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 Qucrcus alba (white oak): cross section through one entire growth ring and
portions of two others. Note large pores in early wood filled with tyloses and
abruptly diminishing in size toward late wood. Small pores thin-walled and in
fan-like groups. Note "dipping in" of the outline of the growth ring where it
crosses the large ray at the right. X 35.
 Identification
OF THE

Economic Woods of the

United States

Including a discussion of the

Structural and Physical
Properties of Wood

BY

Samuel J. Record, M.A., M.F.

Professor of Forest Products, Yale University

SECOND EDITION
REVISED AND ENLARGED

NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited

IQIQ
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR
Mechanical Properties of Wood.
viii + 167 pages, 6 X 9, 51 figures, 22 tables.
Cloth, $1.75 net.

Copyright, 1912, 1919

By Samuel J. Record

Stanbope jprcss
F. H. GILSON COMPANY
BOSTON, U.S.A.

t
 CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction 1

PART I

Structural, and Physical Properties of Wood:

General 5

Pith 7

Bark 8

Primary wood 11

Cambium 12

Secondary wood 12

Vessels 14

Tracheids 16

Wood fibres 18

Wood parenchyma 21

Rays 23

Resin ducts 29

Pits 31

Tyloses . 35
Pith flecks or medullary spots 36
Trabeculae: Sanio's beams 38
"Ripple marks" 39

Growth rings 40

Heartwood and sapwood 44

Grain and texture 46

....
.

Knots 48

Density and weight 49

Water content of wood 52

IV CONTENTS
PAGE
Shrinkage, warping, and checking 56

Hygroscopicity 59

Permeability 60

Conductivity 62

Resonance 62

Color 64

Gloss or lustre

Scent or odor

Taste
.......... 66

67

69

Additional References 69

PART II

Key to the Economic Woods of the United States 73

References ... 109

Bibliography 119

.......
. . .

Appendix 127

Index 147
 ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE
Cross section of Quercus alba (white oak) Frontispiece

PLATES
Map of the United States showing natural forest regions I

Photomicrographs of wood sections . II-VI

TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. PAGE
1. Cross sections of stem of Quercus prinus (chestnut oak) . 6

....
.

2. Typical wood cells . . . 19

3. Radial sections of heterogeneous rays 24

4. Radial section of ray of Pinus strobus (white pine) . 25

5. Radial section of ray of Pinus edulis (pifion pine) . . .26

6. Radial section of ray of Pinus resinosa (red pine) . . 27

7. Radial section of ray of Pinus palustris (Iongleaf pine) 28

8. Cross section through portions of two growth rings of Pinus ponderosa

(western yellow pine) . . 30

9. Tangential section of fusiform ray of Pinus ponderosa (western yellow

pine) . . .31
10. Cross section of a wound area of Tsuga canadensis (eastern hemlock) 32
11. Schematic representation of pits . 33

12. Bars of Sanio in Pinus murrayana (lodgepole pine) . . .38

13. Cross section through three entire growth rings of Quercus macrocarpa
(bur oak) . . 42

14. Cross section through one entire growth ring and parts of two others
of Quercus macrocarpa (bur oak) . 42

15. Effects of shrinkage 57

 TABLES
NO. PAGE
I. Length of tracheids in coniferous woods 17

II. Length of wood fibres in dicotyledonous woods . . . .20

III. One hundred and fifty trees of the United States arranged in the
order of the average specific gravity of their dry woods . 50

IV. Shrinkage of wood along different dimensions . . . .57

V. Important families and genera of Dicotyledons in the United States 129

VI. Numerical conspectus of the trees of the United States . . 129

VII.
nantly simple .........
Indigenous woods with vessel perforations exclusively or predomi-
135

VIII. Indigenous woods with vessel perforations exclusively scalariform 136

IX. Indigenous woods with spiral markings in part or all of the vessels 138

X. Nature of pitting of vessel wall where in contact with ray paren-

chyma 139

XL Occurrence of tyloses and

woods ...
gum
.......
deposits in vessels of indigenous
141

XII. Families with indigenous representatives exclusively diffuse-porous 143

XIII. Indigenous ring-porous woods 143

XIV. Nature of pitting in wood fibres of indigenous woods . . . 144

XV. Kinds of rays in indigenous dicotyledonous woods . . . 145

XVI. Indigenous woods with " ripple marks.'' , , 146

 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
The chief differences between this edition and the first (1912)
are as follows: (1) The Key has been entirely rewritten and re-
arranged, several new woods are included and more of the common
names are given; (2) the lists of references and the general bibli-
ography have been brought up to date; (3) an Appendix has been
added which amplifies some of the subject matter of Part I, and
also includes considerable new data on wood structure.
In grouping the woods in the Key more attention has been
given to their general similarity than to special features, thus
bringing together for effective contrast the kinds which are most
likely to be confused in practice. Attempt has been made to have
all ofthe descriptions comparable and, so far as permissible, to
make the gross characters the basis for separation. The micro-
scopic features are "printed in smaller type than the others, to
avoid confusion and to simplify the use of the Key.
It is comparatively easy to make a key for a given lot of wood
specimens, but to take into account the range of variation of each
wood is an extremely difficult task. Such a key must be the re-
sult of growth, of the accumulation of years of investigation and
experience, and must always be subject to revision as new data
and new material become available. To this end the author
would enlist the cooperation of all readers of this book.

Samuel J. Record.

IX
 INTRODUCTION

As the available supply of the standard kinds of timber has

decreased, woods have appeared on the market which formerly
were considered worthless. In some instances the new woods are
sold under their own names, but usually they are employed as
substitutes for more expensive kinds, or sold in indiscriminate
mixture. It thus becomes a matter of great importance that
foresters, timber-inspectors, and wood-users be able to distinguish
the woods with which they deal. The number of such woods is so
large, and their resemblance often so close, that one can no longer
depend upon distinguishing them through mere familiarity with
their general appearance. To identify woods it is necessary to
have a knowledge of the fundamental differences in their structure
upon which the points of distinction are based.
The literature bearing directly upon this subject is very
limited, and such information as exists is for the most part dis-
tributed throughout a considerable number of publications and not
readily available. Teachers and students of wood technology are
seriously handicapped by the lack of suitable text-books or
manuals. It is in an attempt to supply in small part this defi-
ciency that the writer has prepared for publication a portion of the
material given in one of his courses in Forest Products at the
Yale Forest School. While it is designed primarily as a manual
for forestry students, it is hoped that it will also aid others in the
study and identification of wood.
Part I deals briefly with the more important structural and
physical properties of wood. The structural properties are based
upon the character and arrangement of the wood elements.
Under this head are considered (a) the external form of the tree
:

in its various parts; (6) the anatomy

of the wood; (c) abnormal
developments or formations; (d) relation of these properties to
the usefulness of wood; and (e) their importance in classification.
The physical properties are based upon the molecular composition
of the wood elements. Under this head attention is given to
(a) the properties manifest to unaided senses, viz., color, gloss,
1
2 INTRODUCTION

odor, taste, (b) those determined by measurement,

and resonance;
viz., density,weight, water content, shrinkage, swelling, warping,
and hygroscopicity; (c) relation of these properties to the use-
fulness of wood; and (d) their employment to some extent as aids
to identification.
In Part II attempt is made to use the details of Part I in the
construction of an artificial classification of the economic woods
of the United States. Unimportant species have in some cases
been included where it was felt that their presence would not lead
to confusion. This classification has been prepared with two
objects in view: (1) for use in practice as a key for the identifica-
tion of unknown specimens; (2) for use in the laboratory as a basis
for the comparative study of known specimens.
As far as considered practicable, the distinctions in the key
are based on macroscopic features, those readily visible to the
unaided eye or with the aid of a simple lens magnifying 10 to
15 times. Owing to the great variation of wood it is usually
unwise to rely upon single diagnostic features, and for this reason
the descriptions have been extended to embrace all or most of the
important characters so far recognized. This method also permits
ready arrangement of the key or the fitting into it of additional
woods.
In the woods of many genera the structural variations appar-
ently are not sufficiently distinct and constant to assure specific
identification. Good examples of this are afforded by the woods
of Pinus, Quercus, Hicoria, and Populus, where it is usually
difficult and very often impossible to do more than separate them
into groups. Accurate knowledge of the botanical and com-
mercial range of each species will often serve as a basis for further
subdivision of a group in which other distinctions are apparently
wanting.
In preparing a specimen for careful examination either with
or without a lens it is highly desirable that a very smoothly cut
surface be obtained. If the knife used is not sharp, the cut surface
will be rough and the details of structure obscured. Cross sections
are, as a rule, the most valuable for comparative study, and in
making them it is very important that the plane of section be
as nearly as possible at right angles to the vertical axis of the
specimen.
A compound microscope is necessary for the study of the
minute anatomy of wood. Sections for immediate observation
 INTRODUCTION 6

may be cut free-hand with a sharp pocket-knife or razor and

mounted in water. To avoid air bubbles in the sections small
pieces of the specimens should be boiled prior to sectioning.
It is not important that such sections be of uniform thickness,
since a thin edge will usually exhibit the essentiaL details-
Much better results can be obtained by the use of a microtome.
Penhallow recommends a table microtome and a plane blade
mounted in a heavy wooden handle of such a form as to provide a
perfectly firm grip. For fine work, however, a sliding microtome
specially constructed for sectioning wood is best. Success depends
largely upon the sharpness of the knife and the rigidity of the
apparatus.
Considerable care should be exercised in the selection of
material for sectioning. Small blocks of about a quarter-inch cube
should be cut from green material, or from the interior of dry
pieces. The faces of the blocks should represent sections which
are as nearly cross, radial, and tangential as possible. Blocks of
the lighter woods can be softened sufficiently by boiling them in
water until thoroughly saturated. The process may be hastened
by interrupting the boiling by additions of cold water. In the
case of the harder woods, however, it is a good plan to place
the small blocks, after boiling, in a solution of hydrofluoric acid
for a period varying from ten days to three weeks, the strength
of solution and the duration of immersion depending upon the
hardness of the wood. After removal from the acid the blocks
should be thoroughly washed and then placed for several days in
glycerine, after which they are ready
for sectioning. The sections
may mounted unstained in glycerine or stained in the
either be
usual way and mounted in balsam. For ordinary work unstained
glycerine-mounts afford the most satisfactory results, since the
natural colors are preserved. (For more detail, see references
below.)

References

Bailey, I. W.: Microtechnique for Woody Structures, Bot. Gaz., Vol. XLIX,
Jan. 1910, pp. 57-58.
Plowman, A. B.: The Celloiden Method with Hard Tissues, Bot. Gaz., Vol.
XXXVII, June 1904, pp. 456-461.
Penhallow, D. P.: North American Gymnosperms, Boston, 1907, pp. 16-23.
Benedict, H. M.: An Imbedding Medium for Brittle or Woody Tissues,
Bot. Gaz., Vol. LII, Sept. 1911, p. 232.
Thompson, R. B.: A Modification of a Jung-Thoma Sliding Microtome for
Cutting Wood, Bot. Gaz., Vol. L, Aug. 1910, pp. 148-149.
4 INTRODUCTION

The best idea of the form and size of the individual cells is
gained from studying macerated material. This is readily obtained
by placing small pieces of wood in a test-tube together with a
number of crystals of potassium chlorate, and adding enough
nitric acid to cover them well. After the wood has turned white
the solution should then be poured off and the material washed
thoroughly in water. This action may be hastened by warming.
It is then easy to remove a small portion of the mass to a slide
where it can be dissected with a couple of needles and studied
under the microscope.

The writer desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to Prof.

