Approximate Costing Methods Explained
Approximate Costing Methods Explained
Subject Estimating and costing
Approximate
Method Of ChapterApproximate method of costing
Costing Topics of this chapter
HOM E
GENERAL:
STR ENGTH OF M ATER IAL
One of the most important duty of the engineer or an architect is to prepare
SFD AND B M D
or forecast the probable cost of the proposed building. The problem of
THEORY OF STR UC TUR E preparing estimates has become some what complex because of various
factors and at the same time, it has been simplified by modern techniques.
STEELSTR UC TUR E
RCC
The factors which have complicated the process of estimating can be
B UILDING M ATER IAL
enumerated as follows:
B R IC KS
1. Advancement in technology;
TIM B ER
2. Byelaws of the local bodies:
PAINTS VAR NISHES AND
3. Changes in the living standards of people;
DISTEM PER
4. Demand for improved services;
5. Finishing required to develop the architectural effects;
B UILDING C ONSTR UC TION
6. Help from financial institutions;
FOUNDATION
7. Labour laws;
8. Market conditions of building materials;
C PM PERT
9. Multistoreyed building in towns and cities;
SOIL M EC HANIC S 10. Wide range of building materials;etc.
PR OPERTIES OF SOIL
At the same time, the engineer can store the necessary information in his
FLUID M EC HANIC S wellequipped computer section and make the process of estimating not
only simple but speedy also.
IR R IGATION
In this chapter, various methods of approximate costing adopted by the
ENVIR ONM ENTAL engineer in the initial stage of the proposed project will be discussed.
SURVEYING 12. ESTIMATE AND ESTIMATING:
C OM PASS SURVEYING AND In any construction activity, the two basic things are involved
THEODOLITES Quantity aspect
PLANE TAB LE Quality aspect.
LEVELLING The quantity aspect is governed by the study and analysis of drawings
which are prepared with respect to the design of the project. The quality
HYDR OLOGY
aspect is goverened through specifications for materials and workmanship.
R AILWAY ENGINEER ING Thus the quantity aspect decides the quantum of work involved in the
construction and it helps in finding out the quantities of various materials
HIGHWAY
required as well as the total labour force necessary for the construction
ENGINEER ING DR AWING work.
M ANUAL DR AWING
These two aspects of construction, namely the quantity aspect and the
INSTR UM ENTS
quality aspect, lead to form or govern the estimate of the work. Thus, the
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C OSTING
An estimate of project is therefore, a forecast of its probable cost. The
process of preparing an estimate is known as the estimating and it includes
C APAC ITY OF LAB OUR
the following two items:
ANALYSIS OF R ATES
1. Taking out quantities; and
SPEC IFIC ATIONS
2. abstracting
TYPIC ALSPEC IFIC ATIONS OF 3. Types of Estimates
FOUNDATION
Following are eight different types of estimates:
TYPIC AL SPEC IFIC ATIONS OF
M ASONRY
1. Detailed estimate
TYPIC AL SPEC IFIC ATION OF
2. Approximate estimate
C C AND R C C
3. Quantity estimate
4. Revised estimate
TYPIC AL SPEC IFIC ATION
5. Supplementary estimate
FLOOR ING
6. Revised estimate and supplementary estimate due to reduction of cost
TYPIC AL SPEC IFIC ATION OF (following P.W.D manual)
PLASTER POINTING PAINTING 7. Complete estimate
8. Annual maintenance and repair estimate.
TYPIC AL SPEC IFIC ATION OF
DOOR S AND WINDOWS
Strictly speaking, all the estimates are more less approximations because
TYPIC AL SPEC IFIC ATION OF the actual cost of construction of the surface cannot be known until it is
R OOF completed in all respects.
Thus, a detailed estimate provides an amount which is very near to the final
amount of the structure.
Thus the detailed estimates are accurate estimates and they are prepared
mainly for the following twp purposes:
Execution processes; and
Obtaining technical sanction.
