Preliminary Proposal & Bibliography
HIST 691
Writing a Thesis Proposal
Matthew Ward
5508929
Winter 2018
1 April 2018
The army of the Late Roman Empire, identified as between roughly 280-500 AD, is not
as saturated of a subject as the armies of Augustus and Marcus Aurelius, though is still an area
well-researched. There are, however, still areas for which to expand on; as Robert Collins points
out “…while the frontier armies are well-trodden ground, and a not inconsiderable amount of
work has already been carried out on some of the generalities…gaps remain”1. There is quite an
ample amount of information that provides components of the Late Army, but not much has been
put in to piece them together.
Beginning with English Historian Edward Gibbon in the 18th century, criticism has been
charged against the Late Army for the ‘Barbarization’ of forces, creating the apparent relaxation
of training and battlefield discipline. I do not necessarily agree to these conclusions out of
concern from their perspective; as early as Flavius Vegetius Renatus in de re Miltiari, there is a
romanticized reflection on the legions of old, which I believe is influenced by correlation with
the state of the Empire as a whole. Many historians addressing this are also of seldom military
background, and while they are capable of understanding organizations, I did not find any
material that assess the different needs from the army based on economy, political stability, the
halt of expansion, and the diversity of foreign invaders ranging from small bands to nomad-
kingdoms against the considerations of the Army.
My argument will be to compile these changes, review them with the Late Army on a
unit-level, and present the case that, as an organization, the Late Army was a competent and
well-suited force that needed to protect a perplexingly large border relatively evenly. I will
address the equipment changes, the establishment of the Comitatenses and the Limitanei, why
1
Collins, Rob, Symonds, Matt, and Weber, Meike, eds, Roman Military Architecture on the Frontiers: Armies and
Their Architecture in Late Antiquity, (Havertown: Oxbow Books, Limited, 2015), 12.
the Augustan/Marian model of army would be less capable for the Late Empire’s defense, and
even defend the Foederati ‘barbarians’, providing evidence of non-Roman admission into the
Legions since the beginning of the Empire as well as reflecting on the Socii allies of the Mid-
Republic, who were often of higher quality (entitled Socii Extraordinarii), than most of the
Roman-borne forces.
While I will make a strong case for the organization and quality of reform by Diocletian
and finalization by Constantine, I will not go so far to say they were perfect. The strategy of
‘Defense in Depth’ allowed the outer provinces to become more vulnerable than ever
experienced, causing the citizens throughout the Empire to rely on themselves, erecting walls
and having the Limitanei as a local militia; this would certainly erode their own identity with
being ‘Roman’, causing the fall of the Western Capital to be more of a formality than a decisive
blow. In a measurable way, the Late Army helped defend the border effectively, but also helped
lay the seeds for the rotting away of the empire and promote future rump-kingdoms of Early
Medieval Europe. If the Late Army failed at a basic level, Europe would be a very different
continent, culturally and politically.
I will also not be defending or delving into specific generals or leaders; any organization,
no matter how well it is made, can be ruined if it is poorly executed or followed. My assessment
comes from what the Army was meant to be, and when its organization was followed, it
succeeded. We measure success often from major battles, but this is not what Rome had to face
alone. Uncounted skirmishes and engagements that are not recorded were the majority of
conflicts Rome had to organize for. These types of encounters are what the Late Army faced;
mobility, flexibility, resilience and guerilla-like tactics were the means to win, and by and large,
they were successful.
Bibliography
Primary
(While I will intend to use Primary Sources more potently than the secondary, description
of forces, especially in the Late Army, will be difficult to discern. These will be analyzed
while strongly determining the level of bias, competance or embellishments of the ancient
writers).
Ammianus Marcellinus, Bill Thayer trans. Res Gestae XVI (Roman History). Harvard: Leob
Classical Library, 1935.
Appian, Bill Thayer trans. The Histories of Appian, Book I. Harvard: Leob Classical Library,
1913).
