Volume 1. Edition 2. December 2013.

Journal of Sport for Development

Sport and crime prevention: Individuality and

transferability in research

DAVID EKHOLM1
1 Linköping University, Department of Social and Welfare Studies

Corresponding author email: [email protected]

Abstract
important element in sport and society (1). Practices with

such objectives have been surrounded by common-sense
Researchers have examined sport practices as a means of assumptions that sport can contribute in different ways to
crime prevention. The article reviews the international body positive social development (2-4). This has been examined
of literature on this subject from a social constructionist and debated in research (5-13).

perspective. By exploring the idea of sport as a means of

crime prevention, the article considers what is described on Sport as a means to achieve social objectives is primarily a
the subject and how these descriptions are articulated. Western phenomenon. International sport for development
Through a content analysis, the article aims to develop programmes has targeted wide-ranging objectives such as
categories and provide an analytical discussion of the peace (14,15), human rights (14) and the fight against HIV/
findings. The descriptive analysis reveals that, although AIDS (14,16,17). Such programmes have been carried out
researchers are most notably critical of putting faith in sport by Western NGOs (14-16,18) and exported to “Two-Third
for social objectives, there is research that affirms the role of World” societies (17). Sport for development has
sport in crime prevention. When sport is upheld as a means accordingly been celebrated by the UN and associated
of crime prevention, two modes of prevention are bodies (15,17,19,20). In the US in the 1980s and 1990s, new
emphasised, called the averting-mode and the social cost-effective ways were acclaimed as targeting urban social
change-mode. The discussion focuses primarily on how the problems (6,21) in light of public spending cuts (21,22),
dominant social change-mode is articulated and how this including Midnight Basketball programmes (11,22). In the
social change becomes a meaningful concept as portrayed in UK as well, sport for crime prevention gained attention as
discourses on individuality and transferability. The part of New Labour´s reform policies in the 1990s. New
importance and potential consequences of framing crime as ideas in public administration and social policy emphasised
a social problem and of framing sport as a solution in civil society and the voluntary sector (rather than the
response are also discussed. Finally, the article sets out the welfare state) to address social problems, and sport was
direction for further research on sport as a means of crime considered a suitable means for social inclusion in the local
prevention.
community and for active citizenship (1,3,19,23-26). These

tendencies are further mirrored, for instance, in Australian
Introduction
and Canadian (19) social policy. Sport has also gained wider

recognition in Scandinavian social policy (27-29).

Sport practices with social objectives – such as public

health, social and economic regeneration, active citizenship, Claims-making (30) advocates of sport as a means of crime
drug abuse prevention, and crime prevention – have prevention, such as policy-makers, social problem activists
emerged in the last few decades as an increasingly and other actors in society, have promoted sport to deal with

Keywords: Social work, social problem, welfare, youth, anti-social behaviour

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Volume 1. Edition 2. December 2013. 1 Ekholm Journal of Sport for Development

or even solve various social problems, resulting in the such, nor is any legal definition provided. Instead, research
emergence of programmes and practices using sport to articulating crime, and by extension anti-social behaviour,
prevent crime (1,31).
delinquency and deviance related to crime, is considered.

Research on sport as a means of crime prevention covers
Programmes that are politically initiated, supported and various types of crime prevention such as primary,
financed require evidence-based methods in their practices secondary and tertiary and also identifies a number of social
(1). Research has examined and evaluated the effects of objectives with respect to crime prevention. Furthermore,
such sport practices (8,32), and scientists “are at the top of claims made in research on sport about aspects other than
the hierarchy of credibility” in making claims about social crime prevention, such as sport generating crime,
problems (30 p39). It is therefore important to systematise corruption, public order offences and hooliganism, are also
the outcome of this scientific knowledge. It should be noted beyond the scope of this article.