In case of preparation of detailed estimate of a project, the whole project is
subdivided into various stages and then, the entire stage is broken up into
various items of work having same specification and rates. The quantities of
such items of work are accurately worked out from the detailed drawings.
The detailed estimate includes taking out quantities and abstracting.
The detailed estimate comprises the cost as follows:
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Total cost of various items of work.
Allowance for the contingencies to accommodate unforeseen expenditure on
missed items and small variations in quantity and/or rate in different items
of work.
Establishment charge for supervision.
Estimated amount for the service charges which include water supply
connections, sanitary arrangement and electrical installation.
The items mentioned in (ii),(iii) and (iv) above may be expressed as some
percentage of (i) and while fixing the percentage for these items, the
attention should be paid to the design of work, local conditions, etc.
The actual cost incurred for a particular project will be known when the
project is completed in all repects and the necessary payments are made by
the owner. If detailed estimate is prepared carefully and by keeping in mind
all likely adverse conditions and circumstances there will practically be
little difference between the amount of detailed estimate and the actual cost
of construction. If the actual cost happens to be less than the estimated one,
there will be no difficulty as surplus amount will be left with the owner. If
however, the reverse is the case, in most of the cases, the owner will be put
into financial trouble and he will have either to suspend the work or alter
the specification of the work.
A detailed estimate is comprised of
1. General report;
2. Specifications
Detailed drawings showing plans, elevation, sections, key plan, drainage
layout, etc.;
1. Design data and calculations; and
2. Basic rates adopted in rate analysis, etc.
(2) Preparation of detailed estimate: To prepare detailed estimate, the unit
quantity method is adopted. In this method, the rate per unit work of one
item including contractor’s profit is considered first and then the total cost
for the item is found out by multiplying the cost per unit of the rate by the
number of units. To prepare detailed estimate, first of all details of
measurement and calculation of quantities are worked out. Respective
measurements for dimensions of individual item involved in the work are
taken off from the drawing and entered in the respective column of a
standard measurement form as shown below. Then by multiplying
dimensions of each item, quantities of all items are worked out.
(3) Standard measurement form:
Height
Item Description or
No Length Breadth Quantity Total
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Second part of detailed estimate includes abstract of estimated cost. The
quantity of each item is multiplied with the appropriate rate mentioned in
the abstract from and cost of each item is worked out. This cost is added
and total estimated cost is worked out.
This estimated cost is increased by 5% for any unforeseen expenditure,
which is called contingencies. Other additional expanses like water charges,
contractor’s profit, insurance charges, purchase of tools and equipments for
big projects, etc. are also calculated and added for arriving at final
estimated cost.
Abstract of estimate:
Description Unit of
Item Quantity Unit Rate Amount
of item rate
The following are the main functions of an abstract of an estimate:
1. The total estimated cost of the project can be known.
2. The various items of the work to be carried out to complete the project
can also be known.
The abstract of estimate creates a part of a tender document from which
a contractor can arrive at the total construction cost of a project after
applying his own rates.
1. It is the basis on which percentage tenders are called after excluding the
amounts of contingencies, etc.
2. The bills of work done are also prepared on the basis of abstract of
estimate.
3. Comparative costs of different items of works can also be known.
The nomenclature of item provides concise description of the nature of
the workmansip, precautions to be taken, period of curing, consideration
of lead and lift, scaffolding, shuttering dewatering operation including
all transport, tools and plants required to complete the work, etc. The
rate of each item depends upon its nomenclature.
