Management and Administrative Sciences Review www.absronline.

org/journals
e-ISSN: 2308-1368, p-ISSN: 2310-872X
Volume: 4, Issue: 1, Pages: 87-100 (January 2015)
Academy of Business & Scientific Research

 Research Paper
Employee Empowerment: A Comparative Study among Different
Theories

Alireza Hajian1, Mahmoud Khabaz Shirvan2, and Behzad Baniasadi*3

1. Faculty Member, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

2. Doctor of Business Administration Student- National University of Malaysia (UKM)
3. MS student in MBA – Isfahan University, Iran

In today society, running the affairs depends on organizations. Through their radical
functions in the fields of discipline, needs satisfaction, dynamism and social progress,
organizations play a vital role in the continuing lifecycle of societies. Obviously, their
performance quality is too important. Organizational performance is influenced by their
human capital quality aspects (i.e. knowledge, capability, motivation). Thus, empowerment
has far distance from organization traditional concept. Today organizations need certain
characteristics such as transparency and constant improvement to continue their life and to
achieve such characteristics they should empower their human force as their most important
resource and competitive advantage. To this end, the author has provided requirements,
processes and advantages of empowerment of employees here and looks for studying different
empowerment models and showing their weaknesses and strengths. Therefore, it is necessary
to address knowledge development, capability and motivation of human forces in order to
develop organizational human capital and, consequently, its performance improvement. The
author has determined superior empowerment components.

Keywords: Comparative study, empowerment, empowerment models,

organizational improvement

INTRODUCTION
The history of the first definition on empowerment defined empowerment as decision making power
backs to 1788 when empowerment was seen as distribution to people who lack it.
authority designation in organization role which
Empowerment roots in psychology, sociology and
should be assigned to someone (Wilkinson, 2003).
religion studies backed to past decades and even
Bowen et al (2006) believed that empowerment is
centuries. Concerning psychology, for instance,
front-line employees’ share in four elements:
Adler (1927) introduced the concept of dominated
information, knowledge, award and power.
motivation by emphasis on those individuals who
Cameron (2008) defines empowerment as the
attempt to acquire domination in facing with their
process of giving power to people. Fry (2005) has

*Corresponding author: Behzad BaniasadiMS

MS student in MBA – Isfahan University, Iran
E-Mail: [email protected]
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surrounding world (Whetten & Cameron, 2002). 1998). Empowerment is not a new concept (Urei
People own power by their knowledge and Yazdani, 2002). Through Y Theory by McGregor,
motivation. Empowerment is to release such managers’ attention to individuals’ abilities
power (Blanchard et al, 2008). Empowerment increased in organization and they concluded that
means to help people to improve their self – one should bloom employees’ capabilities for
esteem and overcome their disabilities (Whetten & organizational splendor (Abtahi and Abbessi,
Cameron, 2002). 2007). The important point on employees’
empowerment is the lack of proper and sufficient
Any element in empowerment process
scientific resources as well as the lack of a trusted
management pattern such as developments, aims,
paradigm in executing empowerment plans in
strategies and controls help full recognition and
organizations. Lack of any research in this field has
development of empowerment (Han, Moon and
caused that managers avoid entering it (Yari,
Yun, 2009). The first step in defining
2007).
empowerment is to address its boundaries
(Konczak, 2000). According to Choi (2006), empowerment is a
process which improve self – conception (the belief
Spritzer (1997) asserts that empowerment is a
that someone can do certain activities well). By
multilateral concept and has different meanings
their knowledge and motivation, individuals are
for different people. Such attitude toward
the owners of power. Empowerment is to release
empowerment is called as an organic approach.
such power (Blanchard et al, 2002). In contrary to
many organizational advantages which van
LITERATURE REVIEW evaluated by a tangible way, measuring individual
advantages of empowerment is too difficult.
In the dictionary of Webster, empowerment has Individual advantages of empowerment are too
been defined as transferring authority or allocating subjective and complicated (Cook, 1994).
legal power to others. The same term in Oxford Smith (2000) believes that empowerment is to
dictionary has been defined as “enabling”. encourage people to more participation in
Empowerment refers to enabling, which means adopting decisions which impact on their
helping people to improve their self-confidence activities. In this way, we can give a chance to
and through this can overcome their sense of show that they can generate good ideas and make
disability and helplessness(Fong & Snape, 2014). them into practice (Butts et al, 2009).
Moreover, it means conducting and applying
internal motivation in order to do a task. (Smith, Allowing actions toward beyond sharing, dividing
2000). and refining the experiences, thinking, observing
and dialogues are the main elements of
However, empowerment can be considered as a empowerment (Lee, 2001). Empowerment can
management style, in which managers and staffs involve a set of methods and initiatives by which
would be invited to be involved in work processes employees’ behavior is changed and they are
through allowing them interference in decision enables to take and conduct the best decisions
making process. In fact, it could be in consistence respective to organizational conditions (Luo, 2003).
with well-known movements such as “human
relations” and “theory of Y McGregor”. Spritzer in Yoon (2001) believes that in empowerment, the
his studies in a university in California State has employees not only need authorities but also they
investigated dimensions and also evaluation of should have sufficient training, financial credit and
psychological empowerment in workplace. adequate information so that they can be
accountable to their decisions. Kim (2002) and
In management, the history of using Iromason (1997) believe that empowerment is like
empowerment terms backs to industrial participative management namely subordinates’
democracy and involving employees in participation in decision making and maximizing
organizational decision making under such titles their engagement in the organization.
as team building, contribution and total quality
management and finally empowerment based on Empowerment plans enable the organization to act
most recent changes (Hardy, and O’Sullivan, in a creative and innovative manner and to