that, even though a considerable amount of research is

critical of sport as a means of crime prevention and The analysis of the descriptions that current research
questions such a notion (2,3,6,10), sport practices are still provides is based on a systematic literature review. The
nourished by claims from the scientific discourse in methodology of inductive category development is
research.
introduced in the following section. The third section is

comprised of a descriptive exposition of the literature
The present article reviews the research literature on sport reviewed concerning what is observed and articulated in the
as a means of crime prevention. The aim is to explore the literature. The exposition focuses on prominent research
idea of sport as a means of crime prevention as expressed in questions and findings in the literature, and perspectives that
research, examine the assumptions underlying this idea, and are both supportive and critical of sport as a means of crime
consider how these assumptions are articulated. This aim is prevention are identified. The aim of the subsequent section
operationalised with the help of two questions. First, what is to provide a reflective discussion by critically examining
does research focus on when sport is described as a means the findings in the literature. The analytical discussion
of crime prevention? The purpose here is to provide a focuses on how the idea of sport as a means of crime
description of the research object, questions and findings in prevention has been underpinned in the research literature,
the current literature on sport as a means of crime targeting in particular the concepts and assumptions
prevention. Second, how are these descriptions of the underlying this idea. The article argues that the literature
research object, questions and findings articulated? The covering research on sport as a means of crime prevention
purpose here is to discuss and analyse the descriptions and can be arranged into two separate strands and modes of
prevalent modes of prevention in terms of implicit prevention: first, the averting-mode and second, the social
assumptions and discourses in the literature reviewed in change-mode. The discussion demonstrates that descriptions
order to make them explicit.
predominantly emphasise sport as an instrument to promote

social change and thus that the social change-mode is the
Consequently, the article does not observe sport practices, dominant strand in sport for crime prevention. The article
but rather observes how researchers observe and articulate further argues that the social change-mode prevalent in sport
descriptions about sport practices. ‘Research on sport as a becomes meaningful through discourses on individuality
means of crime prevention’, rather than ‘sport as a means of and transferability, respectively. These two discourses create
crime prevention’ as such, is within the scope of order in the research field, otherwise emphasising disparate
observation, and for that reason this article does not provide aspects with respect to sport as a means of crime prevention.
any definition of sport or of sport practices other than those The discourses on individuality and transferability are
articulated in the observed research literature. The research moreover discussed in terms of potential consequences for
literature covers a disparate field of sport practices, varying framing crime as a social problem and of sport as a solution.
from sport in rehabilitation programmes to voluntary In the final section, the article is summarised and further
organisational practices. Definitions of sport practices conclusions are presented.

covered in the literature are extensive, yet they all are

signified as sport and thus may be included in the selection. Methods: procedures in selection and analysis

In short, sport thus refers to practices of physical activity

signified as sport, targeting children and youth, performed in The article is based on a literature review and is organised
an organised setting, in the presence of a supervisor. This in line with the two questions presented above, formulated
article does not investigate crime or crime prevention as in terms of what and how. These review approaches

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Volume 1. Edition 2. December 2013. 2 Ekholm Journal of Sport for Development