Generally items of estimate is arranged according to the progress of
construction work. Hence, there is a little chance of omission of an item
in the estimate e.g. sequence of items may be:
1. Earthwork;
2. Brickwork or R.C.C work in foundation and plinth;
3. Dampproof course;
4. Brickwork in superstructure;
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5. C.C work in superstructure including centering and steel reinforcement;
6. f) Woodwork for doors, windows and ventilators;
7. Structural steel work;
8. Steel grill work;
9. Paving and floor finish;
10. Plastering, terracing, waterproofing, etc.;
11. Whitewashing and colourwashing;
12. Water supply and sanitation; and
13. electrification
Important factors for detailed estimate: Following factors are to be
considered while preparing a detailed estimate:
1. Availability of local labour: Daily wages of skilled local labour should
be considered in preparation of detailed estimate. If skilled local labour
is not available then it is to be brought from outside and their charges
are to be considered accordingly in detailed estimate.
2. Availability of materials: If the materials required for certain items are
not easily available from the market, the rates of these items will be
higher.
3. Location of site: This is an important factor. One has to consider
transportation charges, loss of materials, damage of materials, etc. If
site is located far away from developed area.
4. Transportation of materials: The cost of transportation of materials is
also to be considered in detailed estimate. The transportation cost of the
materials of small quantities to a considerable distance is higher than
the transportation cost of the materials of large quantites.
5. Quantity of materials: For a large construction project, a large quantity
of materials is required and it can be purchased at lower rate. So the rate
of material is to be considered according to the volume of work.
132 APPROXIMATE ESTIMATE:
GENERAL: It is the normal practice to work out the approximate
estimate of a structure before its detailed estimate is taken in hand. The
reasons for this are as follows:
Preliminary studies: An approximate estimate is used in making
preliminary studies of various aspects of a project. An approximate
estimate not only gives a fairly good idea of the project but at the same
time, it also saves a good deal of labour and time which are required to
work out a detailed estimate. This helps in earlier decisions.
Investment: The probable net return after the completion of a
commercial project can be worked out and then, by knowing the
approximate cost of the project by the approximate estimate, it can be
seen whether the investment in such a project is justified or not. For
noncommercial projects i.e., projects to be undertaken for the general
welfare of the community giving no direct benefits, the approximate
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estimates will be helpful in recommending such projects on the grounds
of their necessity, utility, etc.
Financial aspect: The approxiamate estimate of the project gives a
fairly good idea regarding the approximate cost of construction and
hence, it becomes possible to make suitable arrangements beforehand
for the financial aspect of the project.
Tax schedules: In case of works of public utility, the approximate
estimate becomes very much useful in framing the tax schedules.
Insurance: The approximate estimate is used in fixing up the value of
the project for the insurance requirements.
(2) GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF APPROXIMATE METHODS OF
COSTING: There are various methods by which approximate estimates of a
structure can be prepares. But in the general principle, they all consist of
multiplying the number of items or units in the proposed structure by the
known cost of a similar item or unit in the proposed structure by the known
cost of a similar item or unit in a similar existing structure.
The process is thus very simple and it involves the following two
operations:
1. Fix up the unit and count the number of such units in the proposed
work.
2. Fix up the unit cost by studying the actual cost of similar existing
structure constructed in near past.
(3) CONSTRUCTION COST INDEX: If it becomes necessary to change the
actual unit cost due to variations in construction costs, the same can be
carried out with the help of a simple device known as the construction cost
index. It is a device which shows the relative changes in the cost of specific
or group of items over a certain period of time. Following is the procedure
of preparing the construction cost index.
1. The base period is selected.
2. The critical items comprising the index are decided.
The weight is assigned to each item.
1. The periodic unit prices are collected.
2. The construction index is worked out by the equation:
The above equation is known as the Laspeyre’s equation and the two other
formulae evolved by Passche and fisher are as follows:
Paasche’s equation
Fisher’s equation
Where I n , P 1 , P 2 , Q 1 and Q 2
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The construction cost index refers to the changes in prices of the groups as
a whole and it indicates the average of certain specialized items
contributing to the cost of structure. The construction cost index is an
useful instrument for big institutions or governments spread throughout the
country. In such cases, the construction cost index of headquarter is
decided and the cost indices are framed for different parts of the country.