James W. Tourney for much of the da.ta upon which this work is
based; to Mr. Clayton D. Mell for many helpful suggestions and
criticisms; and to Mr. Charles J. Heller for the loan of a set of
wood sections from which the photo-micrographs were made
by the writer at the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis-
consin.
 PART I

STRUCTURAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

OF WOOD
GENERAL

Wood of a timber-producing tree may be considered under

three general heads, viz., root, stem, and branch. The relative
proportion of the three classes of wood in a tree depends on the
species, the age, and the environmental conditions of growth.
The woody portion of stem and branch has, within certain limits,
the same structure. Branches are of less technical value because
of their irregular shape and small dimensions. The latter is due
to the fact that the number and thickness of the layers of growth
are less and the wood elements smaller than in the bole.
Wood of roots always differs somewhat from that of the stem
in form, structure, and distribution of the elements; the growth
rings are narrower, the elements have wider lumina, and the
wood is as a rule lighter, softer, and more porous. Roots, with
occasional exceptions, are a very subordinate source of wood in
America.
Stem wood, on account of its more desirable dimensions and
shape and its greater uniformity, is of the greatest utility and
value. The form and character of the stem are of greater impor-
tance than the relative volume; with few exceptions the more
nearly straight and cylindrical and the freer from limbs, knots,
and defects, the greater are its technical properties and value.
These properties are largely determined by the age of the tree
and the inherent characteristics of the species, though affected
by environment. Straightness and clearness are materially
influenced by density of stand.
A woody stem, branch, or root is composed of three unlike
parts (Fig. 1). Through the central portion runs a narrow cylinder
of soft tissue, the pith. On the outside is bark. Between these
two and making up the bulk of the structure is the wood or xylem.
The wood, particularly in old sections, usually shows a central
5
 6 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

colored portion, the heartwood, and a nearly colorless outer border,

the sapivood. In fresh-cut green sections the sapwood is further
differentiated by its greater moisture content.
Indigenous arborescent plants are readily separable into two

s.ur<

Fig. 1. —Cross section of stem of Qvercus prinus (chestnut oak); i, bark

showing outer and inner portions; s. w., sapwood; the darker inn er portion is
heartwood; a. ... annual or growth ring; p. r., (pith) ray, a large number of which
can be seen crossing the growth rings at night angles. Note season checks. Natural
size. (From Bui. 102, U. S. Forest Service.)

great natural classes: I, Gymnosperms, and II, Angiosperms.

Class I is further divided into two unequal groups: Coniferce (13
genera), and Taxacew (2 genera). Class II embraces (according to
 ,

ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 7

Sargent's "Manual of the Trees of North America"), Mono-

cotyledons (2 families and 8 genera), and Dicotyledons (57 fam-
ilies and 149 genera). The Monocotyledons are of comparatively
slight importance as sources of wood, and for that reason, as well
as on account of their peculiar structure,* are omitted from the
general discussion of wood and from the key.
The woods of the Gymnosperms are commonly referred to as
"coniferous woods," "softwoods," and "needle-leaved woods."
These terms are inexact since (1) the Taxacece do not bear cones;
(2) many of the so-called "softwoods" (e.g., Pinus palustris,
Pseudotsuga, Taxus) are harder than many of the so-called "hard
woods" (e.g., Populus, Salix, JEsculus, Tilia); and (3) the con-
trast in the leaves is by no means always as great as the terms
"needle" and "broad" would indicate. Common usage, how-
ever, has given these names sufficient definiteness for ordinary
purposes, though they should be avoided where scientific exact-
ness is desired.

PITH

The central portion of the young shoot, branch, and root is

composed of loosely aggregated, mostly thin-walled, isodiametric
—
parenchymatous cells the pith. It is usually of small diameter,
does not increase in size after the first year, in fact, may even in
some instances be compressed, and appears to be of only temporary
utility to the tree. In some cases, according to Gris (loc. til.),
the cells remain active for several years, and alternately store
and give up products of assimilation, especially starch and tannin,
according to the periods of vegetation. In such instances the
walls of the active cells are thickened and densely pitted.
The pith in woody stems of Gymnosperms is fairly uniform in
shape, size, color, and structure; in Dicotyledons there is great
variation. As to outline in cross section: it is star-shaped in
Quercus, triangular in Fagus, Betula, and Alnus; ovoid in Tilia,
Fraxinus, and Acer; circular in Juglans, Ulmus, and Corniis.
In Juglans the color is black; in Gijmnocladus it is red; in man)'
others it is brown or gray. In Rhus, Sambucus, and Ailanthus the

* In adult stems of Monocotyledons the fibro-vascular bundles are scat-

tered throughout the central cylinder instead of being disposed in a circle,

as in the Dicotyledons. The bundles are closed and the tracheary tissue
surrounds the phloem.
8 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

pith is comparatively large and conspicuous, often deeply colored.

In Magnolia, Liriodcridrou Nyssa, Asimina, and A norm there is

,

often a more or less distinct septation of the continuous pith

by plates of stone cells, while in Juglans there is decided septation
but the diaphragms are not sclerotic, and the pith is not con-
tinuous between the disks. On account of these and other pecu-
liarities the pith when present in a specimen of wood is frequently
an aid to identification.

References

DeBary, A.: Comparative Anatomy, Oxford, 1884, pp. 402-403; 533-534.

Foxworthy, J. W.: Discoid Pith in Woody Plants, Proc. Indiana Academy
of Science for 1903, Indianapolis, 1904, pp. 191-194.
Solereder, Hans : Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Oxford, 1908,
pp. 133-134.
Gris, A.: Sur la Moelle des Plant es Ligneuses, Amer. Sci. Nat., Ser. 5,
Tome XIV, 1872.

BARK
Bark is the name commonly applied to that portion of a
stem lying outside the cambium layer. Used in this broad sense,
it is customary to distinguish an outer (dry) portion and an inner

(living) portion. The structure of bark is highly complex and

widely variable.
When shoots are first formed they are covered by a very
thin layer of tissue, the epidermis. Beneath this is the primary
cortex and the pericycle. The latter is commonly composed of two
kinds of tissues, thin-walled parenchyma and bast-fibres. The bast-
fibres may occur in isolated groups or form a continuous band
around the stem. When in groups they are often closely associated
with, but not really part of, the phloem of the vascular bundles.
Bast-fibres are attenuated sclerenchymatous elements, with
sharp ends simple or branched. Their function is to give
strength to the stem and to protect the delicate tissues of the
phloem. It is to them that many barks owe their great tough-
ness and pliability.
Phloem, which is the outer portion of a vascular bundle, is in
typical cases composed of sieve tubes, companion cells, and phloem
parenchyma. In structure sieve tubes resemble vessels, but their
walls are mostly delicate, non-lignified, colorless, cellulose mem-
 ECONOMIC "WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 9

branes. Between the ends of the sieve-tube segments (and some-

times between adjacent side walls as well) are thin plates dotted
with pits, resembling a sieve. The pit membranes are finally
absorbed, allowing free communication from one cell to another.
Unlike vessels, the segments of the sieve tubes remain alive for a
year or more, though they lose their nuclei. This unusual phe-
nomenon may be due to some influence of the companion-cells
or to associated parenchyma cells. The function of the sieve
tubes is the vertical (especially downward) distribution of elab-
orated food materials. After the first year the cells usually be-
come crushed by the pressure of the surrounding tissues, their
places being taken by new cells generated by the cambium.
In addition to the structure just mentioned, many other
elements and structures may enter the composition of the bark.
Among these may be mentioned resin ducts, latex tubes, stone cells,
crystals, mucilage sacs, and tannin sacs. Bast rays are also present,
being continuous with the rays of the xylem. They increase in
width uniformly and gradually as they recede from the cambium.
In practically all cases of growth in thickness the epidermis
is destroyed at an early period and is replaced by cork. Cork is
suberised tissue formed by a special meristem called cork cambium
or phellogen, which originates in the epidermis or in the cells just
beneath the epidermis. All parenchymatous cells, however,
wherever located, appear to possess the ability to form cork.
Wound surfaces are closed and healed by it, and diseased and
dead parts are isolated from those in living condition.
The formation of cork cambium in the bark usually occurs
during the first year's growth of the stem. As a result of its
activity a layer of cork cells is generated on the outside, and fre-
—
quently a layer of thin-walled parenchyma cells the phelloderm —
on the inside. Collectively these new tissues, including the cork
cambium, are called the periderm. The effect of the development
of cork is to cut off from the interior mass of tissue portions of the
cortex, which dry up and are eventually thrown off as outer bark.
This action may occur only once, as in Fagus and Carpinus, but
usually is repeated, and successively deeper layers of the cortex
and eventually of the pericycle and phloem are cut off.
In some species the successive formations of cork extend
more or less uniformly around the stem, cutting off in each case
—
an annular layer of cortex sometimes called ring bark. In other
species the successive internal layers are very irregular, and cut
 —

10 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

off scale-like portions of the cortex scale-bark. The results are

subject to very wide variation.
In Platanus and Taxus the outer bark is shed annually in
the form of comparatively large, irregular, thin flakes which, falling
away, leave the surface smooth. In species of Betula thin, exfoli-
ating layers are produced, marked with horizontal lines of lenticels.
In many species of Pinus, the outer bark of mature trees is made
up of small, irregular scales in very intricate pattern. In Hicoria
ovata and H. laciniosa the outer bark peels off in long, flat, reddish-
brown strips, while several other species of the same genus have
bark that is not flaky. In a great many woody plants the layers
of bark persist for many years, and, as the stem increases in size,
become more and more cracked and furrowed. Such is the case
in Quercus, Robinia, Liriodendron, etc. In Sequoia, Juniperus,
Taxodium, and others of the Cedar group, the bark is character-
istically fibrous. These examples are sufficient to indicate the wide
variation in the bark and its importance as an aid to the identi-
fication of a specimen upon which any portion of bark remains.
The bark of many trees is of high technical value. A very
great number are used for medicinal purposes. Tsuga and species
of Quercus possess barks which contribute very largely to our
tannin supply, upon which the leather industry is dependent.
Some barks contain coloring principles; others (e.g., Hicoria ovata)
are highly valuable for fuel. Birch bark was formerly used for
canoes. The inner barks of some woods (e.g., Tilia) are sometimes
used in manufacturing fibre cloth. The highly-developed corky
layers of Quercus suber furnish the cork of commerce.

References

Stevens, W. C. Plant Anatomy, Philadelphia, 1907, pp. 37-39; 56-58; 72-82.

:

DeBary, A.: Comparative Anatomy, pp. 108-114; 519-566.

Sachs, Julius: Text-Book of Botany, Oxford, 1875, pp. 90-92.
Gregory, E. L.: Elements of Plant Anatomy, Boston, 1895, pp. 133-142.
Henkel, Alice: American Medicinal Barks, Bui. 139, U. S. Bu. Plant
Industry, 1909, p. 59.
Hill, Arthur W. Sieve-Tubes
: of Gymnosperms, Annals of Botany, Vol.
XV, Dec. 1901.
Notes on the Histology of the Sieve-tubes of Certain Angiosperms,
:

Annals of Botany, Vol. XVII, Jan. 1903, pp. 265-267.

Moeller, Joseph: Anatomie der Baumrinden; Vergleichendc Studien, Ber-
lin, 1882, p. 447.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 11

PRIMARY WOOD

At the growing apex of a stem is an undifferentiated tissue

composed of very thin-walled cells essentially all alike. This tissue
is known as the primordial meristem.
Below the apex the primordial meristem becomes differentiated
into three distinct parts, viz., (1) the protoderm at the outside,
(2) the procambium strands, and (3) the fundamental or ground
meristem. These three regions or tissues are themselves subject to
further differentiation and are called primary meristems. The
protoderm changes into the epidermis; the ground meristem into
pith, primary rays, pericycle, and primary cortex; the pro-
cambium strands into vascular bundles, which are disposed in a
circle around the pith and separated from each other by the
primary rays. The vascular bundles are composed of three parts,
an inner called the xylem, an outer called the phloem, and, separ-
ating the two, a thin layer of generative tissue, the cambium.
These tissues, being the direct development of the cells of
the procambium, are termed primary {primary wood proto- —
xylem and metaxylem —
and primary phloem) in contradistinction
,

to the tissues generated by the cambium, which are termed

secondary.
Primary wood is relatively unimportant,though of scientific
interest because of its peculiar structure, which in many ways
differsfrom the other wood of the stem. Thus in Angiosperms,
wood wanting and tracheids are not common
fibres are usually
in the primary wood, while in the secondary wood fibres are
always present and tracheids commonly so. In Gymnosperms the
vascular elements of the primary wood are indeterminate in
length, marked with spirals and for the most part devoid of pits
in their walls, while the corresponding elements in the secondary
wood are of determinate length, rarely marked with spirals and
always pitted.

