WIND POWER PLANT

Wind power plant is a type of non-conventional power plant that uses wind power to
produces electric power. Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to
provide the mechanical power to turn electric generators and traditionally to do other
work, like milling or pumping. Wind power, as an alternative to burning fossil fuels, is
plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions
during operation, consumes no water, and uses little land.[The net effects on the
environment are far less problematic than those of fossil fuel sources.

Wind power gives variable power, which is very consistent from year to year but has
significant variation over shorter time scales. It is therefore used in conjunction with
other electric power sources to give a reliable supply. As the proportion of wind power
in a region increases, a need to upgrade the grid and a lowered ability to supplant
conventional production can occur.

TYPES OF ENERGY COLLECTORS IN WIND POWER PLANT

1. Dutch Windmill:

Man has used Dutch windmills for a long time. In fact the grain grinding windmills that
were widely used in Europe since the middle ages were Dutch. These windmills were
operated on the thrust exerted by the wind. The blades, generally four, were inclined at
an angle to the plane of rotation. The wind being deflected by the blades exerted a force
in the direction of rotation. The blades were made of sails or wooden slats.

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2. Multiblade Water Pumping Windmill:

Modern water pumping windmills have a large number of blades- generally wooden or
metallic- driving a reciprocating pumps. As the mill has to be placed directly over the well,
the criterion for site selection concerns about water availability & not windiness.
Therefore the mill must be able to operate at slow winds. The large number of blades
gives a high torque, required for driving a centrifugal pump, even at low wind speeds.
Hence sometimes these are called as fan mills. As these windmills are supposed to be
installed at remote places, mostly as single units, reliability, sturdiness, and low cost are
the prime criteria and not efficiency. The blades are made of flat steel plates, working on
the thrust of wind. These are hinged to a metal ring to ensure structural strength, and the
low speed of rotation adds to the reliability. The orientation is generally achieved by tail
vane.

3. High speed propeller type wind machines:

The horizontal axis wind turbines that are used today for electricity generation do not
operate on thrust force. They depend mainly on the aerodynamic forces that develop
when wind flows around a blade of aerofoil design. Windmills working on thrust force are
inherently less efficient. So all the modern wind turbine blades are designed based on
aerofoil section.

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PROCESS AND COMPONENTS
Wind turbines harness the power of the wind and use it to generate electricity. Simply
stated, wind turbines work the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make
wind—like a fan—wind turbines use wind to make electricity. The wind turns the blades,
which in turn spins a generator to create electricity. This illustration provides a detailed
view of the inside of a wind turbine, its components, and their functionality.

Anemometer:

Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.

Blades:
Lifts and rotates when wind is blown over them, causing the rotor to spin. Most
turbines have either two or three blades.
Brake:
Stops the rotor mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically, in emergencies.
Controller:
Starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and
shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds
above about 55 mph because they may be damaged by the high winds.

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Gear box:
Connects the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increases the rotational
speeds from about 30-60 rotations per minute (rpm), to about 1,000-1,800 rpm;
this is the rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity.
The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are
exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and
don't need gear boxes.
Generator:
Produces 60-cycle AC electricity; it is usually an off-the-shelf induction generator.
High-speed shaft:
Drives the generator.
Low-speed shaft:
Turns the low-speed shaft at about 30-60 rpm.
Nacelle:
Sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts,
generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter
to land on.
Pitch:
Turns (or pitches) blades out of the wind to control the rotor speed, and to keep
the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.
Rotor:
Blades and hub together form the rotor.
Tower:
Made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete, or steel lattice. Supports the
structure of the turbine. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers
enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity.
Wind direction:
Determines the design of the turbine. Upwind turbines—like the one shown
here—face into the wind while downwind turbines face away.
Wind vane:
Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the
turbine properly with respect to the wind.

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Yaw drive:
Orients upwind turbines to keep them facing the wind when the direction changes.
Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive because the wind manually blows
the rotor away from it.
Yaw motor:
Powers the yaw drive.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Flow Diagram of a Wind Turbine System Here, 1) Wind Turbine: Converts wind energy
into rotational (mechanical) energy 2) Gear system and coupling: It steps up the speed
and transmits it to the generator rotor 3) Generator: Converts rotational energy into
electrical energy. 4) Controller: Senses wind direction, wind speed, generator output and
temperature and initiates appropriate control signals to take control action. There are
two basic types of wind turbines (WT): horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) and vertical
axis wind turbines (VAWT).