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introduce its business so that it can keep its status empowering and its strategy is to foster self –
in the best conditions. The most important sufficiency (Hall, 2008).
advantages of such plans is that they pave the
This approach focuses on employees’ perception
ground for more understanding and commitment
on empowerment. It is an organic down – top
between employees and organization (Butts et al,
process. Authors believe that empowerment is
2009).
realized only when it can create psychological
The feeling of empowerment means the condition moods in employees. In other words, power
in which employees can do their jobs by high distribution does not necessarily lead into
impetus successfully (Dawling, 1999). In other empowerment since employees may have not such
words, empowerment feeling is based on imagine (Perez, 2002).
removing growth barriers, persuading
Influencing factors on employees’ empowerment
commitment to aims, risk-taking, creativity and
are studied and categorized in different
innovation and enabling employees to resolve the
viewpoints. An attitude with many fans is
problems and enhancing their accountability.
Spitzer’s insight (Ameri, 2010). He believes that
Briefly, empowerment feeling is to end anything
affecting factors on empowerment include:
which causes stops in growth, freedom, self –
esteem, contribution and cooperation by staff Environmental Factors: Social Support, Political
(Aghlmand and Akbari, 2005). Support, Respect Feeling
In empowerment process, it is attempted to create Managerial factors: contribution in decision
an environment where all employees acquire self- making and goal setting, transparency in tasks and
esteem, commitment and freedom in accepting the roles, performance feedback, participation and
responsibility against growth and development. team working, authority designation, awards (both
One should note that empowerment feeling is not material and immaterial) Individual factors: job
something granted by managers to employees; records, education, personality traits like control
rather, it is a situation in which employees decide locus, self-esteem, etc.
and act in the best manner (Lamei, 2003). Overall,
there are three general attitudes toward Enablers: access to resources and information,
empowerment: relational, motivational and specialized and required training (Spritzer, 1996).
psychological (Robbins, 2002). According to Richard L. Deft, empowerment can
In empowerment literature, relational approach is be seen as the outcome of three main items:
a top – down and mechanical process in which managers’ interests and attitudes toward
empowerment is realized when high levels of contributing the staff in organizational decision
organizational hierarchy share their power with making, designating decision making authorities
other people in the same organizational hierarchy. to subordinates and the awards paid to employees
In this approach, managers and leaders play for their successes. In fact, contributive
different and important roles. These roles include management paves the ground for empowerment
establishing a joint aim, emphasis on employees’ and deepens it by designation. Based on fostering
efforts and appreciating them, and focusing on theory, appreciating subordinates’ proper
strategies which consider independence in performance leads into stability and durability of
decision making. acquired capabilities (Deft, 2002).

This aspect of empowerment means “enabling” by TABLE 1, 2 AND 3 HERE

motivation through self – efficacy, enabling is to
Employees’ Empowerment Models
create necessary conditions to promote people’s
motivation in doing their jobs through self – A model can be seen as an abstraction of reality to
efficacy or reducing their powerless feeling. In organize and simplify our attitude toward the
contrary to relations approach aims at power reality of work (Jajarmizadeh, 2995). Therefore,
making and its strategy is to distribute power in any model has two important sections: rational
the organization, motivational approach aims at and mechanical. Rationality is defined as
“clarifying the neuter of studied phenomena