stress first the demarcations of the literature reviewed and theoretically driven, emphasising sport as a social
second the utilisation of analytical method (33). phenomenon, often critically assessing sport as a means of
external objectives. The monographs and book chapters
Literature reviewed: searches and selection cover both empirically driven approaches and more
theoretically oriented designs. The literature included covers
The literature reviewed consists of some 55 research a broad spectrum of methodological approaches. These also
publications, including scientific articles, research reports, include literature reviews and meta-theoretical studies. The
book chapters and monographs. The literature has been literature reviewed further covers research from various
chosen using two methods of selection – database searches disciplines such as sociology, social work, pedagogy and
and a systematic review of references in the literature education, criminology, sport studies and political science.
selected. First, social science databases including Scopus,
the Social Science Citation Index, Sociological Abstracts, Analytical procedures: descriptive analysis and analytical
ERIC and Swedish Libris were used to gather mainly discussion
articles in scientific journals and dissertations. The
following keywords were used in various combinations in The themes, modes and discourses in this article emerged
the international databases: (a) sport, athlet* and “physical from an inductive process aimed at structuring the
activity”, respectively; (b) “social problem*”, crim*, complexity in the literature reviewed, from a manifest level
delinquen* and devian*, respectively, thus generating to a higher abstract level. This could be illustrated in three
searches such as sport AND “social problem*” AND crim* steps.
or athlet* AND devian*. Furthermore the keywords (c)
“social work”, (d) leisure and (e) “sport program*” were First, concrete articulations that were part of the descriptive
used in combinations with the other keywords. The keyword analysis (corresponding to the what question) were
(f) idrottssociologi (English: sociology of sport) was used in thematised and categorised in three steps, emphasising
the Swedish database Libris. The research literature inductive category development (34). (a) Reading of
identified was then selected based on two criteria – whether literature: the literature selected was read thoroughly and
the text deals with research on sport relative to crime and important aspects regarding aims, theoretical setting and
criminality or delinquency, or on sport as a method of crime results were noted systematically in a list; (b) Thematisation
prevention or related social objectives in social work. of literature: the literature was thematised based on its
Second, the literature selected was then subjected to a content regarding the two questions What research
systematic review of references. The selection criteria noted questions are articulated? What central themes emerge in
above were also applied to the latter selection method. research? and (c) Categorisation of literature: certain
Saturation was reached given that the references reviewed patterns emerged in the thematisation, from which
referred to a satisfactory degree to literature already categories could be developed. Examples among the
identified. categories that emerged and which were apparent in the
literature reviewed were for instance the question of “how
From the database searches, 25 publications (of a total 55), can sport contribute to positive development?” and the
predominantly peer-reviewed articles, were identified and theme of “empowerment”.
selected. From the systematic review of references, another
30 or so publications were selected. In all, 38 peer-reviewed Second, themes in various categories were structured
international articles in English, 9 book chapters, 8 research primarily in two modes of prevention, based on the rationale
reports (from the US, the UK, Australia, Canada and of prevention articulated. Themes expressed in the
Sweden) and 6 monographs, were included. All publications descriptive analysis and themes reflected upon in the
included are in English, except for 3 cases in Swedish. 25 of analytical discussion are both structured as either averting
the international peer-reviewed articles are empirically crime or facilitating social change. That is, manifest themes
driven and target questions such as whether sport works to such as “empowerment” and “education” address different
prevent crime, what aspects of sport work, and how sport aspects of social change and are thus considered part of the
should further be designed to work. Qualitative and social change-mode. The social change-mode is an abstract
quantitative designs each represent half of the peer- concept and a theoretical construction not explicitly
reviewed articles. Furthermore, the empirically driven manifest in the literature reviewed, although it is used in this
approach is dominant in the research reports. In addition, article to structure complexity and to contribute to further
about 12 of the peer-reviewed journal articles are more discussion.

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Volume 1. Edition 2. December 2013. 3 Ekholm Journal of Sport for Development

Third, the analytical discussion (corresponding to the how and crime prevention (3,32). Second, there is nothing
question) comprises a reflective, critical examination. This inherent in sport that makes it suitable for crime prevention
discussion is based on the results of the descriptive analysis (5,6,8,25,40,41). Third, activities are difficult to evaluate
(research objects, questions and findings) and abstract due to poor theorisation (3,41), and furthermore relations
concepts of prevention modes. The analytical discussion are considered mediated (1,3,8,22,42-44).
results in the identification of two prominent discourses (on
individuality and transferability) in the social change-mode, Quantitative studies accordingly show shifting findings.
which are abstract concepts supporting the idea of sport as a Most notably, some studies stress a lack of support for
means of crime prevention with respect to aspects of social causal relations between sport and crime prevention
change. The analytical discussion is inspired by a (2,3,5,25,45), while other studies emphasise a relationship
constructionist view of discourse (35) and of social between participation in sport and lower levels of crime
problems (30). This means that the discussion is aimed at (46-49). Moreover, some findings suggest that participation
examining how objects, questions and findings described in in power sports, such as boxing, wrestling, weightlifting and
literature, abstracted as modes of prevention, become martial arts, which focuses on elements of fighting and
meaningful through prominent discourse and moreover strength, could lead to increased antisocial involvement
constitute the idea of sport as a means of crime prevention. (50).
Accordingly, these discourses are vital for framing the
meaning of social problems and corresponding solutions. How can sport contribute to positive development regarding
This approach can be understood as a second-order crime prevention?
observation (36-38) in examining and thus observing how
research observes and how these observations are Though evidence is lacking, evaluations are problematic
articulated. and no inherent essence in sport is identified, certain aspects
in sport practices are highlighted as potentially mediating
The constructionist approach provides a perspective from the relation with crime prevention. Two categories of crime
which descriptions that generate scientific discourse – prevention are discernible in the literature reviewed. They
which in turn influence policy-making and the organisation are presented here as two modes of prevention. First, the
of sport initiatives with social objectives – can be explored averting-mode stresses only the goal of averting antisocial
and critically assessed in terms of their underlying involvement or crime and is defined by the absence of
assumptions and implicit notions. Such a constructionist deviance. Second, the social change-mode stresses change
approach is embedded in the aim and further research in various circumstances that could cause criminality and is
questions of this article. accordingly defined by the presence of progression (i.e.
more than just averting a specific behaviour or activity).
Descriptive analysis: the literature reviewed
The averting-mode: Two aspects focused on averting
Research on sport as a means of crime prevention is criminal or anti-social activities stand out. First, the
articulated through three categories of distinct research literature reviewed stresses that participation in sport could
questions. First, does sport prevent or reduce crime or constitute diversion for youth in two ways. In one sense,
criminal behaviour? Second, how can sport contribute to sport can physically divert young people from criminal or
positive development regarding crime prevention? Third, deviant activities: one cannot simultaneously be engaged in
how can sport be designed in order to be successful with criminal activities outside the sport setting and perform
respect to crime prevention? These questions reflect an sport activities (22,31,43). However, deviant behaviour is
empirically driven emphasis in the reviewed literature (39). obviously possible within the sport setting (51). In the other
The literature features perspectives that are both supportive sense, sport – being fun, exciting and entertaining – can
and critical of the potential of sport as a means of crime divert attention from criminal environments and activities
prevention. Literature emphasising a critical view is (8,31,41,43,44,52-54). Sport may also offer its participants
reported in a separate subsection. structure and a framework and thus divert youth from
restlessness (43).
Does sport prevent or reduce crime or criminal behaviour?
Second, the literature reviewed suggests deterrence as a
A review of the literature yields three findings. First, there is crime-preventive mechanism. This emphasises that youth
a lack of clear evidence on the relationship between sport would be deterred from criminal or deviant behaviour when