C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Bill Thayer trans, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Caligula. Harvard:
Leob Classical Library, 1913.
Fairley, William ed. Notitia Dignitatum or Register of Dignitaries, in Translations and Reprints
from Original Sources of European History, Vol. VI:4. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 1899.
Flavius Vegetius Renatus, Lt John Clarke trans. The Military Institutions of the Romans (De Re
Militari), 390 A.D United Kingdom: Endeavour Press, 2015, original edition by John
Clark, 1767.
Plutarch, Bill Thayer trans. The Parallel Lives. Harvard: Leob Classical Library, 1914.
Polybius, Bill Thayer trans. The Histories of Polybius: Book V. Harvard: Leob Classical Library,
1922.
Tacitus, John Church and William Brodribb trans. The Histories, Book IV. New York: Random
House Inc, 1873.
Titus Livius. Ab urbe condita (The Early History of Rome), English Translation. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1919.
Secondary
(These will be most useful to compare and contrast theories. Additionally, archeological
evidence brought forth by some authors will be useful for actually analyzing the forces).
Alfoldi, Andrew. The Crisis of the Empire (AD 249–270), in S A Cook et al. (eds.), The
Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. XII: The Imperial Crisis and Recovery (AD 193–324)
2d Edition. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Armstrong, Jeremy. Early Roman Warfare: From the Regal Period to the First Punic War.
Havertown: Pen and Sword, 2016.
Boak, Arthur, A History of Rome to 565 A.D. United Kingdom: The MacMillan Company, 1957.
Cameron, Garnsey, Averil Cameron (ed.). Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XIII: The Late
Empire, A.D. 337-425. UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Chapter 7: The Army,
A.D. Lee.
Collins, Rob, Symonds, Matt, and Weber, Meike, eds. Roman Military Architecture on the
Frontiers: Armies and Their Architecture in Late Antiquity. Havertown: Oxbow Books,
Limited, 2015.
Cowan, Ross. Roman Legionary AD 284-337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great.
United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing, 2015.
Esposito, Gabriele. The Late Roman Army. New Jersey: Winged Hussar Publishing, 2016.
Gabba, Emilio, P.J. Cuff trans. Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies California:
University of California Press, 1976.
Gibbon, Edward, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Abridged Edition. London
Penguin Books Ltd, 2000.
Goldsworthy, Adrian, The Complete Roman Army. United Kingdom: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
Goldsworthy, Adrian. Roman Warfare (Smithsonian History of Warfare) New York: Harper
Paperbacks, 2000.
Grant, Michael. The History of Rome. United Kingdom: Faber and Faber, 1979.
James, S. (1986) Evidence from Dura Europos for the Origins of Late Roman Helmets. In: Syria,
T. 63, Fasc. 1/2 (1986), pp. 109. Published by: Institut Francais du Proche-Orient.
Luttwak, Edward, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire from the First Century CE to the
Third. Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979.
MacDowall, Simon. Late Roman Infantryman 236-565 AD. United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing,
1994.
Rich, John, Rich, John, and Shipley, Graham, eds. War and Society in the Roman World.
London: Taylor & Francis Group, 1993.
Salmon, E.T. Samnium and the Samnites. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1967.
Santosusso, Antonio. Storming the Heavens: Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman
Empire. Colorado: Westview Press, 2001.
Smith, Richard, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army. United Kingdom: Manchester
University Press, 1958.
Southern, Pat and Karen Dixon. The Late Roman Army. New York: Routledge, 2014 (First
published 1996 by B.T. Batsford Ltd).
Syvanne, Ilkka. Military History of Late Rome 284-361. Havertown: Pen & Sword Books
Limited, 2015.
Taylor, Donathan. Roman Empire at War: A Compendium of Roman Battles from 31 B.C. to
A.D. 565. South Yorkshire: Casemate Publishers, 2016
Warren Treadgold, Byzantium and Its Army, 284-1081. California: Stanford University Press,
1995.