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which would lead into definition of model Empowerment Model By Noller

concepts.” On the other hand, mechanism is
Noller (1997) provided a four – aspect model on
structure of concepts and relations among them
employees’ empowerment called Webern Ideal
(Cited by Rezaei, 2010).
model. He says that we talk about empowerment
of an individual or a group when they have below
Kinla’s Empowerment Model
characteristics:
Kinla introduced a six – step model on employees’
• Full decision making authority
empowerment:
• Full accountability on executing any kind
(1) Defining and communication the concept
of decision
of empowerment to organizational members
• Full access to decision making related
(2) Goal setting and formulating strategies for
instruments and its execution
employees in all organizational levels in order to
develop and foster empowerment as an • Full responsibility on the outcomes of taken
organizational framework. decision
(3) Evaluating and modifying employees’ Noller believe that such empowerment model is an
empowerment through measuring the ideal situation not observed constantly and its vital
improvement and recognition of organizational element is to emphasize on accepting the
members (Kinla, 2004). responsibilities of conducted actions and taken
decision (Noller, 1997).
(4) Training the employees to play new roles
and conducting their functions by ways adapted to
Empowerment Model By Thomas And Velthouse
organizational aims to expand and foster
empowerment. Thomas and Velthouse (1990) extended the general
model devised by Conger and Kananga (1981) and
(5) Adapting organizational structure so that it suggested that empowerment is better to be
leads into lean management, bureaucracy
considered as a multidimensional construct. In
reduction and more independence. their conceptual model on employees’
(6) Adapting organizational systems (i.e. empowerment, their analyzed four aspects of
planning, awards, promotion, training, employing) empowerment: effect, choice, competency and
to support employees’ empowerment. meaning. According to them, this effect means that
changes in work are shaped by a certain task.
FIGURE 1 HERE
Choice and personal behavior means the
According to fox (1998) employees’ empowerment individual and competency is to have skills,
is a process by which empowerment culture is experiences and capabilities to move forward.
developed and ideals, goals, decision making According to them, more individual’s belief in the
borders and the results of impacts and efforts by impact of work, choice opportunity, necessary
employees are shared organization-wide (Kinla, competency and meaning would lead into more
2004). employees’ empowerment feeling and there is no
empowerment per se without meaning (Thomas
Empowerment Model By Mallak And Kurstedt and Velthaouse, 2000).
Mallak and Kurstedt defined empowerment as a They believe that empowerment reflects the
wider concept of participative management. By awareness and cognition of an employee about
emphasis on culture building and the role of him/her. Also, they believe that empowerment is
managers in employees’ empowerment, they say not just employees’ tasks assessment; rather, it
that empowerment consists of four aspects. They depends on thematic factors such as mutual
believe that empowerment is a behavior motivated relations between employees and supervisors,
intrinsically and justifies the deeds by which friends and subordinates (Moye and Henkin,
managers designate authorities to their employees 2006).
for resolving the problems (Mallak et al, 1996).

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Empowerment Model By Robbins, Crino And resources to empowerment, lack of psychological

Fredendal empowerment in workplace has prevented more
According to these three authors, although in researches in workplaces. According to him,
many studies empowerment is seen as an intrinsic empowerment is a constant variable in which
driving force or reaction against an intimate employees may experience different degrees
stimulant, in fact, empowerment is to accept a (Moye and Henkin, 2006).
certain plan; new job structure, power transition, By focusing on psychological empowerment,
assignment, participation in information and Spritzer looks for developing an empowerment
contribution in resources. They believe that by legal network in workplace. His model consists of
emphasizing on spatial and individual factors, one four elements which measures employees’
can achieve the best mood of empowerment conception on meaning, competency, effect and
process. The most fundamental step in this process self – determination. He defines meaning as
is to create internal workplace with organizational personal feeling on the relationship between labor
broad contexture which generates an opportunity and personal standards. It happens when job tasks
to use all empowerment aspects in order to create are adapted to personal values, convictions and
necessary impetus (Robbins et al, 2002: 420). behaviors. Competency is a person’s belief in his
FIGURE 2 HERE ability to do necessary works. Self – determination
is personal conception on the right of choice
Empowerment Model By Mclagan And Nell respective the job which should be conducted.
Effect is personal feeling on his influence over the
McLagan and Nell (1997) provided a outcomes of a given job (Abtahi & Abbessi, 2007).
multidimensional approach on employees’
empowerment. It consists establishing a system of In Spritzers’ empowerment model, empowerment
company’s values, a flexible structure against is not only a process but also a factor influenced by
hierarchical structure, facilitating leadership and environmental, efficiency and individual factors
the fact that anyone is his own manager. and on the other hand can be seen as an affecting
According to them, capable individuals can assign facto on organizational effectiveness, efficiency
their responsibilities to other organizational levels and creativity. In this term, empowerment has an
directly through a product or service which organizational functionality influenced by culture
coordinates colleagues for resolving a problem of the society and the ability to promote efficiency
(McLagan et al, 1997). and effectiveness of the organization. Spritzer
explains his model as below: (Sprtizer, 1995).
Empowerment Model By Laverack
Empowerment Model By Gao
Laverack (2003) provided a new approach on
empowerment. In this model, the roles of people in As the representative of Governmental Affairs
clarifying and executing the model are too Committee of Senate, GAO (2001) conducted a
highlighted. Four steps of executing the model research on human capital to observe the
with nine principles of empowerment and seven initiatives led into employees’ empowerment. It
steps can be shown in below diagram. Laverack targeted five huge organizations in the United
believes that pre-assessment observation and States. It published is results in six radical steps for
discussion can ensure more adaptability of the employees’ empowerment (below chart) and
model with social and cultural requirements and it believes that respecting employees’ empowerment
is necessary to give a clear definition on and involve ling them in in executive affairs can
empowerment so that members can achieve a joint facilitate changes (GAO, 2001).
understanding FIGURE 4 HERE
FIGURE 3 HERE