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Volume 1. Edition 2. December 2013. 4 Ekholm Journal of Sport for Development

they recognise a higher risk of detection by supervising injustice and marginalisation in a social structure, which in
adults, coaches, police (22,55) or staff (52,53) in the turn is the cause of social problems (10). Possibly in this
sporting setting (31). sense, sport could offer activities that question ideologies
through which an unfair society is reproduced (10).
The social change-mode: Four aspects focused on changing
circumstances with regard to crime prevention emerged in Fourth, three aspects of pro-social development are evident
the literature review. First, research suggests that voluntary in the reviewed literature. First, the self-image of
participation in sport creates good conditions for individuals emphasises that success in the sporting effort,
contributing to the development of personal and social though not possible for everyone (31), can lead to
relations. This has been considered to constitute forms of improved self-confidence, self-esteem and self-control
social capital in sport (though not explicitly related to (8,41,43,53,62-65), which in turn could lead to reduced
crime prevention) (56,57). Sport is thus considered an impulsiveness and risk-taking (8) and also enhance
arena where different youth of different social standings educational skills and promote employability (8). Second,
meet and interact. In this respect, it is debated whether life skills emphasise how sport can offer skills and values
development of personal and social relations could promote necessary in life. Skills acquired in sport, such as
crime prevention through community development, which communicative and cognitive skills, goal attainment,
implies that sport can lead to relations in the community aggression control, problem solving and learning to give
based on trust and reciprocity and that this could benefit and receive feedback, could be transferred to other spheres
crime prevention efforts (25). Furthermore, this emphasises of life. Hence it is argued that sport helps young people
sport as a means of community development since it play “the game of life” (40,66). There are also claims that
contributes to collective identities and facilitates active active leadership could be developed in deviant youth
citizenship, which in turn contribute to the establishment of through sport, based on the notion of using leadership traits
social networks in civil society (8,57). In addition, efforts in criminally experienced youth within a sport setting (58).
to prevent crime by integrating ethnic minorities can be Third, the relation between physical health and mental
viewed as community development (58,59). Research also health stresses that sport leads to good physical health
stresses that sport can promote personal relations with (41,43,52,57), which subsequently improves mental health
equals from different social contexts (31,60), between (43,63). Developing a sound lifestyle is essential in
youth and staff in social projects (52,53), coaches rehabilitation from deviant or criminal lifestyles (49,66).
(10,25,31,61), parents and other adults (62), and positive
role models (31,41,43,59,60). How can sport be designed in order to be successful in
preventing crime?
Second, sport is often referred to as a hook – a way to reach
out to individuals or enter environments that would Sport practices can be organised in different ways to
otherwise be inaccessible. This is especially prominent in promote a positive development in terms of crime
inspiring young people to take part in and continue social prevention. First, one must recognise the value of non-sport
projects aimed at crime prevention (10,31,61). A hook can components since sport itself has no inherent or essential
thus be described as using sport to change the social value with respect to crime prevention (2). This could, for
environment for youth. example, be education (10) in non-violence, the importance
of good health and self-control, and a sense of
Third, empowerment can be considered from two responsibility for oneself and for others (2). Second, sport
perspectives. First, empowerment for individual activity practices need to de-emphasise competitive elements and
and responsibility is presented as strengthening the thus stress non-competitive components (8,52,54,62,64).
functions and abilities of individuals to become socially Sport practices instead should emphasise personal and
mobile in an established society. Education is emphasised social relations with other youth and adults
here (61). This view of empowerment could be understood (31,52,54,60,62,67); they should consist of a minimum of
as an expression of a more common focus on active formal rules and limitations (31,52,54); be performed
citizenship in public policy (1,8,57), with an emphasis on individually or in smaller groups where participants
individual autonomy to handle social problems (57). experience independence and participation (8,31,52); and
Second, empowerment for societal change (2,10) is emphasise internal motivation and individualised standards
presented as a means of education, to stimulate of success (31,54) in a task-oriented setting (64). Third,
emancipation and prevent youth from being subjected to sport practices should have a rational, explicit development