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN OPERATING A

WIND POWER PLANT
Although wind power is a never-ending green resource, assessment of environmental risks
and impacts- which comprise the backbone of environmental policy- in the context of
specific projects or sites often are necessary to explicate and weigh the environmental
trade-offs that are involved. In the case of wind farms, a number of turbines (ranging from
about 250 kW to 750 kW) are connected together to generate large amounts of power.

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Apart from the constraints resulting from the number of turbines, any site selection
should think over the technical, economic, social, environmental and political aspects.

1. Technical Considerations

Many technical factors affect the decision making on site selection including wind speed,
land topography and geology, grid structure and distance and turbine size. These technical
factors must be understood in order to give pair-wise scores to sub-factors.

Wind Speed

The viability of wind power in a given site depends on having sufficient wind speed available
at the height at which the turbine is to be installed. Any choice of wind turbine design
must be based on the average wind velocity at the selected wind turbine construction site.

Land topography and geology

Wind farms typically need large lands. Topography and prevailing wind conditions
determine turbine placement and spacing within a wind farm. In flat areas where there is
nothing to interfere with wind flow, at least 2600-6000 m2/MW may be required. Wind
turbines are usually sited on farms that have slope smaller than 10-20%.

Grid structure and distance

The connection of wind turbines to an electricity grid can potentially affect reliability of
supply and power quality, due to the unpredictable fluctuations in wind power output.

Turbine size

Required height for the installation of turbine above ground is one of the important factors
that affect the annual energy generation. [10] Turbine size is related with the energy
output, because the bigger the turbine size is, the more wind it is exposed to.

2. Economic Considerations

The economic sub factors that affect the site selection include capital cost, land cost and
operational and management costs. It is important to make economical evaluations by
considering time value of money due to long periods of service life of wind farm projects.

Capital cost

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Construction, electrical connection, grid connection, planning, wind turbines, approvals,
utilities and management are the main components of capital cost for wind farm projects.

Land cost

For the site selection, main economic factor is the cost of the land where the wind farm
is constructed; because, the cost of land primarily depends on the region, soil condition
and the distance from the residential area.

Operational and management cost

There will be control functions such as supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
which will provide control of each wind turbine in O&M facilities. Business rates,
maintenance expenses, rents, staff payments are main components of O&M costs.

Electricity market

Existing of an electricity market for the energy generated is an important factor affecting
the economic benefits of the project. There should be energy demand in regions close to
wind farms.

3. Environmental Considerations

The environmental sub factors that affect the site selection of a wind farm include visual
impact, electromagnetic interference, wild life and endangered species and noise impact.

Visual impact

Wind turbines are located in windy places, and most of the time, those places are highly
visible. To many people, those big towers with 2 or 3 blades create visual pollution. To
minimize the impacts of visual pollution, many investors implement the actions.

Wild life & endangered species

Wind farms affect birds mainly through collision with turbines and associated power lines,
disturbance leading to displacement including barriers to movement, and loss of habitat
resulting from wind turbines. To minimise the risk of bird collision, site selection should
be done precisely.

Electromagnetic interference

Electromagnetic interference is an electromagnetic disturbance that interrupts, obstructs,

or degrades the effective performance of electronics or electrical equipment. Wind

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turbines may reflect, scatter or diffract the electromagnetic waves which in turn interfere
with the original signal arriving at the receiver.

Noise impact

Noise can generally be classified according to its two main sources: aerodynamic and
mechanical. Aerodynamic noise is produced when the turbine blades interact with eddies
caused by atmospheric turbulence. Mechanical noise is generated by the rotor machinery
such as the gearbox and generator. Noise could be reduced by better designed turbine
blade geometry and by selection of proper operating conditions.

PROBLEMS ENCOUTERED IN OPERATING WIND

POWER PLANT
The problems encountered in generating electricity from the wind and delivering the
electricity to a user are numerous. This post will address the essential element of this
industry, converting the kinetic energy in wind into electricity.