Such a practice would result in uniform working of approximate costs of
structures within department.
Following are the drawbacks of the construction cost index:
1. The application of construction cost index for arriving at the
approximate cost of an existing structure is absurd and it will be more
logical to prepare the detailed estimate by applying local rates to
various items of building trade. In fact, the blind application of
construction cost index in such cases would mean suicidal attempt in
estimation. For instance, the cost and office building of the same height
will be less as compared to a residential building because of provisions
of services like electricity water supply and drainage to a very low
extent in the former case.
2. The prices of materials will vary from place to place and even shop to
shop. It is advisable to adopt wholesale prices as compared to the retail
prices. The seasonal variation in the price should be discarded and for
controlled materials, only the controlled prices should be considered
3. The weights allotted to important items should be modified by
considering various factors such as economy in construction cost,
modern design criteria, better planning etc. If this precaution is not
taken, the outcome will be unrealistic.
4. The construction cost index with different types of building number of
floors, specifications of work, etc. it is not possible to have an all
purpose construction cost index for the prices of materials.
5. The construction cost index assumets that there is rise or fall in all the
building materials and labour at the same time. This factor proves far
from truth in most of cases and hence, the use of construction cost index
of current year with a particular base period is say 1.75. It thus indicates
a rise of 75% which is a general rise. It will be totally wrong to assume
that cost of each and every material and labour has gone up by 75%
during this period.
6. The most accurate method for arriving at the construction cost index
will be to recast the full bill of quantities of base year once again with
the rates of the year for which the index is required. As the method
contains builtin weightages of all the items, the result obtained is
accurate and reliable.
(4) APPROXIMATE METHODS OF COSTING FOR VARIOUS
STRUCTURES: The methods of approximate costing for the following
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structures will be studied:
1. Building
2. Steel bridges
3. C.C retaining walls
4. Highways and roads
5. Dams
6. Culverts
7. Irrigation canals
8. Water supply and sanitary projects
Buildings:
The approximate cost of a building can be found out by the use of any one
of the following six methods:
1. Serviceunit method
2. Squaremetre method
3. Cubicmetre method
4. Typicalbay method
5. Approximate quantities method
6. Empirical equations for materials and manpower.
The methods are arranged in degree of accuracy i.e., the first method takes
the least time and the results are very approximate while the last method
takes more time than any other method but the results are more accurate. It
should also be noted that the above methods are for lowrise building. For
highrise building or multistoreyed buildings or for skyscrapers, as they are
popularly known, the cost aspects of various items such as increase in
foundation cost, provision of lifts, requirements for fire fighting, extra cost
services, etc. will have to be estimated separately or in the alternative the
comparison is to be made with such similar existing skyscrapers. We will
now discuss all these methods in detail.
Serviceunit method: The service unit indicates the most important
unit in a structure e.g. in a schoolbuilding, the service unit is a classroom;
in a hospital, it is bed; in a water tank, it is litre; in a large apartment, it is a
tenement; in a cinema, it is seat; in a prison, it is cell; in a stable, it is
animal; in a hotel, it is room; in an office building, it is room; in a stadium,
it is seat. Then, approximate cost of a structure = Number of service units in
the structure x cost of corresponding service unit in a similar existing
structure.
For instance, suppose a schoolbuilding of 16 classroom is to be constructed
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and further, let us assume that the cost of construction of a classroom in a
similar existing schoolbuilding is Rs. 180000/. Then the approximate cost
of the proposed schoolbuilding would be 16 x Rs. 180000/ or Rs.
3280000/
Following points are to be noted:
The estimates prepared by this method vary considerably according to the
types of construction and standards of finish.
The estimates prepared by this method are very approximate in nature and
they are rarely used in practice except for preliminary discussion of the
project.
The proposed structure should resemble the existing structure practically in
all respects, so as to bring its approximate cost nearer to its true cost.
The change of pricelevel of different items of construction should also be
taken into account while finding out the approximate cost of a proposed
structure.