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Volume 1. Edition 2. December 2013. 5 Ekholm Journal of Sport for Development

plan and offer arrangements in which participants can competition seem to dominate (62) and exclude other
reflect on and understand criminal behaviour (31). In this possible ideals in sport (57,72). Conventional sport in many
respect, sport practices should also acknowledge the ways reflects the social milieus in which vulnerable youths
importance of policy-makers and sport organisations have already experienced failure (54). In this regard, sport
(62,68). can have a negative effect (52). The individual’s drive to
defeat others leads to practices that target ranking,
Critique of sport as a means of crime prevention subordination and selection (57). The logic of competition
could also result in doping, use of performance-enhancing
A considerable body of research articulates a more critical drugs and cheating (73).
perspective, highlighting how sport should instead be
perceived with a focus on negative aspects regarding its Fifth, it is suggested that sport ritualises and legitimises
potential in crime prevention. With respect to this criticism violence and confrontation in connection with ideals of
six different aspects are discernible. masculinity (62,73,74). The question is therefore whether
sport is a suitable means for responding to problems of
First, the literature suggests that since it has been argued deviancy or crime since it replicates and legitimises
that sport does not reduce poverty, unemployment or social experiences of excitement that could otherwise be found in
welfare cuts, which are considered to be foundations of drug use or criminality (75). Research also indicates that
crime, faith in sport instead obscures structural explanations power sports in particular lead to the acquisition of
of social problems and further legitimises structures in aggressive skills and behaviours that could be brought into
society that reproduce the foundations of crime play outside the sport setting (50). Moreover, an emphasis
(6,8,21,61,69). In this respect, sport alone is considered an on violence in sport highlights sexual violence among
all too simple solution (6,8,21), and also contributes to ideas athletes (76).
of individual responsibilisation (70).
Sixth, the literature describes how a belief in social
Second, the literature suggests that sport organisations are fostering through sport is often exaggerated, how values
primarily interested in sport – not social work; thus sport is adopted and skills acquired in sport are not automatically
not a social service. There is an exaggerated belief in the transferred to broader society, and how they are not
interest and possibilities of sport organisations in attracting necessarily needed in society at large (64). There is thus a
and caring for socially excluded or deviant youth (23). limited transferability, reducing the potential use of sport for
social objectives.
Third, aspects of selection and stratification emerge in the
literature reviewed. Sport practices mainly attract youth A brief summary of the descriptive reading
from economically and socially privileged environments
(23,43,62,71). This calls into question what groups of Exposing disparate directions and outlooks on sport as a
socially vulnerable youth that sport could reach out to (23). means of crime prevention, the research demonstrates a
There is also a stratifying function in various sport reasonably cohesive imagery. First, the literature emphasises
practices, exemplified by activities targeting black youth a lack of evidence, the absence of essential inherent values
from disadvantaged areas that emphasise control and in sport, and the notion that relations between sport and
discipline while activities targeting white youth from crime prevention are indirect and mediated. Second, it
wealthy areas emphasise prosperity and social mobility. stresses two modes for sport aimed at crime prevention –
Furthermore, sport practices are more likely to lead to however, each is met with criticism. The averting-mode of
exclusive bonding than to inclusive bridging, strengthening diversion and deterrence could be considered relevant only
rather than transcending social boundaries (2). This function for certain groups of youth included in sport settings. The
of sport, however, has been conceived as effectuating social social change-mode of developing personal and social
control, normalisation and re-socialisation in a society relations could be viewed as stratifying and promoting
characterised by hierarchical relations through exclusive bonding; the hook of sport could be seen as
subordination and control over bodies, identities and social relevant only to those interested in sport; empowerment
relations (10). could be said to emphasise individual activity and
responsibility, hence obscuring structural interventions and
Fourth, the literature describes competition and also exercising social control; pro-social development could
subordination as a problem because the logic and values of be disputed while sport could also lead to the development