Premise/Problem calculated

We start with the premise that converting wind strength into electricity is our number
one objective.

The formula to calculate the kinetic energy in steady wind is:

1/2AV3rho/1000 = kW

Once the Kinetic Energy (KE) of a steady wind has been calculated, there are various
factors that reduce the captured energy to a NET OUTPUT.

Betz' Law says that you can only convert less than 16/27 (or 59.3%) of the kinetic
energy in the wind to mechanical energy using a wind turbine.

KE at 100% of steady wind = 100%

Betz limit = 59.3%
Modern Rotor efficiency = 50%
Transmission losses = -5%
Transformer losses = -4%
Inverter losses = -3%

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Reactive power losses = -15%
NET POWER = 23%

Net Energy

The net energy from a Conventional Wind Machine (CWM) in a steady wind delivered to
the user is approx 23% of the kinetic energy of the steady wind.

In most cases wind is not steady. Calculating the kinetic energy in a variable wind (wind
gusts and lulls) is a function of amplitude and duration.

The calculation of the KE in a variable wind is not a function of the average wind speed
due to the cube root power factor. KE above the average wind speed is greater than KE
below the average wind speed.

Efficiency Revealed

A Conventional Wind Machine captures 23% of steady wind and none of the gust wind
energy above the steady wind average. As a result, the real efficiency is 23/270, or 8.5%.

A Conventional Wind Machine does not seek nor capture gust energy.

The principle reasons why a Conventional Wind Machine does not seek or capture gust
energy are EXCESS WIND LOAD and RPM CONTROL.

LOAD

When operating at near capacity, a wind gust may increase input power by 8 times, which
overloads the machine.

The consequences of excess wind speed and power include:

 Blade strike
 Tower loads
 Gearbox failures
 RPM: A CWM drives the generator directly, either with or without a step-up
gearbox. In either case the rotor rpm must be constant or the generator rpm
will vary unacceptably, causing fluctuations in voltage and cycles.

A Conventional Wind Machine incorporates a variety of design elements to offset the

excess power and wind speed.

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  Blade area is minimized to prevent overloading in high wind speeds. The
consequence is poor performance at low wind speeds.
 Blade shape is compromised to enable quick rotation of the blade to dump gust
energy
 Brakes are used to prevent excess RPM
 The machine will turn (Yaw) out of wind to prevent overloading
 Generator output is directed into capacitors to provide instant load braking

Negative Consequences

-There are negative consequences resulting from the load and RPM constraints listed
above.
-The rotor rpm of a CWM is constrained and remains relatively constant, regardless of
the wind speed. As a result, Tip-Speed-Ratios (TSR) and blade efficiency are
compromised.
-Energy is dumped to prevent overload and over revving.
-A fixed ratio step-up gearbox is used, which has inefficiencies, and is easily overloaded in
wind gusts, which is the #1 industry failure.
-A transformer is required to stabilize the voltage
-An inverter is used to stabilize the hertz
-An induction generator is used which causes a lagging power factor and need for reactive
power from the grid
-In the event of a direct drive generator without the use of a gearbox, the low RPM of
the generator causes cogging and flicker.
-Torque on the system is amplified when load is high and RPM is constrained
-Noise from the blades is amplified when blade loading is high
Teetering is amplified at high loads

Uprise responds/ solutions

In response to these constraints, Uprise has designed the PPC and the ECS to operate in
a variable wind speed.

Ideally, a wind machine would optimize energy capture and deliver power as a ratio to
the wind energy.

The Uprise machine has been designed to:

 Operate at a higher efficiency than a CWM, especially in low wind speeds

 Eliminate the parasitic losses caused by the gearbox, the transformer, and the
inverter

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  Eliminate the reactive power losses of the induction generator
 Capture a reasonable amount of the KE of gust wind

Uprise methodology

 Improve blade design

 Predict wind
 Match load
 Maintain optimum TSR
 Prevent overloading
 Reduce transmission losses
 Eliminate parasitic losses
 Eliminate reactive power

BLADE DESIGN

 Incorporate sweep and twist

 Add winglet
 Reduce inertia
 Add blade area
 2 forms of pitch control
 Eliminate pitch stall shape
 Carry foil shape to root
 Maintain TSR