By serviceunit method, the approximate cost of a structure can be easily
worked out and it takes less amount of time than any other method.
(ii) Squaremetre method: In this method, the area of each floor in the
proposed building is worked out in square metres. Then, Approximate cost
of proposed building = Total area of all the floors x cost per square metre of
a similar existing building.
For computing plinth area, the measurements are taken out to out of walls
and generally, no deductions are made for items such as stairways, garbage
chute, lift airconditioning, etc. unless their areas are more than 2 sq m. for
working out plinth area, the projections at plinth level are excluded.
Following factors affect the approximate cost worked out in squaremetre
method:
Change of price level: Naturally, if the price level has changed
considerably, the cost per square metre of the existing structure should be
suitably modified so as to accommodate this change of price level.
Ceiling height: In this method, the height of the floor is not taken into
account. Hence, if the height of the proposed building is to be more or less
than the height of the existing one, the cost per square metre should be
slightly raised or lowered accordingaly.
Type of construction: The type of construction and standard of finish or
specification of the proposed structure should be nearly the same as that of
the existing one. This will bring the approximate cost of the building very
near to the final cost.
Shape of the building: It is clear that the square building will cost less per
square metre than the rectangular ones of the same area. This is due to the
fact that the square buildings have less perimeter of walls than that of
rectangular buildings of the same area. For instance, suppose there are two
buildings a square one size of 10 m x 10 m and a rectangular one size 20
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m x 5m. The areas of the two buildings are the same, namely, 100 sq m. But
the perimeter of walls in case of square building will be 40 metres while it
will be 50 metres in case of rectangular building. Thus, the cost of
rectangular building will generally be more than the cost of square building.
Spacing of columns: The spacing of columns in a building also affects the
cost per square metre because due to this factor, the floor system is
considerably changed and this affects the cost of all structural member.
Large openings: If there are large openings in the floors, suitable
adjustments should be made in the cost per square metre.
Location of the building: The similar existing structure, whose cost per
square metre is to be taken to arrive at the approximate cost the proposed
building should be similarly situated to the proposed building as it will be
absurd to compare two buildings situated far away from each other.
Nature of soil: A building on sound soil will cost less as compared to other
building on poor or reclaimed soil due to the cost of foundation. The
building selected for the comparison should therefore rest on soil of similar
characterstics.
Number of floors: A building having ground floor only will cost more as
compared to similar building with four floors. It is due to the fact that the
cost of foundation in the latter case is spread over four storeys or floors
while this cost is included in ground floor only in the former case.
Use of buildings: The proposed structure should have the same use as the
existing building whose rate is to be taken for comparison. For instance, the
rate per square metre of a residential flat cannot be adopted to arrive at the
approximate cost of an office building or a school building.
Situation of buildings: A building with frontage on a main road will cost
less as compared to a similar building in the same locality but with frontage
on narrow lane. In the latter case, there will be increase in cost of
transportation of materials of materials and there are chances for wastage of
the materials also.
(iii) Cubicmetre method: In this method, the cost per cubic metre is used
as a base for finding out the approximate cost of the proposed building. The
cubical contents of the proposed building are worked out and then,
Approximate cost of proposed building = Total cubical contents of proposed
building x Cost per cubic metre of a similar existing structure.
The measurements of the area are taken as in case of previous method and
then, this area is multipled by the height of floor so as to get the cubical
contents of the proposed building. All the factors mentioned in the previous
method affect the approximate cost worked out by this method.
Following few more points require further attention:
There is no general agreement regarding the inclusion of cubical contents of
open verandahs, open porches, plazas, etc. in the total cubical contents of
the proposed building. Some estimators includes them while others do not.
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There is no general rule for measuring the height of the proposed building.