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of anti-social skills such as cheating, violence and abuse. the social change-mode. These concepts are structured
Third, in order to be successful, sport as a means of crime around concepts of individuality and transferability. This
prevention should emphasise non-sport components such as can be illustrated by the following quotations.
education in non-violence and moral values, de-emphasise
competition and deploy a rational and explicit development The success of utilising sport and exercise, as a means of
plan. facilitating delinquent rehabilitation, lies particularly in the
intricacies of the counselling; the provision of purposeful
Discussion: prominent discourses activities, and adoption of an individualistic approach,
leading to the recognition of individual motivations /…/. (52
The descriptions and themes presented above provide an p547)
interconnected yet incongruent imagery of sport as a means
of crime prevention. The notion of sport in this sense has [M]any skills inherent in recreation and sport are life skills
been critically observed, examined, and questioned in the transferable to other life endeavours, and can be
research. Nonetheless, strong beliefs are attached to the understood by youths from a sport or games context.
notion and there is considerable research that emphasises Through teaching recreational games for understanding, it
the potential for crime prevention in sport practices. is possible to help our adolescent clients to better
understand, and play, the game of life. (66 p41)
In light of the aim of this article, identifying articulations of
the idea of sport as a means of crime prevention, attention in Development of personal and social relations is described in
this section will be paid to scientific knowledge that relation to trustworthy, reciprocal relations between
highlights the potential of sport to prevent crime. I will individuals contributing to community development. In that
accordingly emphasise the two modes of prevention and the sense, the category requires a concept of individuality.
standards for the successful design of sport practices Moreover, it is a central aspect of personal and social
described above. The findings are contextualised by the relations that the benefits from these relations are also valid
critical views of sport noted above and the partial lack of outside the sport setting. Relations that are only valid inside
statistical evidence on crime prevention. the sport setting would be of less use for crime prevention.
Instead the point of social relations attained in the sport
The inductive approach of categorising various aspects of setting is the transference to broader society. In that respect,
sport practices that potentially mediate crime prevention has transferability is also an inevitable concept, given the
resulted into two modes of prevention: the averting-mode understanding that personal and social relations are an
and the social change-mode. Descriptions in the literature aspect of social change in terms of sport as a means of
largely portray crime prevention as something more than crime prevention.
just averting crime, further highlighting the goal of social
change in various aspects. This emphasis is also prominent In the following quotations, it is argued that personal
in the literature on how to design practices for prevention. relations from the sport setting can result in trust and
In this sense, the social change-mode emerges as the reciprocity in relations between equals and with the
dominant mode of prevention, and further focus will be community as a whole.
given to this in the discussion. Nichols (31) has identified
three mechanisms of crime prevention in sport: diversion, The coming together of staff and young people from all the
deterrence and pro-social development. Categorisations and units to take part in sport and activity twice a week has had
modes of prevention that have emerged from the literature positive effect on relationships between all involved. /…/
under review here seemingly correspond with these Prior to the CtG [Closing the Gap] intervention young
mechanisms, although it should be noted that Nichols has people in the four units rarely mixed, on the occasions they
categorised actual practices while the present study has did, they tended to be aggressive towards one another. Due
examined descriptions in research on such practices. to the sports sessions new friendships have developed /…/.
(53 p40)
Social change and four prominent aspects
Rather than being a sports project, diversionary scheme or
Personal and social relations, empowerment, pro-social punitive measure, the initiative is about community
development, and education in non-violence and moral development in a real sense, since it is about developing
values are the four main categories that primarily constitute relationships with people on the basis of trust and mutual…