PREDICT WIND

 Utilize laser anemometer

 Predict wind direction, speed, duration, onset

MATCH LOAD

 Programming to manage system components thru sensors

 Compute kinetic energy of oncoming wind
 Instruct rotor to change pitch and rpm to optimize TSR

MAINTAIN OPTIMUM TIP-SPEED-RATIO (TSR)

 Adjust pitch and load to allow rotor to spin at optimum rpm

PREVENT OVERLOADING

 Torque and blade loading are minimized by allowing rotor to increase in RPM as
load increases

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  Machine shuts down and lays down when wind load approaches overload

REDUCE TRANSMISSION LOSSES

 Utilize proprietary hydrostatic drive

ELIMINATE PARASITIC LOSSES

 The fixed ratio gearbox, transformer, and inverter found in a CWM are parasites
that rob power. All three are eliminated in the Uprise Energy Conversion System
(ECS)

ELIMINATE REACTIVE POWER LOSSES

 Use of off-the-shelf synchronous generator eliminates the power factor problem

and produces quality sine wave power.
 Induction generators are used in CWM because they cannot regulate RPM
accurately to maintain 60 HZ in a variable wind condition. Consequences of using
an induction generator are severe. Lagging power factors result, and reactive
power is needed from the grid to compensate. Net power is reduced by an
average of 15%

Summary

The above abstract summarizes the constraints of conventional wind machines, the
additional Kinetic Energy in variable wind, and the methods that enable the Uprise
machine to capture higher levels of energy.

In addition, due to its portability it solves two of the greatest constraints, transmission
lines and/or reliance on fossil fuels.

Modern wind farms are located where wind currents are strong and steady to minimize
the problems caused by wind variability. As a result, the power must be delivered to the
user thru a transmission system, which is the #1 reason why 30% of

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SAFETY PRACTICES IN OPERATING WIND POWER
PLANT
The wind energy sector is currently one of the fastest growing sectors. This means that
wind turbine safety is also becoming more important. Being a renewable energy that
reduces greenhouse gas emissions, this growth is understandable.

The number of workers employed in various aspects of the wind energy sector is
increasing every year. This means the general state of wind turbine safety is of great
concern. Many workers are exposed to hazards that could result in injuries, long-term
damages, and even fatalities. Where possible, hazards should be eliminated completely. If
this is not possible, preventative measures should be taken to reduce the risk. Every
worker should receive the proper training to ensure they are aware of the hazards and
can stay safe on-site.

Wind Turbine Safety and Other Hazards

 Falls: Wind turbines vary in height, but can be over 100 feet tall. The height of
these structures makes wind turbine safety a challenge. As most wind farms are
exposed to high winds and all kinds of weather conditions, working at a height is
made more dangerous. Workers on wind farms often have to climb ladders
multiple times a day. This may result in workers falling if they do not have their
harness on properly. In relation to regulations, construction workers on wind
farms, when exposed to fall distances of 6 feet or more, must be protected from
falls by using:

o Guardrail Systems

o Safety net Systems

o Personal fall arrest systems

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 Cranes: Cranes are used during the construction and maintenance of wind farms.
Even when cranes are constructed correctly there can still be fatalities. Significant
wind turbine safety issues to be considered when operating a crane include:

o Cranes should only to be operated by qualified workers with the right

documents and training

o There should be routine inspections before and after each use to ensure
wind turbine safety.

o Fully extend outriggers and barricade accessible areas inside the swing
radius of the crane

o The crane should be situated on a stable surface

o Keep an eye out for overhead electric power lines and maintain at least a
10-foot working clearance from the lines

o Do not move loads over workers

 Confined Spaces: The majority of wind farm workers work inside the wind turbine
which is why ensuring wind turbine safety is so crucial. This is a small space with
room for only one worker at a time. Some workers may not find working in a
confined space to be a comfortable experience. They may suffer from
claustrophobia or panic attacks which is intensified by the low oxygen levels in a
turbine. You should ensure your worker is comfortable working in confined
spaces and provide clear and simple exit routes.

 First Aid – It’s vital that your workers are trained on first aid as many wind Farms
are in remote areas which makes it difficult to reach a hospital quickly. In the
event of an accident, you must have someone on site at all times who is fully
trained in first aid. It’s a good idea for all your workers to have at least some first
aid training and they should all be aware of the location of the first aid box on site.