At the bottom, the height is taken upto plinth level or upto 150 mm to 300
mm below the lowest floor or upto the top of concrete layer in foundations
or upto ½ the depth of the foundations. At the top, the height to be taken
will depend on the type of roof. In case of a building with a pitched roof,
the height is taken upto the top of roof level, neglecting height of parapet
wall or sometimes, it may be taken upto centre of parapet wall.
Great care should be taken in fixing the cost per cubic metre for the
proposed building. It should be decided from the records carefully
preserved for building of a similar nature with respect to specification of
work, type of foundation nature of soil, situation, use, size, etc. If this
precaution is not taken, the cube will collapse and the result obtained will
be far from reality.
To obtain satisfactory results with the help of this method, it is absolutely
necessary to employ the same person to fix the cost per cubic metre and
also to calculate the cubical contents of the proposed building. If the cost
per cubic meter is decided by one person and the cubical contents are
calculated by another person, the results obtained are quite likely to be
wrong and misleading.
(iv) Typicalbay method: This method is useful in case of buildings which
have several similar bays. A bay is a space from centre to centre of two
successive columns. A typical interior bay is selected and its total cost is
worked out. Then, Approximate cost of proposed building = Number of
bays in the proposed building x cost of one bay.
Following points are to be noted:
1. Necessary correction should be made for the end bays due to end walls
and also in other bays, if there is any difference in framing.
2. This method is useful for factories and such a similar structures.
3. More time is required by this method than any other previous method.
But the results obtained by this method are found to be more reliable.
(v) Approximate quantities method: In this method, various quantities are
worked out with the help of many shortcuts. For instance, the wall
foundations are measured in linear measurements i.e., in running metres.
The approximate quantities of items such as excavation, foundation
concerte, brickwork upto plinth level and dampproof course are computed
per running length and with the help of rates of these items, a fairly
accurate price per running metre is builtup. This price when multiplied by
the total runnings measurement gives the approximate cost of the building
upto plinth level. Similarly, the superstructure is measured in running
measurements and a suitable price per running metre is builtup including
brickwork, inside and outside finishing, woodwork, etc.
Following points are to be noted:
The grouping of items and fixing their approximate price depend mainly on
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the experience of the estimator.
In this method, sufficient allowance should be made to compensate for the
small things that are overlooked.
Out of all the previous methods, this method gives an estimate which is
very near to final estimate. It requires more time. But the results are quite
satisfactory.
(vi) Empirical equations for materials and manpower: The quantites of
materials and labour required for a particular residential building can be
worked out with the help of certain empirical equations developed by the
central Building Research Institute (C.B.R.I.), Roorkee, India. The plinth
area of an ordinary residential building varies from 30 sq m to 300 sq m and
these equations are derived from a study of various residential buildings
having different shapes. The equations are for single storeyed structures and
excluding services. Depending upon the prices of materials and wages of
labour, the approximate cost can thus be worked out. To the cost thus
obtained, 2.50% to 5% should be added for water charges, scaffolding,
shuttering and sundries and a further addition of 15% for contractor’s profit
will give the approximate cost of the residential building excluding
services.
Following are the equations in which ‘A’ represents the plinth area of
building in sq m:
(5) Steel in quintal =
0.213A – 3.14
(1) Bricks in nos = 226A +
(6) Sand in cu m = 0.47 A
6680
7
(2) Brickbats in cu m
(7) Kapachi in cu m =
=0.113A – 0.83
0.145 A + 1.5
(3) Cement in tones =
(8) Grit in cu m = 0.176 A
0.153A + 0.57
– 0.21
(4) Lime in kg = 14.50 A
(12) Paint in litres = =
35
0.1076 A + 0.27
(9) Timber for frames and
(14) Mason in nos =
shutters in cu m =
1.335 A + 28
0.019A + 0.23
(15) Carpenter in nos. =
(10) Fittings for doors and
1.184 A 9
windows = see table 11
(16) Blacksmith in nos. =
(11) Glass in sq m = 0.064A
0.269 A4
+ 0.73
(17) Mazdoor in nos. =
(12) Primer in litres =
4.766A32
0.0682A
(18) Painter in nos. =
0.0893A + 0.06
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Handles
Plinth Butt hinges Tower bolts 10 cm
No. area (no.)