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Volume 1. Edition 2. December 2013. 7 Ekholm Journal of Sport for Development

…understanding as a platform for building a broader range within the sport setting. The skills should rather be grasped
of relationships and opportunities. (75 p390) outside sport – more explicitly, in life. Although a better
self-conception, self-esteem, self-confidence and self-
Empowerment is described in relation to individual activity control as well as reduced impulsivity and risk-taking are
and responsibility as well as societal change. Sport is likely to enhance performances in sport, this is not the
described as making it possible for individuals to act in rationale in question. These skills presuppose a transfer
certain non-criminal ways. Given the emphasis on a from sport to other spheres in life, so the concept of
person’s individual responsibility for each action and transferability is vital.
lifestyle or on that person’s individual power to change
aspects of society, the individual is still the subject of It is claimed that pro-social skills and values attained by the
empowerment; the concept of empowerment is thus individual in sport are transferred to other spheres of life, as
associated with the concept of individuality. Moreover, the illustrated below.
idea behind empowerment as an aspect of crime prevention
is to attain powers through which the individual can Given that moral behaviour is learned through social
strengthen his or her abilities to resist anti-social interaction, the ways in which relations with others are
involvement or criminal activities in settings other than the constructed and facilitated impacts the ethical and moral
sport setting. This understanding presupposes a concept of behaviour learned through sport. In other words, there is a
transferability since the empowered abilities are supposed to level of transfer between the values and ethics promoted in
be used not only in sport but in broader society. the sport and the moral character instilled in children and
youth who participate. (47 p27)
Empowering youth through sport to take on individual
responsibility outside the sport setting is illustrated in the Life skills and sport skills have several similarities. First
quotations below. both are learned in the same way – through demonstration,
modelling, and practice. Second, the skills learned in one
Sport also offers a very suitable medium for helping clients domain are transferable to other domains /…/. Sport can
take responsibility: within the Summit programme the sports provide a valuable vehicle for teaching life skills when these
leader could gradually give the participants more lessons are learned and transferred. (40 p53)
responsibility for aspects of the activity. /…/ So sports-
related contexts offer many opportunities to develop Educational practices that stress non-violence and moral
participants through a structured progression of taking values are highlighted in the literature review as a means of
greater responsibility. (31 p201) designing sport practices with crime-preventive aims. The
educational practice presupposes a subject (subjected to
The essence of SEPE [sport, exercise and physical education): it is the individual who presumably learns, is
education] work lies in liberating and empowering people / socialised and internalises values of non-violence and
…/. This empowerment-oriented freedom has a dual morality. From this point of view, educational practices are
character. It is freedom from terror, oppression and the ills inseparable from the concept of individuality. Furthermore,
of poverty; and it is freedom to choose, starting with what to the educational aims are not intended to enhance
do, play, and create. Both empowerment-oriented performances in the sport setting, but instead to encourage
community development and sustainable development the individual to use his or her moral and non-violent
depend on this dual freedom, and it is integral to the social capabilities to avoid anti-social involvement or criminal
work of SEPE programs, practices, and policies. (57 p158) activities outside the sport setting. Here too, and in the same
ways as with pro-social development, this presupposes a
Pro-social development is described in relation to the transfer from sport to other spheres in life. The concept of
individual’s self-image, to life skills and to that person transferability is thus a prerequisite.
attaining good physical and mental health. This aspect of
social change is perhaps most obviously inseparable from In the quotation below, the educational potential in sport to
the concept of individuality. The individual is the object of teach youth skills and values that can be used outside the
development in all these aspects. In this respect, pro-social sport setting is highlighted.
development can scarcely be grasped without a concept of
individuality. Additionally, the developmental proceedings While participation in sport will not curb all violence and
are not primarily emphasised to be recognised as skills deviant behaviour, it is a highly effective tool for teaching…

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Volume 1. Edition 2. December 2013. 8 Ekholm Journal of Sport for Development