 Hazardous Gases – During the manufacturing of wind turbine blades workers may
be exposed to harmful gases, vapors, and dust. These workers must be protected
from these gases through good ventilation and the use of Protective Personal
Equipment (PPE) such as respirators. Workers should know from their training

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 which respirator to use and exactly where to get it on site. Good training is a
crucial factor in high-quality wind turbine safety.

Hazards of Offshore Wind Farms

There is a lot of crossover in the hazards present in offshore and onshore wind farms.
However, offshore wind farms exist in a more demanding natural environment so there
are a number of extra hazards. In fact, the biggest hazards of working offshore are that
every job is little more difficult and dangerous as a result of the conditions. Some of the
hazards of offshore wind farms include:

 Noise exposure: The weather conditions present on offshore wind farms can
make work difficult. High winds, in particular, will make it hard to hear. It is vital
that all workers wear appropriate protection on their ears or else they could
be exposed to long-term damage to their ears.

 Slips, Trips and Falls: Workers will also be exposed to rainy, wet conditions on
offshore wind turbines. Damp and slippy conditions can be extremely hazardous,
especially when you consider that you are working at height. Every worker must
wear non-slip footwear to protect them from slips or trips that can lead to serious
injuries.

 Personnel transfer: The most dangerous part of working on an offshore wind

turbine often occurs before you even begin work. Being transferred by a transfer
vessel to the wind turbine poses a significant risk. Workers need to be provided
with life vests, shown how to use them properly and wear them throughout their
transfer. Workers should be trained to know not to travel to the wind turbine
during storm conditions as the transfer vessel may be unsafe for the journey. A
key to a good transfer is to do it safely but also quickly so as to minimize risks.

Keep Workers Informed

One of the main issues in turbine safety is a lack of communication between management
and on-the-ground workers. There is no excuse for not keeping your workers up-to-date
with simple things such as where the first aid box is and the correct reporting procedures

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in case of an emergency. These simple items may be the difference between life and death.
The best way to ensure all workers get the required safety training and knowledge is to
include it in their onboarding by using an online platform such as Initiafy.

The Initiafy platform is heavily customizable and simple to use for both safety managers
and workers. It’s easy to include all the information on hazards and correct safety
procedures in online training courses. Make your onboarding site-specific so every
contractor gets a useful orientation relevant to their role. Paperwork is a thing of the past
as workers can also upload any documents and records you request and when these
expire you’ll be notified.

From lightning: Wind turbine towers are a natural target for lightning strikes. A main
lightning discharge is characterized by rapidly rising current that peaks at about 200,000
Amps and averages about 30,000A over its duration. Even though the event is over in
milliseconds, there is great potential for harm to personnel and damage to equipment.
Personnel working around such a hazard that often strikes wind turbines want to know
that they are safe when entering a tower. Electrical grounding is the foundation for an
expected level of safety and that begins with a properly designed and installed electrical
grounding system.

A good grounding system plays a critical role guarding against catastrophic damage to
blades, electronics, transformers, nacelles, and collector systems out to substations.

Another way to protect workers against lightning is to spot it before it gets to the wind
farm. Advanced warning of real-time lightning strikes from real-time lightning data is safer
than predictions that lead to false alarms or delayed reporting after lightning has struck.

For example, the Great Plains are susceptible to extreme weather conditions. Summer
brings the threat of lightning strikes to the 300-ft turbines, and brutally cold temperatures
are commonplace in winter.

To ensure turbines operate at peak-efficiency, most facilities have technical teams on-call
around the clock to perform maintenance duties. However, standard practice is not to
send team out when temperatures dip below -30°C. To know when hazardous weather
approaches, maintenance managers often subscribe to services that warn of impending

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lightning strikes. The internet-based services let managers stay abreast of changing
weather conditions that endanger operations.

For a wider view of approaching severe weather, managers can monitor radar and track
storms, wind, and lightning at online weather services. Weather services often feature
weather maps in layers that let personnel look at weather information most important to
its operations. This includes national Weather Service warnings, watches, and advisories.
Another layer includes custom areas of maximum impact based on parameters set by the
forecaster to reflect how weather is affecting a turbine location.