References

Stevens, William C: Plant Anatomy, pp. 25-45.

Penhallow, D. P. North American Gymnosperms,
: pp. 38, 40.
DeBary, A.: Comparative Anatomy, p. 321.
Sachs, J.: Text-Book of Botany, p. 574.
12 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

CAMBIUM
As previously pro-cambium strand
stated, that portion of a
which remains capable and generation is known as
of division
fascicular (i.e., bundle) cambium, since it produces on the inner
side wood or xylem, and on the outer phloem —
collectively a fibro-
vascular bundle. The cambia of the several bundles are later
united into a continuous sheath, and the portion between the
original bundles is termed the inter-fasciadar cambium. The
cambial layer sheathes the entire woody cylinder from root to
branch and separates it from the cortex or bark. It is composed
of a thin layer of delicate, thin-walled, vertically elongated cells
filled with protoplasm and plant food. It is this layer that is
torn when bark is stripped from a living tree. During vigorous
growth, "when the sap is up," the cells of the cambium are par-
ticularly delicate, a fact taken advantage of in peeling poles, logs,
and basket-willow rods.
The division and development of the cambial cells give rise
to (a) a layer of new wood on the outside of that last produced;
(6) a layer of new phloem on the inside of that last produced (c) ;

continuation of the medullary rays of both xylem and phloem;

and (d) new cambium.
References

DeBahy, Comparative Anatomy, pp. 45-1-475.

A.:
Baii.ey, I. W.: Relation of Leaf -Trace to Compound Rays in Lower Dicoty-
ledons, Annals of Botany, Vol. XXV, No. 97, June 1911.

Rtjbner, Konrad: Das Hungern des Cambiums und das Aussetzen der
Jahrringe, Naturw. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Landwirtschaft, 8. Jahr-
gang, 1910, pp. 212-262.
Von Mohl, Hugo: Ueber die Cambiumschicht des Stammes der Phanero-
gamen und ihr Verhaltniss zum Dickenwachsthum desselben, Bot.
Zeitung, Vol. XVI, 1S58, pp. 183-198.

SECONDARY WOOD
Tissues formed from cambium are termed secondary. Almost
all ofthe wood of a stem is secondary wood, the small amount of
primary wood being wholly negligible from a technological point of
view.
The principal functions of secondary wood are (a) to provide
 ECONOMIC "WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 13

mechanical support for the tree; (b) to afford means for the ascent
of sap from the roots to the foliage; (c) alternately to store up
and to give back products of assimilation, particularly starch.
While the elements of secondary wood are subject to wide
variation, they may for convenience be referred to three principal
types, viz., (1) vascular, (2) fibrous, (3) parenchymatous. Between
these groups are transitional and specialized forms whose reference
to one or the other of these groups is often purely arbitrary. The
classification may be extended as follows:
Vascular elements Fibrous elements
True vessels Wood fibres
Tracheitis Septate wood fibres
(wood) tracheids Parenchymatous elements
ray tracheids Wood parenchyma
Ray parenchyma

In the following table are shown side by side the important

differences in the distribution of the elements in typical secondary
wood of Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons. (See Appendix, p. 131.)
Gymnosperms Dicotyledons
True vessels absent. True vessels present.
Wood tracheids present and forming Tracheids present or absent; always
bulk of wood. subordinate.
Ray tracheids present or absent. Ray tracheids absent.
Wood fibres absent. Wood fibres present.
Wood parenchyma present (except in Wood parenchyma present, and very
Taxaceae), but usually subordinate. often conspicuous.
Ray parenchyma present. Ray parenchyma present.

From the above it is apparent that the wood of Dicotyledons

ismore heterogeneous in its nature than that of Gymnosperms,
which is composed almost wholly of tracheids and ray parenchyma.

References

Solsredbh, H. Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Vol.

: II, pp. 1133-1168.
DeBary, A.: Comparative Anatomy, pp. 458-500.
Bohlger, G. S.: Wood, London, 1908, pp. 1-54.
Stevens, W. C: Plant Anatomy, pp. 48-56; 72-112.
Sachs, J. : Text-Book of Botany, pp. 92-102.
Mell, CD.: A Confusion of Technical Terms in the Study of Wood Struc-
ture, For. Quarterly, Vol. IX, No. 4, 1911, pp. 574-576.
: Classification of Woods by Structural Characters, Am. Forestry,
Vol. XIV, April 1910, pp. 241-243.
14 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Stone, H. : The UseAnatomical Characters in the Identification of Wood,

of
Nature, Vol. LXV, No. 1686, 1902, pp. 379-380.
Gayer, K.: Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. V, 1908, pp. 7-19.
Metzger, K.: Ueber der Konstructionsprinzip des secundaren Holzkorpers,
Naturw. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Landwirtschaft, 6. Jahrgang,
1908, pp. 249-273.
Wieler, A. Ueber die Beziehung zwischen Wurzel- und Staumholz, Forstw.
:

Jahrbuch, Tharand, Vol. XLI, 1891, pp. 143-171.

Hartig, Robert: Untersuchungen uber die Entstehung und die Eigensehaf-
ten des Eichenholzes, Forstlich-naturw. Zeitschrift, Vol. Ill, 1894, pp.
1-13; 49-68; 172-191; 193-203.
Hartig, Robert, and Weber, Rudolph: Das Holz der Rothbuche in Ana-
tomisch-physiologischer, Chemischer und Forstlicher Richtung, Berlin,
1888, pp. 20-28.

Sanio, Carl: Vergleichende Untersuchungen tlber die Elementarorgane dea

Holzkorpers, Botanische Zeitung, Vol. XXI, 1863, pp. 85-128.
:
Verg. Unt. (1. d. Zusammensetzung des Holzkorpers, Ibid., Vol.

XXI, 1863, pp. 358-412.

Wiesner, Julius: Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzen Reiches, Vol. II, Leipzig, 1903,
pp. 1-35.

vessels (see Appendix, p. 132)

Vessels are indeterminate, tube-like cell-fusions found in the

wood of all indigenous dicotyledonous plants. In fact the absence
of xylem vessels in woody Dicotyledons is a very rare phenomenon
which, according to Solereder (loc. cit., p. 1136), has been recorded
only in the exotic genera Drimys and Zygogynum of .the Mag-
noliacece, and Tetracentron and Trochodendron of the Trochoden-
dracece.
Vessels arise from cambial cells which increase in size and,
through the partial or complete absorption of their end-walls at
the close of the process of thickening, become continuous in a
longitudinal row. There is always a constriction at the place of
fusion of the cells, thus plainly demarking the vessel segments (Plate
VI, Nos. 3, 4, 6). The walls of contact of the segments of a ves-
sel are sometimes (a) horizontal, but more often (6) oblique, and
fit together exactly; or, again, they may be (c) oblique with a por-

tion of the opposed faces united, the pointed and blind ends extend-
ing beyond the division wall, as in Liquidambar and Quercus. In
(a) the perforation from one segment to another is simple,
i.e., with
one round opening. In (6) and (c) the perforations are sometimes
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 15

simple and sometimes, especially in strongly inclined division

walls, scalariform, that is, the opening is crossed with few to many
bars in ladder-like arrangement. The bars are usually transverse
to the longitudinal axis of the vessel. Both simple and scalari-
form perforations may occur side by side in the same wood, but
usually one form prevails. These features have considerable
diagnostic value. For example, the perforations are simple in
Acer, but scalariform in Betula and Cornus; in JUsculus and Tilia
they are mostly simple, but in Liriodendron and Magnolia scalari-
form, except in Magnolia acuminata.
Other characteristics of the vessels are the markings on their
walls. In most cases they are abundantly pitted with bordered
pits, except in contact with parenchymatous cells where the
pitting may be either simple or bordered. (See Pits.) It is very
common for vessels, particularly the small ones, to be marked with
spirals on their interior walls [e.g., Acer, Ilex, Tilia, Ostrya, JEs-
culus). In Liquidambar only the pointed ends of the vessel seg-
ments are marked with spirals.
The function of vessels is to facilitate the ascent of water in
the stem. Vessels lose their protoplasmic contents by the time
their perforations are complete and become filled with air and
water, or air alone. When their activity as water-carriers lessens
they frequently become plugged with outgrowths from adjoining
parenchymatous (See Tyloses.)
cells. In the heartwood of
certain species Gymnocladus, Gleditsia, Guaiacum, Prosopis)
(e.g.,
they become wholly or partly filled with gums or resins; in
others, with carbonate of lime.
The length of vessels is usually very great, and doubtless often
equals that of the whole plant. In width vessels exhibit great
variation not only in different species, but also in different portions
of the same growth ring. In some woods all of the vessels are
small (e.g., Tilia, Msculus [Plate VI, Fig. 5], Populus, Salix);
in others they are mostly large (e.g., Juglans); very often, as in
Quercus (Plate II, Figs. 5, 6), they vary from large (0.6 mm.*)
and conspicuous to very small (0.1 mm.).
Vessels in cross section are called pores, and when this term
is employed be understood to apply to cross sections
it will
exclusively. Pores are usually readily distinguishable from the
adjoining elements by their larger size, though it is not always

* One millimetre is equal to about one twenty-fifth of an inch.

16 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

possible to small pores from cross sections of tracheids.

tell
In
outline pores may be round, elliptical, or angular. The first

two cases are the rule where the vessel walls are thick enough to
resist the pressure of the surrounding elements. This is the case,
for example, in the small pores of the red and live oaks (Plate II,
Fig. 6), while in the white oaks (Frontispiece; Plate II, Fig. 5)
the walls are thin and the pores angular in outline. Sometimes
pores are disposed in rings or zones in the early wood of the
growth ring, producing ring-porous woods (Plate III) in other ;

cases they are scattered singly or in groups throughout the

ring or arranged in radial or tangential rows, producing diffuse-
porous woods (Plate VI). (See Growth Rings.) In any case
the largest pores are almost invariably in the first formed wood
of the season. The distribution, size, form, and arrangement of
the pores are characters of great importance in classifying woods.

References

Someeder, H.: Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Vol. II, p. 1136.

Mell, C. D.: History of the Investigations of Vessels in Wood, Proc. Soc.

Am. Foresters, Vol. VI, No. 1, 1911, pp. 78-91.
DeBary, A.: Comparative Anatomy, pp. 155-171; 503.
Mayr, H. Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. V, 1908, pp. 9-10.
:

Sanio, Carl: Bot. Zeitung, Vol. XXI, No. 15, 1863, pp. 121-128.
Hartig, R. Lehrbuch der Anatomie und Physiologie der Pflanzen,
: Berlin,

1891, pp. 79-93.

TRACHEIDS

Tracheids are elongated, spindle-shaped, fibre-like elements,

determinate in length and characterized by bordered pits in
their side-walls.
In the wood of Gymnosperms the tracheid is the dominant
element, performing the dual function of conducting water and
providing mechanical support for the tree. Bordered pits are
mostly confined to the radial walls, except in late wood, and are
most abundant near the ends of the tracheids and in one or two
rows (Fig. 2, D) Seen in cross section, the tracheids are polygonal
.

in outline, arranged in radial rows, and, near the periphery of

growth ring, with very appreciable increase in thickness of the
wall, reduction of the lumen, and tangential flattening (Fig. 8;
Plate II, Figs. 1, 2, 4). In a few species, particularly Pseudotsuga,
 .

ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 17

Taxus, and Tumion, the tracheids are characterized by spiral

thickenings on the inner wall.

TABLE I

LENGTH OP TRACHEIDS IN CONIFEROUS WOODS

Botanical Name Average

Abies balsamea
" conoolor
" grandis
Chamsecyparis lawsoniana
thyoides .

Larix ocoidentalis
Libocedrus decurrens ....
Pioea engelmanni
" rubens
" sitchensis
Pinus echinata
" edulis
" lambertiana
" monticola
" murrayana
" palustris
" ponderosa
" resinosa
" strobus
" tseda
" virginiana
Pseudotsuga taxif olia ....
Sequoia sempervirens ....
" washingtoniana . .