…youth skills and values, helping children develop a sport for social (or rather individual) change presuppose the
positive sense of self, and providing a health-promoting idea that skills and values can be transferred from one
alternative for youth who have nothing else to do. (63 p39) sphere of society to another. Still, this idea presupposes
three things: first, that skills and values acquired in sport are
The four aspects of the dominant mode of prevention (social not very different from those in broader society; second, that
change) all presuppose and are structured around the they are cherished and desired in broader society; and third,
concepts of individuality and transferability. It is therefore that they can support a non-criminal lifestyle – when this is
relevant to speak of discourses on individuality and considered to be an effective means of crime prevention.
transferability. The concepts can be viewed as central signs This transference is explicitly called into question in the
in a structure of meaning, constructing the idea of sport as a literature yet still constitutes a key rationale. The notion of
means of crime prevention through aspects of social change. transferability is quite explicit in claims that skills and
These structures are discourses that bring order to a values acquired in sport can be thought of as life skills, and
disparate body of knowledge. Without the underlying that participants in sport learn to play the game of life.
discourses on individuality and transferability, the idea Accordingly, it is not possible to understand sport as a
presented – of sport as a means of crime prevention – could means of crime prevention through social change without
not be fixed. the discourse on transferability.

The discourses on individuality and transferability The idea of sport as a means of crime prevention raises two
further reflections. First, the discussion on individuality
As descriptions in the research literature suggest, since sport suggests that sport can be conceptualised as a means for
can contribute in promoting social change, it is important to individual ends. This has been met with criticism
grasp the locus of this change. If there are circumstances emphasising that an individualistic approach obscures
that apply in the prevention of crime that change through structural explanations of social problems. In this respect, it
the use of sport, something needs to characterise this could be argued that sport offers individual solutions to
change. What changes? Social change in this context targets social problems. Whether or not this would be a true or fair
the individual. Granted, it is possible to argue that this does statement is of less interest in this discussion. It is, however,
not exclude societal or structural change, since society is a relevant discussion in general how this perspective sets the
assumed to be constituted by individuals. This could framework for the construction of crime as a social
possibly be accepted because sport can change society and problem. In a society that emphasises solutions on the
structures through the change in and socialisation of individual level, it would be relevant to question whether
individuals – that is certainly a relevant position. The this does not contribute to the individualisation of social
research, however, clearly shows that knowledge is not problems in general, hence framing them as individual
constructed the other way around: sport is not described as a problems requiring individual solutions. Second, the
means of changing structures in society and by extension concept of and discourse on transferability could easily be
affecting the individual. As a method of intervention, sport further discussed and evaluated. The reviewed literature
is described on the individual level. In the descriptive suggests that skills and values are not easily transferred to
analysis, in the criticism of viewing sport as a means of other spheres. Furthermore, the idea of transferability
crime prevention, it was maintained that this view obscures presupposes a certain mechanistic conception of instruction
non-individualistic explanations of social problems. This and communication, which could be questioned from other
also illustrates how non-individualistic perspectives are standpoints.
distinguished from the prevailing emphasis on the
individual. In addition, descriptions not embracing the Conclusion
social change-mode (but rather the averting-mode) such as
diversion and deterrence also become meaningful through The findings in this article proceed from the aim of
the discourse on individuality (although these themes do not exploring the idea of sport as a means of crime prevention
condition the discourse on transferability). and its underlying assumptions by reviewing the scientific
literature on this subject. Such implicit assumptions have
The discourse on transferability is furthermore considered been made explicit by exploring what research focuses on
an inevitable complement to the discourse on individuality and how the descriptions are articulated. Although there is a
in enabling social change (in terms of sport, as a means of heavy emphasis in the literature on researchers criticising
crime prevention). Perspectives in research emphasising the notion that sport can contribute in substantial ways to

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Volume 1. Edition 2. December 2013. 9 Ekholm Journal of Sport for Development

preventing crime and delinquency, there are nonetheless literature reviewed is not at all unanimous in viewing sport
ways in which sport is described and promoted as a means as an efficient or suitable means of crime prevention. This
of crime prevention. article concludes that social change by changing individuals
and discourses on individuality and transferability are
First, it was concluded from the descriptive analysis that the clearly prominent ingredients in current research that
research is focused on three categories of empirical supports sport as a means of crime prevention. By
questions. Findings from this content analysis are succinctly considering these aspects, the bulk of scientific knowledge
summarised in an earlier section. From the categories promoting sport as a means of crime prevention is
developed, the content has been further analysed in the constructed.
discussion section.
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