Weather services also provide mobile alerts to current and future conditions. Subscribers
receive weather information on their mobile phones. What’s more, personalized alerts
can be sent to technicians’ phones when severe weather nears user-defined alerting
parameters. This is useful to field technicians on maintenance tasks. For instance, they can
be notified when lightning has been detected within 50 miles.

From working at height: even short towers are a long way up, 150 ft on the low side and
soon 300 ft. Climbing up such heights challenges a tech’s knees and physical stamina.
Climb-assists and service lifts are solutions. Climb assists are devices that connect a
technician’s harness to an endless belt that runs on pulleys mounted over a tower ladder.
Then a motor keeps a steady upward user-selected pull (from 50 to 125 lb) on the
individual, thereby lightening his load.

Other hazards exist once a technology reaches the nacelle. According to Liberty Mutual’s
2009 Safety index, for instance, accidents from falling objects cost U.S. industry some $4.3
billion that year, the fifth leading cost of industrial accidents. This type of accident is almost
completely preventable by using simple tethering devices. So when technicians reach a
nacelle, they often attach retractable tethers and lanyards to tools and instruments. Such
tethers come in many configurations that can be used for almost any industrial tool or
application.

For more specialized applications, several manufacturers say they can produce custom
devices. Safety engineers are often charged with ensuring adherence to OSHA regulation
1926.759(a), which requires “that all materials, equipment, and tools, which are not in use
while aloft, must be secured against accidental displacement.” Tethers allow complying
with this safety regulation.

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ECONOMY OF WIND POWER PLANT

It is often stated that since no one can charge money for the wind, wind-generated
electricity is free. This is not true. A modern wind turbine, which can generate 2
megawatts of electricity (MWe) when the wind is blowing, costs about $3.5
million installed. Five hundred of these turbines installed at a wind farm, to be able to
generate 1000 MWe, would cost $1.75 billion. Add in other costs, such as for operation
and maintenance (O&M) and transmission lines, and the total sum could match the
approximate $4 billion required to build a nuclear plant.

All of these costs need to be recovered from customers or taxpayers. So, the cost of
wind-generated electricity is not free.

A typical wind farm would generate electricity about 30 percent of the time, and not
necessarily at times when electricity is needed. There is a very big difference between
intermittent sources of electricity, such as wind farms, and baseload sources, such as
nuclear power. The argument that nuclear power also has down times is true, but these
refueling and maintenance outages are largely planned during times of low electricity
demand.

Cost tradeoff of wind versus fuel saved

Inputs:

1. A 2-MW wind turbine costs approximately $3.5 million installed.

2. The O&M cost of a wind farm is approximately 20-25 percent.
3. The maximum life expectancy of wind turbines is 20 years.
4. The price of gas is about $4 per thousand cubic feet.
5. The price of a barrel of oil is $80.
6. It takes about 7.7 cubic feet of natural gas to generate 1 kWh of electricity (dividing
the generation in Table 7.2a by the fuel consumption in Table 7.3a in these tables
published by the U.S. Energy Information Administration ).
7. It takes 0.00175 barrels of oil to generate 1 kWh of electricity (using the same tables
as above).

Assumptions:

1. The capacity factor of a wind farm is about 30 percent (land based).

2. The a higher capacity factor of 45 percent is assumed for Hawaii.
3. The average life of a wind turbine is 15 years.

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4. Interest costs for the wind farm are neglected.
5. The cost of transmission lines are neglected.

Analysis

Cost of wind farms:

1. A 1000-MW wind farm costs $1,750 million to install all the turbines (500 turbines x
$3.5M per turbine).
2. For a lifetime of 15 years, the costs is $116 million per year (1,750/15).
3. When including O&M, this increases to $145 million/year (116 x 1.25).

Electricity generated:

The amount of electricity that a 1000-MW wind farm is expected to produce in a year
is 2,630,000 MW-hrs for a 30-percent capacity factor (1000 MW x 365d x 24 h/d x .3).

Cost of natural gas saved:

The value of the fuel saving in the backup 1000-MW natural gas plant is $81
million/year. (2.63 x 106 MW-hrs x 7.7 cubic feet/kWh x $4/1000 cubic feet x
103 kW/MW).