Taxodium distichum
Thuya oecidentalis
" plicata
Tsuga canadensis
" heterophylla
18 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

elements often entirely wanting. They are much smaller and less
uniform in size and shape than in conifers, and are of most common
occurrence in the immediate vicinity of vessels. Their ends are
often curved, especially when they terminate just above or below
a ray. The walls are usually comparatively thin and bear numer-
ous bordered pits very irregularly distributed. Intermediate
forms of tracheids are sometimes found which show distinct
transition to the vessels in the detailed structure of their walls
and in the occasional presence of perforations at the ends of the
cells.
References

Penhallow, D. P.: North American Gymnosperms, pp. 33-58.

DeBaey, A.: Comparative Anatomy, pp. 164-165.
Thompson, W. P. On the Origin of Ray Tracheids
: in the Conifers, Bot.

Gazette, Vol. L, 1910, pp. 101-116.

Kny, L. : Ein Beitrag zur Entwickelimgsgeschichte der "Tracheiden," Ber.
d. deutschen Bot. Gesellschaft, Vol. IV, 1886, pp. 267-276.
Sanio, Carl: Botanische Zeitung, Vol. XXI, No. 14, 1863, pp. 113-118.

WOOD FIBRES

Typical wood fibres (Fig. 2, A, B) are slender, spindle-shaped,

sharp-pointed cells with thick walls and narrow cavities. They
are further characterized by usually oblique and slit-like simple
pits, or less frequently by small, indistinctly bordered pits. Wood
fibres are not found in Gymnosperms, but are nearly always
present in the wood of Dicotyledons.
Wood fibres are of two types, septate and ordinary (non-
septate). The septate forms are divided by cross-partitions
formed after thickening of the walls has begun. They are of
limited occurrence and of relatively small importance. They
are characteristic of Swietenia mahagoni and serve as one means
of distinguishing the wood from that of certain others closely
resembling it.
The ordinary forms are very common and are the principal
source of strength, hardness, and toughness of broadleaf woods.
While their function is largely mechanical, it is probable that
they, especially those with bordered pits, play some part, as yet
undetermined, in water transportation.
Wood fibres exhibit transitional forms from the typical to
tracheids on one hand, and to wood-parenchyma strands on the
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 19

other. In structure and arrangement they exhibit variations of

considerable taxonomic value. For example, in Ilex the fibres
are rather thin-walled and marked with spirals and bordered pits,
and closely resembling tracheids except for their greater size.
In Lriquidambar (Plate VI, Fig. 1) the fibres are mostly square in
cross section and in rather definite radial arrangement. In

A B
Fig. 2. —Typical WoodCells. A, Wood fibre with very narrow lumen; B,
wood fibre with larger lumen and showing oblique, slit-like simple pits (s. p.);

C, end of wood fibre showing saw edge; C", end of wood fibre showing forked
structure; D, ends of two tracheids from Pinus showing numerous bordered pits
(b. p.) E, Tracheid from Quercus; F, wood-parenchyma strand, showing indiviuuai
;

cells and simple pits (s. p.) G, chambered wood-parenchyma strand from Juglans,
;

showing crystals of calcium oxalate; H, conjugate parenchyma cells; K, portion

of a vessel segment showing simple perforation (p) L, portion of a vessel segment
;

showing scalariform perforation (5c. p.). Greatly enlarged.

Robinia (Plate III, Fig. 3) and Toxylon they are in rather large,
compact masses in the late wood, separated by groups or bands of
pores and parenchyma. In any wood in which they occur they are
most abundant in the median portion of the growth ring, and
material decrease in the width of a ring is usually at their expense.
The ends of most wood fibres are smooth and uniformly
 ....

20 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

tapering, but sometimes they are flattened, or forked, or with a

saw edge (Fig. 2, C, C), adding to the toughness of the wood.
Fibres usually run parallel to one another, but in some woods
they exhibit a decided interweaving which produces an irregularly
grained wood very difficult to split.

TABLE II

Length of Wood Fibres in Dicotyledonous Woods

Botanical Name Average Maximum Minimum

mm. mm. mm.

Acer rubrum 75 1.00 .50

Betula nigra 80 2.20 1.50
Castanea dentata 15 1.45 .80
Celtis occidentalis 25 1.70 1.05
Fagus americana 20 1.70 .75
Hicoria alba 35 1.70 .90
Ilex opaca 1.45 2.00 1.15
Juglans nigra 1.10 1.65 .65
Liquidambar styraciflua 1.60 2.00 1.25
Liriodendron tulipifera 1.90 2.50 1.40
Magnolia acuminata. . . 1.75 2.30 1.00
Nyssa sylvatica 70 2.35 1.05
Platanus occidentalis . . 90 30 1.30
Populus deltoides 40 20 .50
" grandidentata 00 35 .65
" heterophylla . . 35 80 00
" trichocarpa. . . 15 90 50
Quercus alba 25 50 00
" coccinea 50 10 00
" michauxii 55 SO 10
" rubra 1.20 45 .70
" virginiana 1.40 80 .85
Salix nigra .85 .95 .45
americana
Tilia 1.15 1.45 .85
Ulmus americana 1.50 1.90 1.15

References

DeBahy, Comparative Anatomy, pp. 481-483.

A. :

Solereder, H. Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Vol.

: II, pp. 1141-1143.
Gregory, E. L.: Pores of the Libriform Tissue, Bull Torrey Bot. Club,
Vol. XIII, 1886, pp. 197-204; 233-244.
Anonymous: Length of Wood Fibers in Broadleaf Woods, Sc. American
Sup., Sept. 30, 1911, p. 211.
Sanio, Carl: Bot. Zeitung, Vol. XXI, No. 13, 1863, pp. 89-111.
 .

ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 21

WOOD PARENCHYMA
Parenchyma occurs in the secondary xylem of all woody
plants, and, with few exceptions, is disposed in two systems:
(1) the vertical, composed of more or less scattered rows of cells
forming the wood parenchyma; and (2) the horizontal, made up of
plates of cells extending radially and at right angles to the axis —
the medullary rays or pith rays. Its chief function is the distribu-
tion and storage of elaborated food materials.
Typical wood-parenchyma strands (Fig. 2, F; Plate IV, Figs.
5, 6) of Dicotyledons resemble septate wood fibres, but have (1)
thinner walls, (2) simple, rounded or lenticular pits instead of
oblique, slit-like simple or bordered pits, and (3) cross walls equal
in thickness to the lateral walls. The individual cells of a wood-
parenchyma strand are mostly short and prismatic, pitted with
simple pits and (with the exception of the terminal ones, which
are pointed) with transverse or oblique end walls. Between
wood fibres and wood-parenchyma strands are intermediate forms
without septa —
substitute fibres or intermediate wood fibres.
Where wood parenchyma borders on large vessels it is usually
much flattened as a result of the pressure of the expanding vessel
segments. In such locations also are sometimes special forms
termed conjugate cells because of flatly tubular processes extending
from one to another slightly distant, thus uniting them (Fig. 2, H)
There are special forms of wood parenchyma in which the
individual cells are divided by cross walls into small chambers
of approximately even size which contain solitary crystals, usually
of calcium oxalate (Fig. 2, G; Plate IV, Fig. 6). Such crystals
are only slightly soluble even in the strongest acids, and are very
plainly visible under high magnification in both cross and longi-
tudinal sections. Crystals occur in all species of Quercus, though
they are commonly more abundant in the live oaks than in decid-
uous species. In Juglans (Plate IV, Fig. 6), Hicoria (Plate IV,
Fig. 3), and Diospyros, crystals are often quite conspicuous.
Calcium-oxalate crystals are also common in ray-parenchyma
cells.

The distribution and arrangement of wood-parenchyma strands

in different species are subject to considerable variation. As seen
on cross sections of woody Dicotyledons the cells may be (a)
scattered irregularly throughout the growth ring (Plate V, Figs.
3, 5), (b) arranged in tangential lines or bands (Frontispiece,
22 ECONOMIC "WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Plate IV, Figs. 1, 2), (c) terminal, i.e., comprising the outer limit
of the growth ring (Plate III, Fig. 6; Plate V, Fig. 2; Plate VI,
Fig. 2), (d) surrounding pores (Plate III, Figs. 3, 5), (e) ar-
ranged in radial rows. These features are quite important in
classifying woods. For example, in Fraxinus americana the pores
in the late wood are usually joined tangentially by narrow bands
of wood parenchyma, while in F. nigra (Plate V, Fig. 2) the pores
are rarely so united. In Hicoria (Plate IV, Fig. 1) wood paren-
chyma is in numerous, fine, concentric lines as distinct as the
rays, while in Diospyros (Plate IV, Fig. 2) the lines are finer than
the rays and very indistinct. In Tilia wood parenchyma is in
tangential lines, but is not so disposed in Ldriodendron, Magnolia,
and /Esculus. In Ldriodendron (Plate VI, Fig. 2) and Magnolia
the outer limit of the growth ring consists of 2-4 rows of tan-
gentially flattened wood-parenchyma cells with very thick, copi-
ously pitted radial walls.
Wood parenchyma is present in the wood of all Gymnosperms
except the Taxacew. The cells are invariably associated with
resin formation and are usually referred to as resin cells or epithelial
cells, according as they are more or less scattered or surrounding

resin ducts.
Resin cells are usually cylindrical or prismatic, thin-walled,
with transverse terminations more or less strongly marked with
simple pits. The pits in the side walls are often few and invariably
simple. Resin cells can usually be distinguished on cross sections
under the microscope by their thin walls, simple pits, or better
by the deep color of their contents. If the section passes near
enough to an end wall the simple pits therein give the appearance
of a sieve plate (Fig. 10). While in most cases resin cells are
invisible without the microscope, and often not readily found with
it, yet in Juniperus, Taxodium, and Sequoia they are usually

conspicuous, not infrequently giving rise in the first two species

to wavy tangential lines in the growth ring, visible to the unaided
eye.
The distribution of the resin cells is variable. In some cases
{e.g.,Thuya) they are scattering; in others (e.g., Taxodium [Plate
II, Fig. 1], Juniperus [Plate II, Figs. 3, 4], Libocedrus) they are
disposed in well-defined zones concentric with the growth ring,
being most abundant as a rule in the transition zone between
early and late wood. In still other cases (e.g., Tsuga) there is
often a tendency of some of the resin cells to aggregation, and in
 ECONOMIC "WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 23

some cases the formation of imperfect resin ducts or resin cysts

(Fig. 10). (See Resin Ducts.)
In Pinus (Fig. 8) wood parenchyma is found only in association
with resin ducts, isolated resin cells being absent; while in Larix
and Pseudotsuga resin cells are occasionally found on the extreme
outer face of the late wood. In Abies resin cells are remote and
inconspicuous; in Thuya plicata they are present, though often
zonate in widely separated growth rings, thus often apparently
absent. In Sequoia (particularly S. sempervirens) the resin cells
are partially filled with dark resin masses which appear on longi-
tudinal surface as fine dotted lines, or under lens as rows of black
or amber beads.
References

DeBaby, A.: Comparative Anatomy, pp. 485-486.

Penhallow, D. P. North American Gymnosperms,
: pp. 109-122.
Botjlger, G. S.: Wood, pp. 28-29.
Sanio, Cakl: Bot. Zeitung, Vol. XXI, No. 12, pp. 93-98.
Kny, L.: TJeber Krystallbildung beim Kalkoxolat, Berichte der deutschen
Bot. Gesellschaft, Vol. V, 1887, pp. 387-395.

RAYS
Medullary or pith rays, for brevity termed simply rays,
appear on the cross section of a stem as radial lines crossing the
growth rings at right angles and extending into the bark (Fig. 1).
A few of them originate at the pith and are commonly known as
primary rays. Successively, as the stem increases in size, addi-
tional or secondary rays arise between those already formed.
A ray may arise in the cambium layer at any point, and once formed
its growth is continuous.*
Under the microscope the line formed by the ray becomes a
radial series of mostly elongated cells usually with transverse
end walls (Plates II-IV). Viewed radially a ray appears as a
muriform structure composed of from one to many tiers of brick-
shaped cells (Plate IV, Figs. 5, 6). In tangential section the ends
of the rays are visible, showing to advantage their height, shape,

* When on cross or radial sections a ray appears to be discontinuous, it is

probable that it has merely been missed by the plane of section. This empha-
sizes the importance of making cross sections exactly at right angles to the
axis of growth, and radial sections as nearly as possible parallel with the rays.
24 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

width, and distribution, and also the outline in cross section of

the component cells (Plate III, Fig. 1; Plate IV, Figs, 3, 4; Plate
VI, Figs. 3, 4, 6).
Ray cells are usually elongated in the radial direction. This is
normally the case in Gymnosperms and usually so in the woody
Dicotyledons. Not infrequently in the latter, however, part or
all of the cells are upright, i.e., with their greatest diameter vertical,
or are square. The marginal cells are sometimes upright and the
interior cells radially elongated or -procumbent (Fig. 3). The upright
cells are often very irregular, especially the outermost marginal
rows; sometimes they are nearly square; again they are in pali-
sade arrangement. When these upright or square cells are in

up.c.

pr.c.

pr.c.

