and ¢ 6, 437 L, n, e 8 6 e 'e Canard Control Derivatives: Cy » cand C, 438 by my © © c canardvator Control Derivatives: Chey cAaatend|(c) 440 Ds’ “bs My © ce c Aileron Control Derivatives: C, Cy, and Cy 8, 442 a ‘a spoiler Control Derivatives: C, . cj) and ¢, Ys 449 8 eo 8 's 's Differential stabilizer Control Deriva- tives: C , C, and C, 456 yy Ay n. h h Rudder Control Derivatives: C, . and C, aoe 461 8 c 15 ir r HINGEMOMENT DERIVATIVES OF CONTROL SURFACES 463 10.4.1 10.4.2 ‘Two-Dimensional Control Surface and Tab Hingemoment Derivatives about the Control Surface Hingeline 466 10.4,1,1 Two-D control surface hinge- moment derivative due to an- gle of attack: c, 466 a 10,4,1,2 Two-D control surface hingemo- ment derivative due to control surface deflection: c, 414 8 10.4.1,3 Two-D control surface hingemo- ment derivative due to tab deflection: c, 478 8 t Three-Dimensional Control Surface and Tab Hingemoment Derivatives 481 Contents Page x10.4.2.1 Three-D control surface hinge- moment derivative due to an- gle of attack: C, 481 fa 10,4,2.2 Three-D control surface hingemo- ment derivative due to control surface deflection: C, 484 6 10.4.2.3 Three-D control surface hingemo- ment derivative due to tab deflection: C, 48s 8, t 10.4.3 Two-Dimensional Tab Hingemoment Deriva- tives about the Tab Hingeline 436 10.4.4 Three-Dimensional Tab Hingemoment Deri- vatives about the Tab Hingeline 487 11, STABILITY AND CONTROL DERIVATIVE DATA 492 12. USER'S GUIDE 505 12,1 USER'S GUIDE FOR DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION 50s 12.2 USER'S GUIDE FOR DETERMINATION OF INSTALLED THRUST OR POWER 506 12,3 USER'S GUIDE FOR DETERMINATION OF LIFT VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK 507 12.4 USER’S GUIDE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PIT- CHING MOMENT VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK AND THE TRIM DIAGRAM 508 12,5 USER'S GUIDE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF STA- BILITY, CONTROL AND HINGEMOMENT DERIVATIVES 508 13, REFERENCES 509 14, INDEX 513 APPENDIX A: STANDARD ATMOSPHERE, SPECIFIC WEIGHTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 519 APPENDIX B: FORMULAS FOR COMPUTING CIRCUMFERENCES, AREAS AND VOLUMES 525 Part VI Contents Page xiBBLLINWOD SNOLLVIIIdd¥ S¥NLOA AVST-VSWN: WaBve Page xii rt VI PaTABLE OF SYMBOLS ; Bete : The Table of Symbols is organized as follows: Page 1. General symbols xiii i 2. Stability, Control and Hingemoment Derivatives xxi cr 3. Greek Symbols xxv . 4. Subscripts xxvii | 5. Acronyms xxviii o a speed of sound L ace aerodynamic center - A = b/s Wing aspect ratio i 2 : t Ay . by IS, Canard aspect ratio ie Ay = by? /5, Vert.tail aspect ratio ‘ A, - Inlet capture area ft? i Ay Inlet area ft? . AS Cowl cross section area ft? ‘ L at an ia Ae Nozzle (exit) area ft? i Ag Internal area tt? A Cowl cross section area ft? rn at 4 in - A Nozzle throat area ft? ‘ b wing span ft a by canard span ft u Pe, inboard flap span, p.89 ft Part VI symbols Page xiiibe outboard flap span, p.89 ft ° be tire width ft by vertical tail span, see p. 387 ft B Compressible sweep correction factor, see Eqn. (10.64) © chord ft ce chord with flap extended ft c mean geometric chord ft cy control surface overhang, see p.471 ft crossflow drag coeff -e--- elevator chord ft canardvator chord ft flap chord ft two-dim. hingemoment coeff. about control surf. hel. ~ two-dim. hingemoment coeff about tab h.l. airfoil lift coefficient at a* airfoil pitching moment coefficient about a.c airfoil zero-lift pit- ching moment coeff. wing chord at wing pivot £t also: engine sfs lbs/shp/hr tip chord ft ce in Ch.10 also stands for tab chord, see p.473 ft ce, root chord ft r’ oR cy, mean geometric chord of e exposed wing ft Cy Airplane drag coeff. wave drag coefficients see p.49 and 52 symbols Page xivinterference drag coeff. ----~ see p.52 base drag coefficient Drag due to lift coeff Viscous drag due to lift coefficient Drag coefficient at C, 0 —---~ Wing minimum drag coeff. --~-~ Wing induced drag coeff. ----~ Zero-lift drag coeff. Profile drag coefficient ~ turbulent flat plate friction coefficient turbulent flat plate friction coefficient of the wing ~ Three-dim. hingemoment coeff. about contr. surf. hel. = Three-dim. hingemoment coeff about tab h.l. airfoil lift coefficient - airfoil lift curve slope ----~ section lift curve slope with the flaps down 1/deg, 1/rad derivative of airfoil lift coeff. with flap deflect. ----- aerodynamic rolling moment coefficient Airplane lift coefficient ----~ Lift coefficient where drag rise due to separation begins Canard lift coefficient Hor. tail lift coeff. 9 ---"- symbols Page xv