LOSSES IN WIND POWER PLANT

Gross Energy Output

The gross energy production is the energy production of the wind farm obtained by
calculating the predicted free stream hub height wind speed distribution at each turbine
location and the manufacturer’s supplied turbine power curve. In defining the gross
energy output, it is assumed that there are no wake interactions between the turbines
and none of the loss factors listed in the remainder of the energy table are applied. This
result includes adjustments to the power curve to account for differences between the
predicted long-term annual site air density and the air density to which the power curve
is referenced. It also includes the effect of the terrain on the flow.

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Wake Effect

Wind turbines extract energy from the wind and downstream there is a wake from the
wind turbine, where wind speed is reduced. As the flow proceeds downstream, there is
a spreading of the wake and the wake recovers towards free stream conditions. The
wake effect is the aggregated influence on the energy production of the wind farm, which
results from the changes in wind speed caused by the impact of the turbines on each other.
It is important to consider wake effects from neighbouring wind farms and the possible
impact of wind farms which will be built in the future.

Turbine availability

This factor defines the expected average turbine availability of the wind farm over the life
of the project. It represents, as a percentage, the factor which needs to be applied to
the gross energy to account for the loss of energy associated with the amount of time the
turbines are unavailable to produce electricity. Similar factors are needed for the 'Balance
of Plant' availability, which relates to the electrical infrastructure of the site and 'Grid
Availability', which relates to the availability of the grid over which power can be
exported.

Electrical Transmission Efficiency

There will be electrical losses experienced between the low voltage terminals of each of
the wind turbines and the wind farm Point of Connection, which is usually located within
a wind farm switching station.

This will include the electrical losses encountered when the wind farm is operational and
which will be manifested as a reduction in the energy measured by an export meter at the
point of connection. This is presented as an overall electrical efficiency, and is based on
the long-term average expected production pattern of the wind farm. It is also necessary
to consider the power that the wind farm consumes when the wind farm is not
operational.

Turbine Performance

In an energy production calculation, a power curve supplied by the turbine supplier is

used within the analysis.

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Most wind turbines will shut down when the wind speed exceeds a certain limit. High
wind speed shutdown events can cause significant fatigue loading. Therefore, to prevent
repeated start up and shut down of the turbine when winds are close to the shutdown
threshold, hysteresis is commonly introduced into the turbine control algorithm. Where
a detailed description of the wind turbine cut-in and cut-out parameters are available, this
is used to estimate the loss of production due to high wind hysteresis, by repeating the
analysis using a power curve with a reduced cut-out wind speed. It is also necessary to
adjust for any generic or site specific issues, which may mean that for a specific site the
wind turbine will not perform in accordance with the supplied power curve.

Environmental

In certain conditions, dirt can form on the blades or, over time, the surface of the blade
may degrade. Also, ice can build up on a wind turbine. These influences can affect the
energy production of a wind farm in the ways described below. Extremes of weather can
also affect the energy production of a wind farm; as can the growth or felling of nearby
trees.

Tree/growth felling

For wind farm sites located within or close to forests or other areas of trees, the impact
of how the trees may change over time and the effect that this will have on the wind flow
over the site, and consequently the energy production of the wind farm, must be
considered. The impact of the future felling of trees, if known, may also need to be
assessed.

Curtailments

Some or all of the turbines within a wind farm may need to be shut down to mitigate
issues associated with turbine loading, export to the grid, or certain planning conditions.

Uncertainty in the Predicted Energy Production

Uncertainty analysis is an important part of any assessment of the long-term energy

production of a wind farm. Although an uncertainty analysis needs to be considered on
a site-specific basis, the process can be described as follows:

-Identify the different inputs to and processes within the analysis;

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-Assign an uncertainty to each of these elements, both in terms of the magnitude of the
uncertainty and the shape of the distribution;

-Convert each of the uncertainties into common units of energy;

-Combine the various uncertainties to define a total uncertainty for the entire prediction;
and

-Present uncertainty statistics at requested levels.