Empowerment Model By Spritzer CONCLUSION

According to Spritzer (1995), in contrary to If an organization plans to be successful in future,

increasingly tendency by management scientific it should focus on unique talents of its all

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APPENDIX
Table 1: Historical process of empowerment (Abdollahi, 2004)

Decade Relevant issues of Description

empowerment
Sensitivity training Managers were sensitive about their staffs’ need sand
1960s
intentions
Staffs cooperation Managers allow their staff s to participate in decision
1970s
making

Management of learning Managers had control on group work and team

1980s
quality formation

Staffs empowerment Managers provided conditions for realizing staffs’

1990s
potential abilities

Table 2: Empowerment approaches (Mohammadi, 2001)

Approach Creation sour Nature of approach

Social/struct Principles of democracy Sharing power and decision making responsibility
ural and sociology

Psychologica Social psychology and Considering competency, right of choice,

l theory of internal
effectiveness, and significance of staffs
motivation

Critical Theory of post-modern and Identifying the person, who is able to control
structure-breaking
structure of official power

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Table 3: Dimensions of human force empowerment in different motivational and cognitive views
(Rezaee Manesh, 2014)

Theorists Dimensions of empowerment

Kangaroo Connengo, 1988 Sense of self -efficiency and self-effectiveness

Thomas and Velthouse, Sense of effectiveness, have right of choice, sense of competency,
1990 sense of meaningfulness
Spritzer, 1995 Effectiveness, right of choice, competency, significance
Mishra, 1992 Sence of competency, right of choice, sense of effectiveness, sense
of meaningfulness, sense of trust in others

Figure 1: Employees’ empowerment management paradigm

Empowerment Achievements Empowerment

meaning aims

Definition Clarifying Training

& the aims

Constant
improve

Evaluation Adapting Adapting

& organization organizational

Roles and tasks Controls for Empowerment

empowerment strategies

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Figure 2: Empowerment model by Robbins, Crino and Fredendal

Organizationa
l sturcutre
Personal
differences

Psychological Intrinsic tendency

empowerment and attitude
Empowere
 Impact • Opportunity
d behavior
 Competency
 Willful • Commitment
 meaning

Personal
differences

Internal workplace

Job structure

Power designation

Participation in
resources and
information

HR performance

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e-ISSN: 2308-1368, p-ISSN: 2310-872X
Volume: 4, Issue: 1, Pages: 87-100

Figure 3: Empowerment model by Laverack

Pre-execution
Step 1: preparation preparation

Step 2: evaluation Evaluating empowerment

principles by polling
• Participation

• Resource
movement

• Questions
Registering the reasons of
Step 3: strategic evaluation • Relations with
planning others

• External factor
roles

How to improve status quo

Empowerment
Step 4: feedback principles

Feedback and
reassessment

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Manag. Adm. Sci. Rev.
e-ISSN: 2308-1368, p-ISSN: 2310-872X
Volume: 4, Issue: 1, Pages: 87-100

Figure 4: Empowerment model by GAO

• Expressing perspectives
Senior management Commitment
• Organizational changes
commitment tools aspects
• Open communications

• Radical changes in
redesigning
The aspects of
Engaging labor unions engagement
• Job process by Labor
unions
• Changes in labor laws
and rules

• Developing new terms of

• Employees with multiple The aspects
Empowerment Using staff groups to
functions of using staff
execute organizational
groups
mission
• Employees with different job
levels

Training employees on • Learning team performance

promoting knowledge, Training
• Learning how to develop aspects
skills and capabilities
labor relations

• Learning how to persuade

The aspects of
Engaging employees in • Awareness of organizational
staff
performance
planning and sharing them engagement in
in organizational • Assessing the among planning
performance information organizational performance
progress

Interaction between senior • Information exchange Interaction

managers and front-line aspects
employees
• Resource exchange

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