J>s.p.

Fig.3. —Radial sections of heterogeneous rays. A, Sassafras sassafras (sassa-

fras) ;B, Nyssa syhatica (black gum); C, JUsculus octandra (buckeye), showing
large pits (I. p.) in upright cells (up. c), where they adjoin vessels; and small pits
(s. p.), in procumbent cells (pr. c). No pits are shown in A and B. Magnified
about 150 diameters.

contact with large vessels the separating walls are characteristically

marked with very large pits whose polygonal or oval outlines
present the appearance of lattice work (Fig. 3, C). The lateral
walls of similarly located procumbent cells usually contain few
small pits. Moreover, in proximity to large vessels the walls
between all ray cells are usually thicker and much more abun-
dantly pitted than elsewhere. Upright cells are not always easy
to distinguish from the cells of wood-parenchyma fibres, especially
where they cross the latter, on account of the similar direction of
their longitudinal diameters.
 .

ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 25

Rays consisting wholly of procumbent cells may be said to be

homogeneous; those which contain both upright and procumbent
cells, heterogeneous (Fig. 3) Heterogeneous rays are characteristic
.

of many dicotyledonous woods, and are features of importance in

classification. For example, Celtis has heterogeneous rays, while
those of Ulmus are homogeneous. The same distinction obtains
between Salix and Populus, Sassafras and Fraxinus. The rays of
Sassafras are peculiar in having a few of the marginal cells abnor-
mally large and rounded or ovate (Fig. 3, A).
The rays in the wood of Gymnosperms are for the most part
one cell wide, i.e., uniseriate, and from 1 to 20 cells high. It is not

w.tr.

r.tr,

r.p.

r.tr.

Fig. 4. — Radial section of ray of Pinus strobus (white pine) ; showing the
smooth upper and lower walls of the ray tracheids (r. tr.), and the presence in the
lateral walls of the ray-parenchyma cells (r. p.) of large simple pits (s. p.), com-
municating with the wood tracheids (w. tr.) adjacent; b. p., bordered pits. Magni-
fied about 250 diameters.

uncommon to find biseriate rays, and those which contain resin

ducts (Pinus, Picea, Larix, P seudotsuga) are multiseriate. The
latter, because of their shape as seen on tangential section, are
called fusiform rays (Fig. 9)
In woody Dicotyledons there is more variation in the rays.
In some instances (e.g., JEsculus [Plate VI, Fig. 6], Salix, Populus)
low uniseriate rays only are present. At the other extreme is
Quercus (Plate III, Fig. 1), where the largest rays are from 25 to
26 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

75 wide and several hundred high. These large rays give rise
cells
to the handsome figure of quarter-sawed (i.e., radially cut) oak
lumber. Besides the large rays in Quercus there are numerous
intermediate ones, mostly uniseriate and 1-20 cells high (Plate
III, Fig. 1). In Platanus the rays are uniformly broad (10-15
cells), while in Fagus only a portion of the rays are broad (15-25
cells), the intermediate ones being uniseriate. In some of the
evergreen oaks, Carpinus and species of Alnus (Plate V, Figs. 3, 4),
the large rays appear to be composed of numerous small ones

r.tr.

rjtr.

Fig. 5. —
Radial section of a ray of Pinus edulis (pinon pine), showing the
smooth upper and lower walls of the ray tracheids (r. ir.), and the presence in the
lateral walls of the ray-parenchyma cells (r. p.) of small semi-bordered pits (s. b. p.),
communicating with the wood tracheids (w. tr.) adjacent; s. p., simple pit; 6. p.,
bordered pit. Magnified about 250 diameters.

separated by wood Such rays are termed aggregate or

fibres.
compound rays; sometimes Every ray, regardless
also false rays.
of its width at the middle, tapers to an edge so that the upper
and lower margins are a single cell wide.*
The comparative distinctness which rays on cross section
present to the unaided eye is important in separating certain
woods which bear superficial resemblance. For instance, the

* For this reason cross sections often do not afford a correct idea of ray
width.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 27

rays in Sassafras are much more distinct than in Fraxinus; like-

wise in Celtis and Ulmus, Tilia and JEsculus, Acer and Betula.
In white oaks the height of the large rays averages considerably
greater than in the red or live oaks.
In dicotyledonous species the rays are composed wholly of
parenchyma. In certain Gymnosperms (Pinus, Larix, Picea,
Pseudotsuga, Tsuga, and occasionally in others) ray tracheids are
present (Figs. 4-7). They are usually marginal, but often inter-
spersed and sometimes they compose entire rays, particularly

r.tr.

r.p.

r.tr.

Fig. 6. —Radial
© © I

section of a ray of Pinus resinosa (red or Norway pine),

showing the dentations (d) or reticulations on the upper and lower walls of the ray
tracheids (r. tr.), and the presence in the lateral walls of the ray-parenchyma cells
(r. p.), of large simple pits (s. p.) communicating with the wood tracheids (w. tr.)

adjacent; b. p., bordered pit. Magnified about 250 diameters.

low ones. They can be distinguished from the ray-parenchyma

cellsby the presence of bordered pits in the lateral and especially
the end walls. They are often irregular in outline and are devoid
of visible contents. They have their counterparts in the paren-
chymatous tracheids surrounding the epithelial cells of resin cysts
and ducts. In the young root, and sometimes in the young stem
as well, special upright or oblique forms occur which may be
considered as transitional from wood tracheids to ray tracheids.
The character of the upper and lower walls of the ray tracheids,
whether smooth, as in soft pines, or dentate or reticulate, as in
28, ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

pitch pines, affords a constant diagnostic feature of much im-

portance in separating the two great groups of Pinus (Figs. 4-7).
Ray-parenchyma cells in general communicate with each other,
with the ray tracheids, and with the adjacent wood elements by
means of pits always simple in the wall of the parenchyma cell,

r.tr.

Fig. 7. — Radial section of a ray of Pinus palustris (longleaf pine), showing the
dentations or reticulations on the upper and lower walls of the ray tracheids
(d)
(r. tr.),and the presence in the lateral walls of the ray-parenchyma cells (r. p.) of
small simple pits (s. p.), communicating with the wood tracheids (w. tr.) adjacent;
6. p., bordered pit. Magnified about 250 diameters.

but commonly more or less bordered in the other. Often certain

cells of a ray have thicker #alls and more numerous pits than the
others.
References

Penhallow, D. North American Gymnosperms, pp. 78-108.

P.:
Bailey, I. W.: On the Origin of the Broad Ray in Quercus, Bot. Gaz., Vol.
XLIX, No. 3, March 1910, pp. 161-167.
Notes on the Wood Structure of the Betulaceae and Fagaceae,
:

Forestry Quarterly, Vol. VIII, No. 2, 1910, pp. 178-185.

: The Relation of Leaf -Trace to Compound Rays in Lower
Dicotyledons, Annals of Botany, Vol. XXV, No. 97, January 1911,
pp. 225-241.
Groom, Percy: The Evolution of the Annual Ring and Medullary Rays of
Quercus, Annals of Botany, Vol. XXV, No. 100, October 1911, pp.
983-1004.
 ECONOMIC "WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 29

Thompson, W. P. : On the Origin of the Multiseriate Ray of the Dicotyledons,

Annals of Botany, Vol. XXV, No. 100, October 1911, pp. 1005-1014.
: The Origin of Ray Tracheids in the Coniferae, Bot. Gaz., Vol. L,
No. 2, 1910, pp. 101-116.
Kny, L.: Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Markstrahlen dicotyler Holzgewachse,
Berichte d. deutschen Bot. Gesellschaft, Vol. VIII, Berlin, 1890, pp.
176-188.
Essnek, Benno : Ueber den diagnostischen Werth der Anzahl und Hohe der
Markstrahlen bei den Coniferen, Halle A. S., 1882. See also Bot.
Centralblatt, Vol. XII, No. 12, 1882, pp. 407-408.

Zdlstra, K.: Die Gestalt der Markstrahlen in sekundaren Holze, Rec.

Trav. bot. neerl., V, 1908, pp. 17-20.

HESIN DUCTS

Resin ducts are long, narrow, intercellular channels surrounded

by parenchyma cells and filled with resin (Fig. 8) Unlike vessels, .

they have no walls of their own, but are limited by a layer of cells
called epithelium. The Pinus
epithelial cells are thin-walled in
and mostly thick-walled and Pseudotsuga. When
in Larix, Picea,
thick-walled the cells are rounded and show clearly in cross sec-
tion, while those with thin walls are compressed and very likely
to be torn in sectioning.
Resin cysts are very short, duct-like, intercellular spaces very
common in Sequoia, Tsuga, and Abies. Not infrequently they
are in longitudinal series, but differ from a true duct in having
numerous constrictions.
Resin ducts are largest and most abundant in Pinus, where
they are fairly well distribut id throughout the growth ring, though
usually more numerous in the transition zone between early and
late wood. They are comparatively large in most species, averag-
ing about 0.25 mm., and are readily visible to the unaided eye.
On longitudinal surface they appear as long, delicate lines like
pin scratches, filled with resin. In Larix, Picea, and Pseudotsuga
the ducts are smaller, sometimes invisible without lens, fewer in
number, and irregularly distributed, often more or less grouped.
In addition to the ducts extending in a vertical direction, there
are horizontal ducts in the fusiform rays (Fig. 9). The two series
are united at infrequent intervals.
Resin ducts very commonly develop as a result of injury,
not only in genera in which they occur normally, but also in others
30 ECONOMIC "WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

(e.g.,Tsuga, Abies, Sequoia) where normally absent. The formation

of these traumatic resin ducts, as they are called, following wound-
ing by chipping of the outer layers of the sapwood of Pinus
palustris, is the source of most of our turpentine and other naval
stores. Traumatic ducts can be distinguished from normal ones

Fig. 8.— Cross section through a portion of two growth rings of Pinus ponderosa
(western yellow pine); r. d., resin duct; c, epithelial cells; r., ray; e. w., early
wood; ;. w., late wood; b. p., bordered pit. Magnified abowt 200 diameters.

by their peculiar localization, usually, as seen on cross section,

forming one or more compact rows concentric with the growth
ring (Fig. 10).
Gum ducts occur sporadically in the woods of certain indigenous
Dicotyledons, viz., Liquidambar, Swietenia and Prunus.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 31

In Leitneria floridana numerous resin ducts are found at the

margin of the pith, but are not in the wood. The epithelial
cells are thick-walled and in a single layer.
Resin ducts are features of great system-
atic importance. Their presence in Pinus,
Picea, Larix, and Pseudotsuga serves as an ade-
quate basis for separating the woods of these
four genera from other Gymnosperms. Their
relative size, distribution, and occurrence, and
the character of the epithelium, whether thick
or thin-walled, are features made use of in
specific diagnoses.

References

Penhallow, D. P.: North American Gymnosperms,

r.d.
pp. 109-153.
Kirsch, Simon : The Origin and Development of Resin
Canals in the Coniferae with Special Reference
to the Development of Tyloses and their Co-
relation with the Thylosal Strands of the Pteri-
dophytes, Proc. Royal Soc. of Canada, 1911.
Foxworthy, Fred W. : Philippine Dipterocarpaceae.
Phil. Journal of Science, C. Botany, Vol. VI,
No. 4, Sept. 1911, pp. 231-287.
Solereder, H.: Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Vol.
II, pp. 1101-1102.
Tschirch, A. : Die Harze und die Harzbehalter, Vol. r.t.