Research work reported in Raftery et al (1999) defined a comprehensive risk register for
wind power projects and included detailed Monte Carlo-based analysis techniques to
assess the uncertainty in the results obtained. Based on the results of this work, use of
an uncertainty analysis with a number of simplifying assumptions can be justified. The
main simplifying assumptions are that it is reasonable to consider a relatively small number
of key uncertainties and that these individual uncertainties can be assumed to be normally
distributed. Making these assumptions, it is possible to define energy production levels
with a defined probability of those levels being exceeded.

It is common to present uncertainty results for both a long future period of, say, ten years
and also for a shorter future period of one year. It is now normal practice for such
figures, in parallel with a central estimate for the production of a wind farm, to be used
to inform investment decisions for projects.

The uncertainty analyses presented within energy assessments typically assume that the
turbines will perform exactly to the defined availability and power performance
levels. The power performance and availability levels are usually covered by specific
warranty arrangements, and hence any consideration of the uncertainty in these
parameters needs machine-specific and contract-specific review, which is generally
outside the scope of a ‘standard’ energy analysis. However, it is increasingly the norm to
assign a moderate uncertainty to the estimated availability, loss factor and power
performance factors, to reflect that small deviations from expected availability and power
performance levels may not be sufficient to trigger damage payments under the warranty.
Uncertainty in the energy estimates is a vital part of the result.

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CONVERSIONS AND APPLICATIONS OF WIND
ENERGY
The term wind energy refers to the kinetic energy created by the wind in order to
produce wind power. Wind energy can be converted by a wind turbine that does just that.
However, if the wind energy is harnessed to create mechanical energy the tool for that
still may be called a wind turbine or a wind power plant.
When mechanical energy enhances a unit by harnessing wind power, it may be called a
windmill, wind pump, or wind charger.
 Wind energy can be used for anything from power on boats, battery charging, or
electricity to be used commercially.
 Wind energy is known to be used as early as 200 B.C.. Original windmills were used
in the Middle East in areas such as what is now known as Iran, and areas in Afghanistan.
These wind powered mills were used for anything from grinding grain, getting sugar,
 In Europe, windmills were first seen in the 11th century.
Wind Turbines and Wind Energy Technology
Wind turbines generating electricity were reportedly first used in the late 1800s, first in
Scotland. Quickly, the technology moved to other locations such as the United States and
United Kingdom. By the early 1900s Denmark and America were producing and using
windmills for water pumping and on farms. Wind energy is often created on farms where
it is easy to install turbines and they allow animals to still graze on the surrounding land.
Wind turbines either have a horizontal or a vertical axis. Horizontal axes turbines are
more common, yet older.
Wind Energy Today
Some examples of wind energy include:
 According to National Geographic, "One of the largest wind farms in the world is
Jaisalmer Wind Park, a series of connected facilities in the state of Rajasthan, India. In
April 2012, Jaisalmer produced 1,064 megawatts of electricity, more than any other
onshore wind farm in the world."

 Boats with wind sails were used many years ago to transport people and cargo on the
Nile.

 National Geographic sites Walney Wind Farm as an example, by stating "Walney

Wind Farm...is a farm of 102 turbines in the Irish Sea off the coast of Cumbria, England.
Walney is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, generating 367 megawatts of
power."

 Lake Turkana in Kenya has 365 turbines between two mount systems. Strong, steady
winds that are predictable make this an idea location to generate wind energy.

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 The Gansu Wind Farm is currently being built in China. It should, upon completion,
produce 5,160 MW of electricity.

 The first wind farm was created in the 1970s in New Hampshire in the Crotched
Mountain.

 The biggest wind farm in the United States in in California. At Alta Wind Energy
Center there are 300 turbines. Wisely located in the Tehachapi Pass, between San
Joaquin and the Mojave Desert, the area is extraordinarily windy.

REFERENCES
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TechnicalSummary June2012_(1of2).pdf
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technology/homegeneration /wind-turbines/wind-turbine-site-selection
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offshore/wind-farm-design-offshore/site-selection.html
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 https://www.windpowerengineering.com/operations-maintenance/safety/what-
are-the-safety-precautions-for-wind-turbine-workers/
 http://ansnuclearcafe.org/2011/01/27/the-economics-of-wind-power/
 https://www.wind-energy-the-facts.org/definition-of-uncertainty-in-the-predicted-
energy-production.html

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