(sq m) 10 cm 75 mm 5 cm 23 cm 15 cm
(no.) (no.) (no.) (no.) (no.)
1 30 16 9 10 8 8 13
2 50 20 13 12 12 12 18
3 70 45 26 30 18 18 27
4 100 52 35 35 19 19 30
5 125 54 45 38 27 27 42
6 150 64 58 47 34 34 51
7 180 74 69 57 45 45 64
8 220 77 64 58 44 44 65
9 260 83 67 61 46 46 71
10 300 95 77 70 53 53 82
Steel bridges:
1. Substructure
2. Superstructure.
Hence, to find out the approximate cost of a steel bridge, the approximate
cost of each part is worked out separately and added together. Brief
descriptions of finding out the approximate costs of substructure and
superstructure are given below:
Approximate cost of substructure: The cost of a bridge substructure is
subjected to extreme variations as it depends on various uncertain elements
such as type of span, width of roadway, type of foundation, nature of a
stream or a river to be crossed and method of construction. Because of these
factors, the two piers having the same quantities of materials, may vary
considerably in cost. Hence, to find out the approximate cost of
substructure, the approximate quantities of various materials required are
worked out and the proper unit price is applied. Similarly, the approximate
cost of labour involved is worked out.
Approximate cost of superstructure: It is possible to arrive at reasonable
approximate cost for superstructure in case of a steel bridge. The total
weight of steel required in tones is obtained by referring to charts, tables
and formulas. This weight when multiplied by the proper unit cost per steel
erected, gives the approximate cost of superstructure of a bridge.
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There is little standardization for arriving at the approximate cost of a steel
bridge and hence, each bridges must be studied as an individual problem.
(C)R.C.C. retaining walls:
The approximate cost of an R.C.C. retaining wall can be determined be
determined by knowing the total quantity of concerte and steel. This
quantity will depend on the type of foundation available, type of back
filling and nature of loading. Usually the quantity per linear measurement is
worked out and then, the cost is correspondingly determined. This cost,
when multiplied by the total length of the R.C.C retaining wall, will give
the approximate cost of the wall.
(D)Highways and roads:
The cost of a highway or a road mainly consists of the following four items
and hence, the approximate cost of these items are worked out then added
together to obtain the approximate cost of a highway or a road:
1. The cost land acquired: This cost is variable. It is negligible in some
cases while it is very high in other cases. It is vary high in other cases.
It depends upon the route followed by the highway. If the route is
passing through a highly developed area, the cost of this item will be
very high. On the other hand, if the right of way is donated, the cost of
this item will be negligible.
2. The cost of excavation,embankment and drainage: The cost of this
item depends on the topography of the country through which the
highway runs. It is also affected by the nature of soil and subsoil.
The cost of a road surface or pavement: The cost of this item is fairly
constant for two different highways with the same road surface. Hence,
the cost of this item can easily be worked out by knowing the cost of
unit surface of another existing highways with a similar road surface.
1. The cost of other structures such as culverts, bridges, etc.: Wherever
a highway crosses some stream, a suitable structure is to be constructed
to make the highway or road continuous. The approximate costs of all
such structures in the form of culverts, bridges, etc, are worked out
separately.
(E)Dams
The commonly used unit for the storage of water is the hectaremetre which
is the quantity of water covering a hectare to a depth of one metre.
Generally, use is made of this unit in finding out the approximate cost of a
proposed dam. The cost of hectaremetre of storage of a similar dam is
known and hence, the approximate cost of the proposed dam can be worked
out.
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However, it should be remembered that as the storage capacity of a
particular dam depends to a great extent upon the characteristics of the
reservoir basin, the cost per hectaremetre of storage of water is subject to
wide variations. Hence, extreme care should be taken in fixing the cost of
hectaremetre storage of water of the existing dam.