II.

PITS

All wood elements when first formed are Fig. 9.— Tangen-
tial section of a fusi-
limited by a very thin cellulose membrane,
form ray from Pinus
the primary wall. Subsequent development ponderosa (western
involves an internal thickening which is com- yellow pine) r. d., ;

horizontal resin
posed very largely of lignin, the secondary wall.
duct; e., epithelial
This thickening may proceed uniformly, or, as cells; t.,
i ray tra-
.

is usually the case, small gaps, called pits, cheids; the remain-
occur. A pit is merely an unthickened der of the cells are
ray-parenchyma
portion of the cell wall. Pits are of two cells. Magnified
principal types, simple and bordered (Fig. 11). about 200 diameters.
32 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Intermediate forms exist whose reference to either group is

arbitrary.
A simple pit is one in which the thickening about a spot on
the primary wall forms a canal which is equally wide throughout
its length, or narrowing outward (Fig. 11, H). The length of the
canal is determined by the thickness of the secondary wall. When
simple pits occur in very thick-walled cells, there is often a tend-
ency to a slight funnel-formed enlargement of the canal toward

r.c.

r.c.

-^^^Sj^TTV.c.

Fig. 10. —Cross section of a wound area in Tsuga canadensis (eastern hemlock)
showing five traumatic resin ducts (Ir. r. d.), in tangential row. Note thick-walled
epithelial cells (e), and occasional resin cells (r. c), showing sieve-like end walls.
Magnified about 150 diameters.

the primary wall. Often the canal widens sufficiently to present

the appearance of a narrow border (Fig. 11, G). Seen in profile,
as in section, the pit canal of such a pit is narrow at the end
toward the centre of the cell, but widens gradually outward.
A bordered pit is one in which the canal widens suddenly,
that is, with a distinct angle, toward the primary wall (Fig. 11, A).
In surface view a bordered pit appears as a bright spot or slit
within a circle or ellipse (Fig. 11, B). This outer circle marks
the limit of the unthickened area; the bright spot is the inner
opening or aperture of the canal; the zone between the two is
called the border.
Pits, especially bordered ones, usually are paired on opposite
sides of the primary-cell walls. Pits between vascular elements
are invariably bordered; between parenchymatous elements,
invariably simple; between vascular and parenchymatous, they
may be simple, but more frequently are semi-bordered, that is,.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 33

bordered in the vessel or tracheid, and simple in the adjacent

parenchyma cells (Fig. 11, F). Pits in typical wood fibres are
simple and slit-like, and usually in oblique position (Figs. 11, K;
2, B) . In many cases, however, where the fibresresemble tracheids
their pits are more or less bordered. The fibres of the bast have
only simple pits.
The shape of the border is commonly circular, but may be
oval, lenticular, oblong, or, in the case of dense aggregation, polyg-
onal. Scalariform markings found on the vessel walls in certain

p.c.w, p.c.w. p.c.w.

Fig. 11. —
Schematic representation of pits, greatly enlarged. A, section of
bordered pit showing cell walls (c. w.), primary cell wall (p. c. w.), pit canal (c),
torus (0 A r the same with torus (0 shoved to one side and lying lid-like against
; ,

the aperture of the pit canal; B, surface view of bordered pit shown in A or A',
showing aperture (a) and border (6) C, surface view of bordered pit with lentic-
;

ular aperture (a) the crossed appearance being due to the fact that the apertures
,

on opposite sides of the pit are shown; D, surface view of a bordered pit with
aperture (a) common in thick- walled tracheids of late wood in gymnosper-
slit-like ,

mous woods; E, surface view of scalariform bordered pit with narrow, elongated
aperture (a) and border (b) F, section of a semi-bordered pit showing border on
;

one side only; G, simple pit with funnel-formed canal and appearing slightly
bordered in surface view H, ordinary simple pit with canal (c) uniform or narrow-
;

ing outward (i.e., toward primary cell wall) K, surface view of slit-like pit com-
;

mon in wood fibres.

woods Magnolia [Plate VI, Fig. 3], Hamamelis and Liquid-

(i.e.,

ambar merely much-elongated bordered pits which

in part) are
appear as horizontal clefts with only narrow portions of the wall
between them (Fig. 11, E).
The pit cavities of two adjacent pits are separated by the
primary wall which persists as a limiting membrane (Fig. 11, p.m.).
34 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

This membrane, which is really made up of two membranes of

contiguous cells which have become united in development, is
very thin toward the border of the pit, but usually thickened
near the centre. This thickened portion is called the torus (Fig.
11, t). The pit membrane very frequently increases in size and
bulges out so that the torus lies lid-like against the aperture of
the pit canal (Fig. II, A'). A sieve-like structure of the pit
membranes has been observed in the bordered pits of the vessels
in certain species.*
Between the bordered pits on the radial walls of the tracheids
ofGymnosperms it is very common to find folds of cellulose, which,
when properly stained, are quite conspicuous under the compound
microscope. These folds, which appear as horizontal or more or
less semi-circular markings, sometimes doubled, are most abundant
in the thin-walled tracheids of the early wood. They are without
diagnostic value.
The apparent function of pits is to facilitate the passage of some
part of the contents from one cell to another. Bordered pits
cell
are mostly associated with water transfer, and simple pits with
the distribution of elaborated food.
Pits are of considerable value for systematic purposes. For
example, in the white pines and Pinus resinosa, the radial wall
of each ray-parenchyma cell shows one or two large simple pits
communicating with each adjacent wood tracheid, while in the
foxtail and nut pines and in the hard pines there are three to
six rather small pits so communicating (Figs. 4-7) The presence
.

of pits in the tangential walls of the tracheids of the late wood

in soft pines, and their absence in similar location in the pitch
pines, serve as an additional point of distinction between these
two great groups.
While the pits in the radial walls of the tracheids of Gymno-
sperms are usually in a single row, they may occur in biseriate
or triseriate arrangement. In the larger tracheids of Tsuga they
are mostly biseriate. In Taxodium distichum they are characteris-
tically crowded, flattened, and often irregularly arranged.
In dicotyledonous woods as a whole, pits are much smaller
and less regular in their distribution than in Gymnosperms. The

* Jonsson, Bengt. Siebahnliche Poren in den trachealen Xylemele-

:

menten der Phanerogamen, hauptsachlich der Leguminosen, Berichte d.

deutwhen Botanischen Gesellschaft, Vol. X, 1892, pp. 494-513.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 35

nature of the pits, whether simple or distinctly bordered, in the

walls of the wood fibres, and the character of pitting where vessels
are in contact with wood parenchyma or the rays, are often
helpful in classification. Scalariform bordered pits in the walls
of the vessels of Magnolia (Plate VI, Fig. 3) serve to distinguish
this genus from Liriodendron (Plate VI, Fig. 4), in which they
are absent or very sparingly developed.

References

DeBary, A.: Comparative Anatomy, pp. 158-164.

Gregory, E. L.: The Pores [Pits] of the Libriform Tissue, Bui. Torrey Bot.
Club, N. Y., Vol. XIII, 1886, pp. 197-204; 233-244.
Penh allow, D. P.: North American Gymnosperms, pp. 59-77.
Solereder, H. Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Vol. II, pp. 1139-41.
:

Gerry, Eloise: The Distribution of the "Bars of Sanio" in the Coniferales,

Annals of Botany, Vol. XXIV, No. 93, January 1910, pp. 119-123.
Kreuz, J. Die gehoften Tupfel des Xylems der Laub- und Nadelholzer,
:

Sitzb. d. Akad. Wiss., Wien, Vol. LXXVI, Part. 1, 1878, pp. 353-384.
Russow, E.: Zur Kenntnis des Holzes, insonderheit des Coniferenholzes,
Bot. Centralblatt, Vol. XIII, Nos. 1-5, 1883.

TYLOSES
It is not uncommon to find the vessels of many Dicotyledons
(Plate III, Figs. 3, 4) and the resin ducts of certain Gymnosperms
more or less completely filled with pith-like cells called tyloses.
Usually the walls of the tyloses are very thin, but exceptions occur
(e.g., Robinia and Toxylon) where they may be considerably

thickened, sometimes becoming sclerotic. Tyloses in large vessels

are plainly visible to the unaided eye, their high lustre giving
them the appearance of froth.
Tyloses are cells which have developed from protrusions of the
wood or ray parenchyma into the lumen of a vessel or the canal
of a duct or an intercellular space. Their formation is apparently
due to differences in pressure within the parenchyma cells and the
vessels or ducts they adjoin. After vessels lose their sap they are
no longer turgid, in fact the air within them becomes rarefied. In
consequence of this reduction of pressure the neighboring paren-
chyma cells rupture or disorganize the limiting membranes of the
pits, thereby rendering the lumen of the vessel available for their
further extension and development. This explains why tyloses
do not occur in vessels which are in a state of activity, but as a
36 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

general rule arise in the inner region of the sapwood, i.e., in the
wood where the vessels are losing their power of conduction. Once
inside the vessel, the intruding cells rapidly divide and grow until
the space is filled or their food-supply is exhausted, and thus form
a parenchymatous tissue in which carbohydrates may be stored.
The effect of the formation of tyloses is to block up the vessels
and render the heartwood impervious, or nearly so, to the entrance
of fluids. Tyloses are especially abundant in the vessels of white
oaks {Frontispiece), thus adding to the technical value of the
wood for cooperage. This feature is also of some value in sepa-
rating the white from the black oaks, since in the latter group
tyloses are rather scarce or wanting (Plate II, Fig. 6). In Quercus
marilandica, however, tyloses arc abundant.
Tyloses also occur occasionally in the tracheids of the wood of
Gymnosperms, particularly in the wood of the roots. Tyloses
Pinus and (in less degree) Picea,
in resin ducts are characteristic of
but are sparingly developed or absent in Larix and Pseudotsuga.

References

Kirsch, Simon: On the Development and Function of Certain Structures in

the Stipe and Rhizome of Pteris aquilina and Other Pteridophytes,
Trans. Royal Soc. of Canada, 3d Series, Vol. I, sec. iv, Ottawa, 1908,
pp. 403-S.
DeBary, A.: Comparative Anatomy, p. 170.

Sachs, Julius: Lectures on the Physiology of Plants (trans, by H. Marshal

Ward), p. 581.
Chrysler, M. A.: Tyloses in Tracheids of Conifers, New Phytologist, No. 7,

1908, pp. 198-204.

Golden, K. E.: Tyloses in Brosimum aubletii, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1904,

pp. 227-232.
von Alten, H. : Kritische Bemerkungen und neue Ansichten iiber die Thyllen,

Bot. Zeitung, Vol. LXVII, 1909, pp. 1-23.

Raatz, Wilhelm: Ueber Thyllenbildungen in den Tracheiden der Coniferen-
holzer, Ber. d. deutschen Bot. Gesellschaft, Vol. X, 1892, pp. 183-192.

PITH FLECKS OR MEDULLARY SPOTS

Pith flecks or medullary spots are small, brown or grayish,

half-moon-shaped patches appearing so commonly on the cross
sections of many diffuse-porous woods, especially of the four
families Salicacece, Betulacece, Rosacece, and Aceracece. On longi-
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 37

'
tudinal sections of a stem the pith flecks appear as flattened strands
running up and down the stem, and often into the root. Examined
microscopically, pith flecks are seen to be made up of irregularly-
shaped, polyhedral, parenchymatous cells with thick, dark-
colored walls copiously pitted with simple pits. At certain seasons
the cells are filled with starch grains.
Pith flecks have a pathological origin. They are due to the
work of cambium miners whose tunnels are filled by the tylosal
development of adjacent uninjured parenchyma cells, especially
of the cortex. The dissolved cell fragments and larval excrement
are pressed into a narrow border by the rapid growth and division
of the "filling cells."
This feature has frequently been used for purposes of classifi-
cation, principally because of the failure to understand its exact
nature. It has been noted in a large number of woods, but is by
no means constant in its occurrence. Some stems, for example,
contain numerous pith flecks, while other individuals of the same
species in the vicinity, or even from the same root stock, do not
show them. Furthermore, in stems -with pith flecks certain growth
rings may be free of them, while others of the same section are
thickly dotted, or the lower portion of the stem may contain
them and the upper be entirely free.
Taken in connection with other features, however, the presence
of pith flecks in abundance may serve to indicate the species.
For example, they are usually very numerous in Betula populijolia
and B. papyrifera, and infrequent in B. lenta, B. lutea, and B. nigra,
numerous in Acer rubrum and A. saccharinum, but usually want-
ing in A. saccharum.

References

Record, S. J.: Pith Flecks or Medullary Spots in Wood, Forestry Quarterly,

Vol. IX, No. 3, 1911, pp. 244-252.
Grossenbacher, J. G.: Medullary Spots: A Contribution to the Life History
of Cambium Miners, Tech. Bui. No. 15, N. Y. Agri. Exp. Sta., Geneva,
N. Y., 1910.
Von Tubeuf, Karl. F.: Die Zellgange der Birke und andeier Laubholzer,
Forstlich-naturw. Zeitschrift, VI. Jahrgang, 1897, pp. 314-319. Also
Naturw. Zeitschrift f. Forst- und Landwirtschaft, 6. Jahrgang, 1908,
pp. 235-241.
Kienitz, M.: Die Entstehung der "Markfiecke," Bot. Centralblatt, Vol.
XIV, 1883, pp. 21-26; 56-61.
38 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

trabecule: sanio s beams

In radial and cross sections of the wood of all Gymnosperms
it isnot uncommon to find small bars stretched across the lumina
of the tracheids from one tangential wall to another. Occasionally
they appear in isolated tracheids, but usually traverse in the same
direction the entire length of a long radial series (Fig. 12). While
the most common form of bar is a simple cylinder slightly enlarged
at the points of contact with the cell wall, they may occur as

\r\
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 39

RIPPLE MARKS
There are numerous woods which present on longitudinal sec-
tion (particularly the tangential) fine, delicate cross lines or stripes
sometimes called "ripple marks." The distance between these
markings varies from 0.11 to 0.50 mm., and is fairly constant
for a species. On some woods (e.g., JEsculus octandra, Swietenia
mahagoni, and Diospyros virginiana [Plate IV, Figs. 4, 5]), these
lines are very clear and distinct to the unaided eye; on others
(e.g., Tilia americana, T. pubescens, and T. heterophylla) they are

near the limit of vision, or again, they are invisible without the
lens. In most species showing these markings the feature is con-
stant and of considerable importance for diagnostic purposes,
though in a few species (e.g., Swietenia mahagoni) the same piece
of wood may show the markings in one place and not in another.
This cross-striping of a wood is due (1) to the arrangement
of the rays in horizontal series, or (2) to the tier-like ranking of
the wood fibres, vessel segments, or other elements, or (3) to a
combination of (1) and (2) (Plate IV, Figs. 4, 5). The lines
resulting from the horizontal seriation of the rays is usually more
conspicuous and of more common occurrence than those in (2).
In the combination of the two forms, which is very common, the
junction of the vessel segments or of the fibres is usually between
the rays (Plate IV, Fig. 5).
This peculiar arrangement of wood elements is also evidenced
on cross section. Where the rays are in perfect horizontal
seriation a section between two tiers shows an entire absence of
rays. In most instances, however, it results in gaps of irregular
width, depending upon the regularity of the stories. Where the
rays are much wider near the middle than at the margin, their
apparent width when viewed transversely will show considerable
variation, according to the relative location of the plane of sec-
tion. Where the fibres are arranged in tiers, their apparent size
is affected in a similar manner.

References

Record, S. J.: Tier-like Arrangement of the Elements of Certain Woods,

Science, January 12, 1912, pp. 75-77.

Von Hohnel, Franz Ritter: Ueber stockwerkartig aufgebaute Holzkorper.

Sitzb. d. Math. Naturw. Classe d. kaiserlichen Akademie d. Wissen-
echaften, Vol. LXXXIX, Part 1, Wien, 1884, pp. 30-47.
40 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Von Hohnel, Franz Ritter : Ueber den etagenformigen Aufbau einiger

Holzkorper, Berichte d. deutschen Bot. Gesellschaft, Vol. II, Berlin,

1884, pp. 2-5.

GROWTH RINGS
A tree increases in diameter by the formation between the
old wood and the inner bark of new woody layers which envelop
the entire stem and living branches. In cross section, as on the
end of a log, these layers appear as concentric zones or rings
(Fig. 1). The distinction between contiguous rings is due to
structural peculiarities, augmented in some instances by local
deposit of resin or pigment. Each ring consists of two more or
less readily distinguishable parts, the inner, called early wood
(spring wood), and the outer, or late wood (summer or autumn
wood).
In ring-porous woods (Frontispiece; Plate III), such as Quercus,
Castanea, Fraxinus, and Robinia, the larger vessels become local-
ized in the early wood, thus forming a region of more or less open
and" porous tissue, while the wood fibres preponderate in the late
wood, thereby producing a much denser layer. In other instances,
as in Acer, Magnolia, Msculus, and Liquidambar (Plate VI), where
—
the vessels are fairly uniformly distributed diffuse-porous the —
occurrence of growth rings may be due to one or more of the
following conditions: (1) a gradual diminution in size of the
vessels toward the periphery of the ring; (2) a decided reduction
in number of the vessels in the late wood; (3) a change in kind of
the wood elements, e.g., where the outer layer of late wood consists
wholly or chiefly of wood parenchyma or of tracheids; (4) increase
in thickness of the wall of the wood elements near the limit of the
latewood.
In Gymnosperms where vessels are wholly absent growth rings
are due to variations in the tracheids. Viewed in cross section
the cells of early wood are relatively large, thin-walled, and more
loosely aggregated; while those of the late wood are smaller,
thicker-walled, closely packed together and very often radially
flattened, presumably as a result of cortical pressure (Fig. 8;
Plate II, Figs. 1, 2, 4) This transition from open to dense structure
.

may be gradual, as in the soft pines, or very abrupt, as in many

hard pines. Not infrequently the dense aggregation of cells
involves a deepening of the color peculiar to the tissue as a whole.
In any wood it is almost invariably the apposition of the more open
 ,

ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 41

early wood to the face of the more compact late wood that serves
to define the zones of growth.
The origin of growth rings is physiological. Plants, like
animals, seem incapable of indefinitely sustained activity, but
require periods of recuperation. In latitudes of decided seasonal
changes such periods of rest are provided by the alternation of the
seasons, in which case the zones of growth correspond very closely
with annual periods. This constancy of relation diminishes
towards the equator and, although in the tropics growth rings are
not uncommon, they provide no reliable index to the age of the
tree. In temperate climates trees occasionally produce secondary or
some disturbance of the normal
false rings, usually attributable to
course of growth of the season, such as the action of frost, drought,
hail, and insect damages. Such rings, however, can usually be
distinguished from annual rings by their less pronounced line of
demarcation.
Variation in width of different growth rings is common to all
trees, and is determined by external conditions of light, heat,
moisture, and available food-supply. The cross section of a stem
presents in the variable form and size of its rings a history of its
growth and nutrition.
The breadth of an individual growth ring may not be uniform
all round in consequence of unequal acceleration of the growth
on different sides, the ring thus becoming undulating or eccentric.
The growth centre is accordingly not coincident with the geometric
centre. The more nearly erect the stem and the more nearly per-
fect the crown, the more closely will the two centres coincide. In
some species (e.g., Carpinus caroliniana and Juniperus virginiana)
irregularity of growth causes the trunks to become fluted or even
deeply scalloped.
The growth rings near the centre of a stem usually exhibit
considerable difference in structure from those later formed. The
elements are usually thinner-walled, of shorter length, and less
densely aggregated, so that the inner core of wood is comparatively
soft and weak. In the wood of Dicotyledons, although the elements
characteristic of the species are all present, their characteristic ar-
rangement does not appear clearly until later. This is particularly
evident in the distribution of the vessels and wood parenchyma in
many woods. Consequently, in the employment of these features
for systematic purposes, it is important to use stems of consid-
erable thickness rather than small branches or young shoots.
 42 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

In ring-porous woods of good growth it is usually the middle

portion of the ring in which the thick-walled, strength-giving
fibres are most abundant. As the breadth of the ring diminishes,
this middle portion is reduced so that very slow growth (fine
grain) produces comparatively light, porous wood composed

Wm
H
IfSpr*

an.

Fig. 13

Fig. 13. Querent macrocarpa (bur oak) cross section through three entire
:

growth rings showing very large pores in early wood and general absence of dense-
walled wood fibres. Such wood is light, soft, and not strong. Magnified 20
diameters. (From Bui. 102, U. S. Forest Service.)
Fig. 14. Quercus macrocarpa (bur oak): cross section through one entire
growth ring and parts of two others, showing comparatively small pores (») in
early wood (e. w.), and presence of abundant thick-walled wood fibres in the late
wood (I. w.). Such wood is heavy, hard, and strong. Magnified 20 diameters.
(From Bui. 102, U. S. Forest Service.)

mostly of thin-walled vessels and wood parenchyma (Figs. 13, 14).

This explains why "second-growth" {i.e., rapidly grown) hickory,
ash, and chestnut are stronger than the slowly grown "virgin"
stock of the same species. Moreover, in trees of this type there
is less early wood formed at the base of a stem than farther up,
 ECONOMIC "WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 43

because growth begins considerably later at the base. The

strongest, densest, and toughest timber is that grown in the open
where conditions are favorable to rapid growth.
In diffuse-porous woods, such as Acer, Betula, Liriodendron,
and Fagus, there seems to be no definite relation between ring
width and density. In Gymnosperms, as a rule, wood of medium
to fine grain contains a greater proportion of late wood and con-
sequently possesses greater weight and strength than when very
fine or very coarse grained.
In this connection the following statement of H. Mayr * is
interesting: "Assuming identity of soil, the specific weight and
hardness of wood decreases with distance from the optimum
climate of its production both toward cooler or warmer climates.
It is indifferent whether the annual zones consequently increase
or decrease in breadth, or whether the wood is broadleaved or
coniferous. Within the natural habitat of any tree the centre
of its habitat produces the heaviest and hardest wood."
Various theories have been advanced to explain the formation
of early and late wood. Penhallow (following Sachs|) says that
the elements of the early wood are "formed under a minimum
tension in consequence of which they rapidly attain to relatively
great size, and it is therefore found that the first tissue of the
season is always most open. In consequence of the great excess
of nutrition supplied during this period of growth, and the very
rapid process of construction which follows, secondary growth
of the walls is limited, and these structures remain thin, while the
lumens are correspondingly large."
R. Hartig maintains that the thin-walled early wood is due
to poorer nutrition and the necessity of forming conductive tissue,
while thick-walled late wood results from better nutriment during
the warm and sufficiently moist summer. Wieler, on the other
hand, claims that the more unfavorable the conditions of nutri-
tion, the slower the development of assimilating organs, hence the
more late wood.
References
Penhallow, D. P.: The Relation of Annual Rings to Age, Can. Records of

Sci., Vol. I, p. 162.

: North American Gymnosperms, pp. 24-32.
DeBabt, A.: Comparative Anatomy, pp. 475-478; 500-507.

*Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. V, rev. ed., p. 54.

t Text-Book of Botany, p. 575, foot-note.
44 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Roth, Filibert: Timber, Bui. 10, U. S. Div. of Forestry, pp. 14-16.

Zon, Raphael: Methods of Determining the Time of Year at which Timber
was Cut, For. Quarterly, Vol. VIII, 1908.
Buckhout, W. A. The Formation of the Annual Ring of Wood in the Euro-
:

pean Larch and the White Pine, For. Quarterly, Vol. V, No. 3, Sept.
1907, pp. 259-267.
Dacheeowski, A. : Type and Variability in the Annual Wood Increment of

Acer rubrum, L. Ohio Nat. 8, pp. 343-349, 1908.

Nordlinger, H.: Die Holzringe als Grundlage des Baumkorpers, Stuttgart,
1S72.
Sanio, Carl: Botanische Zeitung, Vol. XXI, No. 50, 1863, pp. 391-399.

Hartig, R.: Lehrbuch der Anatomie und Physiologie der Pflanzen, pp.
261-263.