(F) Culverts:
Depending upon the nature of foundation type of material to be used, width
of road way, etc., the approximate cost per running metre of span is
estimated to work out the approximate cost of the culverts whose spans are
known.
For culverts with small spans, the approximate cost can be found out on
lumpsum basis per number from the records of culverts having similar
spans.
(G) lrrigation canals:
The unit to be adopted for finding out the approximate cost of an irrigation
canal may be one of the following:
1. Area of land under the command of canal; or
2. Per kilometer length.
In the first case, the area under the command of irrigation canal is worked
out in hectares and by estimating a suitable amount per hectare of area
under command., the approximate cost of the irrigation canal can by
worked out.
In the second case, the total length of the irrigation canal is found out and
depending on the capacity of the canal, a suitable rat per km length of
canal is adopted to obtain the approximate cost of the irrigation canal.
(H) Water supply and sanitary projects:
For such projects, the unit to by adopted to arrive at the approximate cost
may be one of the following:
1. Area served by the project; or
2. Population served by the project.
In the first case, total area covered by the project is worked out in hectares
and by assuming a suitable amount per hectare of area served, the
approximate coast of the project can be worked out.
In the second case, the total population to be served by the project is
worked out and by adopting a suitable rate per vapita or per head of
population served by the project, the approximate cost of the project can be
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obtained.
133. QUANTITY ESTIMATE:
It is a complete estimate showing quantities of all the items, required to
complete the project. The quantity of each individual item is worked out
from the drawing and it is then multiolied with the rate per unit for that
item to find out the cost. In this type of estimate only bills of quantities are
prepared for all necessary items and when they are priced, gives the
complete estimate of the project.
134. REVISED ESTIMATE:
It is a detailed estimate for the revised quantities and rates of items of
original estimate. The structural nature of the material should not be
changed from the design originally approved. It is necessary to prepare
revised estimate due to any of the following reasons:
When a sanctioned estimate is likely to exceed more than 5% due to any
cause except important structural alterations.
When the expenditure of work exceeds or likely to exceed by more than
10% of the administrative approval.
When there are material deviations from the original proposal but not
due to material deviation of a structural nature.
When sanctioned estimate is found more than the actual requirement.
A revised estimate should be submitted with a comparative abstract form
showing the probable variations for quantiy, rate and amount for each item
as compared with that item of original estimate side by side stating the
reasons of variations.
135.SUPPLEMENTARY ESTIMATE:
Aometimes some changes or additional woeks due to material deciation of a
atructural nature from the originally approved design may be thought
necessary when the work is in progress. For all such items, a detailed
estimate is prepared, which is known as a supplementary estimate. It is to
be attached with a report describing the reasons for new additional work.
An abstract form must show the original estimated amount and the total of
the sanction required including the supplementary amount.
136.REVISED ESTIMATE AND SUPLEMENTARY ESTIMATE DUE
TO REDUCTION OF COST (FOLLOWING P.E.D):
When a certain section of project costing not less than 5% of the total
sanctioned cost of the project is adandoned or where deviations from the
original proposals are expected to result in substantial savings, the estimate
is revised. But when the savings is expected from the material deviation of
a structural nature from the design originally approved, the supplementary
estimate is prepared.
137COMPLETE ESTIMATE:
A complete estimate is prepared after adding an estimated cost of all items
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of the project is abandoned or where deviation from the main detailed
estimate. It includes the cost of land, cost of legal expenses required
detween the owner and between the owner and the contractor, engineering
fees, architect’ s fee, cost for supervision of works and a detailted estimate
with contingencies.
138. ANNUAL MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR ESTIMATE:
It is required to maintain the completed project for its proper function and
an estimate is prepared for the same in the form of a detailed estimate. This
estimate includes items for renewal, replacement, repairs, etc.
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