HEARTWOOD AND SAPWOOD

The course of development of the various wood elements is
fundamentally the same, viz., they are formed in the cambium,
they increase in size, their walls thicken more or less, they function
as living cells for a time, but eventually lose their protoplasmic
contents and die. Their change from a living to a dead condition
is ordinarily not followed by immediate decay, and the cells

continue to perform the mechanical function of support. The

parenchyma cells remain alive for a longer time than the other
elements.
The outer layers of growth of a tree, especially one of con-
siderable thickness, contain the only living elements of the wood
and comprise the sapwood. There is usually a sharp line of
demarcation between the living elements of the sapwood and the
non-living elements of the heartwood, though the vigor of the
living cells gradually wanes as their distance from the cambium
increases. The thickness of sapwood varies widely in different
species, in different individuals, in different portions of a single
tree, and often on different radii of any particular section. Thin
sapwood is characteristic of certain genera, for example Catalpa,
Robinia, Toxylon, Sassafras, Morus, Gymnocladus, Juniperus, and
Taxus, while in others such as Hicoria, Acer, Fraxinus, Celtis,
and Fagus, thick sapwood is the rule.
The fact that sapwood occupies the peripheral layers of the
stem causes it to form a considerable proportion of the volume.
The percentage of sapwood to total volume of the stem is for
certain species approximately as follows: Pinus palustris, 40;
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 45

P. heterophylla, 50; P. tceda, 55; P. strobus, 30; Tilia americana,

65; Juniperus virginiana, 25; Liriodendron tulipij'era, 20; Quercus
alba, 20; Robinia pseudacacia, 12.
In the same species there generally exists a constant relation
between the crown space and the cross-sectional area of the
sapwood in the stem. Rapidly growing trees and trees in the open
have a larger proportion of sapwood than those of the same species
growing in less open stands. In the latter case the number of
rings in the sapwood is almost always greater.
Heartwood in general is of a darker color than sapwood, due
to the presence of gums, resins, and other substances. In some
genera, however, there is little difference in appearance between
these two portions, for example, in Nyssa, Ilex, Celtis, Populus,
Salix, Picea, Abies, and Tsuga.
Change from sapwood to heartwood is never accompanied by
increased lignification. Deposition of large amounts of gum or
resin materially increases the weight of the wood, and on that
account in certain tropical species the heartwood averages fully
one-third heavier than the sapwood.
While physiologically heartwood is that portion of the woody
cylinder which does not contain living elements, yet technically
only discolored parts are so called, though it of course is without
living elements. Branches form heartwood as soon as they cease
to grow vigorously, no matter in what part of the crown they are
located. In a whorl one branch may be practically all heartwood
while none of the others shows any.
Usually heartwood is commercially more valuable than sap-
wood, partly on account of its color, but more especially because
of its greater durability under exposure. In grading lumber
sapwood is often considered a defect. Important exceptions are
found in the use of paper birch for spools, hickory and ash for
handles, spokes, etc., woods for manufacture of pulp, and timber
to be impregnated with preservatives, where heartwood is con-
sidered undesirable.
The average thickness of the sapwood and the character of the
demarcation between heartwood and sapwood are features fre-
quently made use of in classification.

References

Roth, F.: Timber, Bui. 10, U. S. Div. of Forestry, p. 13.

Boulger, G. S.: Wood, p. 17.
 ;

46 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

DeBakt, A.: Comparative Anatomy, pp. 507-511.

Munch, Ernst: Ueber krankhafte Kernbildung, Naturw. Zeitsohrift fur
Forst- und Landwirtschaft, 8. Jahrgang, 1910, pp. 533-547; 553-569.
Nordlingeb, H.. Die Technischen Eigenschaften der Holzer, Stuttgart,
1860, pp. 28^0.

GRAIN AND TEXTURE

Grain a general term used in reference to the arrangement

is

or direction of the wood elements and to the relative width of

the growth rings. To have specific meaning it is essential that
it be qualified. The kinds of grain commonly described are fine,
coarse, even, uneven, rough, smooth, straight, cross, spiral, twisted,
wavy, curly, mottled, landscape, bird's-eye, gnarly, and silver.
Coarse grain applies to woods of rapid growth, i.e., it denotes
wide rings; fine grain, to woods of slow growth. Even and uneven
apply respectively to regularity or irregularity of the growth rings
rough and smooth, to the manner in which wood works under tools.
Straight grain, as applied to a tree, occurs when the wood ele-
ments are parallel to the axis of growth; as applied to a board,
when the radial and tangential planes of structure are parallel
to its length. Sawn boards or timbers are often cross-grained
even when cut from straight-grained logs while straight-grained
pieces may be split from spiral-grained trees. The strength of
a piece of timber, particularly in bending, rapidly weakens as the
plane of its fibres deviates from a direction parallel to its length.
On this account split timber is usually stronger than when sawn,
a fact made use of in wood-working. For instance, billets for
handles and blocks for telegraph-insulator pegs are invariably
split.
It is not uncommon in any tree, and usual in many cases, for
the wood elements to be arranged spirally about the central axis.
The may run to the right or left, but the direction is usually
spiral
fairly constant within a species. Various theories have been
advanced to explain the phenomenon of spiral growth or torsion.
The one most commonly accepted considers the obliquity of the
fibres a method of accommodating the increase in length of the
cells after their formation in the cambium. There seems to be
ground for suspecting that wind may have an influence on this
spiral development. For instance, trees of Larix americana have
been observed which, though straight-grained while young, had
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 47

developed spirally twisted growth layers after the trees were

thirty to forty years old, when, unprotected by associated trees,
they were subjected to heavy winds. There is a further possibility
that some species have an inherent tendency to develop twisted
stems. In any event, when such stems are sawn the lumber is
cross-grained and usually unfit for use where strength is required.
The extent of the defect depends upon the pitch of the spiral.
When the elements interweave and are not constant in one
general direction, wood is also said to be cross-grained, though
the term spiral grain or interlocked grain is more applicable. Often
this condition does not interfere with tangential splitting. Wood
with interlocked fibres is tough and not necessarily weakened,
but always tends to warp and twist in seasoning. Examples occur
in Nyssa, JEsculus, Liquidambar, and Eucalyptus.
Wavy grain and curly grain result when the fibres undulate
but do not cross each other. When the undulations are large the
grain is said to be wavy; when small, curly. Usually the waves
are on the radial plane and tangential splitting produces a smooth
surface, showing the grain to advantage. Such grain is common
in Acer, JEsculus, Fraxinus, Prunus, and Betula. It is most
common near the roots and at the insertion of large branches.
Silver grain is produced by quarter-sawing timber in which
the rays are sufficiently high to show readily on radial surface.
The appearance of the rays adds very materially to the value of
woods for cabinet work and furniture. Species which exhibit
conspicuous silver grain are Quercus (all species, but particularly
Q. alba), Platanus occidentalis, Fagus americana, and to a less
extent Acer saccharum, Prunus serotina, and Swietenia mahagoni.
Texture is a term which refers to the relative size, quality, or
fineness of the elements as affecting the structural properties of
a wood. Like grain, it requires qualifying adjectives to attain
specific meaning. The most common attributes of texture are
fineness and coarseness, evenness and unevenness. Coarse texture
applies to woods with many large elements, or the average size of
which is large, for example, Caslanea, Gymnocladus, Sequoia. In
fine texture the opposite condition prevails, as in Juniperus,
Msculus, Salix, Populus.
Even texture or uniform texture are terms used to describe
woods whose elements exhibit little variation in size, for example,
Taxodium (Plate II, Fig. 1), Juniperus (Plate II, Figs. 3, 4),
Sequoia, Msculus (Plate VI, Fig. 5). Uneven texture applies to
48 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

the opposite condition, such as is common in all prominently

ring-porous woods (Frontispiece; Plate III), (e.g., Quercus, Cas-
tanea, Ulmus, Fraxinus), and in other woods with decided differ-
ences between early and late wood (e.g., Finns palustris, P- twda,
and Pseudotsuga).
Texture and grain are terms very commonly confused in
popular usage. The distinctions as above expressed will obviate
the difficulty resulting from the attempt to make the term "grain"
too comprehensive.
Reference

Record, S. J.: Grain and Texture in Wood, Forestry Quarterly, Vol. IX,

No. 1, 1911, pp. 22-25 (reprinted in Woodcraft, June 1911).

KNOTS
Branches originate, as a rule, at the central axis of a stem and,
while living, increase in size by the addition from year to year
of woody layers which are a continuation of those in the stem.
From this it follows that the form of the included portion or knot
approaches that of a cone with its apex inward.
During the development of a tree most of the limbs, especially
—
the lower ones, die, but persist for a time often for a great many
years. Subsequent layers of growth of the stem are not intimately
joined with the fibres of the dead limb, but are laid around its
base. Hence dead branches produce loose knots which may drop
out after the tree has been cut into lumber.
The stubs of dead limbs that have broken off are usually
occluded by subsequent growth so that the outer surface of the
bole is smooth or clear, especially toward the butt. The interior
of all stems is more or less knotty, but in butt logs the knots
are fewest and smallest. Sometimes knots enhance the. value of
timber for cabinet work and interior finish, by giving it a pleasing
figure. Material cut near the junction of a large limb or at the
base of a crotch usually exhibits very handsome grain.
Knots materially affect checking and warping, ease in working,
and cleavability of timber. They are defects which weaken timber
and depreciate its value for structural purposes where strength is
an important consideration. The weakening effect is much more
serious where timber is subjected to bending and tension than
where under compression. The extent to which a knot affects
the strength of a beam depends upon its position, size, direction
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 49

of fibre,and condition. A knot on the upper side is compressed,

while one on the lower side is subjected to tension. The knot,
especially (as is often the case) if there is a season check in it,
Small knots, however,
offers little resistance to tensile stress.
may be so located in a beam as actually to increase its strength
by tending to prevent longitudinal shearing. Knots in a board
or plank are least injurious when they extend through it at right
angles to its broadest surface. Knots apparently have little
effect on the
stiffness of timber.
"At the junction of limb and stem the fibers on the upper and
lower sides of the limb behave differently. On the lower side
they run from the stem into the limb, forming an uninterrupted
strand or tissue and a perfect union. On the upper side the fibers
bend aside, are not continuous into the limb, and hence the
connection is imperfect.
"Owing to the arrangement of the fibers, the cleft made in
the splitting never runs into the knot if started on the side above
the limb, but is apt to enter the knot if started below, a fact well
understood in woodcraft." *
Sound knots are as hard as, and usually considerably harder
than, the wood surrounding them. In coniferous woods they are
commonly highly resinous, and in finished lumber are apt, on that
account, to fail to retain paint or varnish. When such trees
decay the knots remain sound and are prized for fuel. In
grading lumber and structural timber, knots are classified accord-
ing to their character (sound, loose, encased), size (pin, standard,
large), and direction of fibre (round, spike).

References

Roth, Filibebt: Timber, Bui. 10, U. S. Div. For., 1859, pp. 23, 41, 44
48, 49.
Clinb, McGarvey, and Knapp, J. B.: Properties and Uses of Douglas Fir,
Bui. 88, U. S. Forest Service, 1911, pp. 32-37.

DENSITY AND WEIGHT

Density of wood varies widely in different species, in different

individuals, and even in different portions of the same tree.
The specific gravity f of wood substance is about 1.6; hence the
* Roth, loc. cit., p. 23.
t By specific gravity is meant the ratio of the weight of thoroughly dried

4
50 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

reason any wood floats in water is because of the buoyancy of the

air imprisoned in its elements and spaces. When this air is dis-
placed by water the wood becomes "waterlogged," and will no
longer float. The greater the proportion of cell wall the greater
the density; consequently late wood is denser and of higher specific
gravity than early wood, and the greater the proportion of late
wood the denser the wood as a whole. Woods composed largely
of thick-walled, narrow-lumined fibres are always dense and
heavy. Other things being equal, the weight of wood is a good
criterion of its hardness and strength.
In practice the weight of wood is calculated from small,
sound specimens which have been oven-dried at a temperature of
100° C. (the boiling-point of water) until they reach a constant
weight. Since weight is subject to wide variations, the single
value usually assigned to a species is really the average of a large
number of determinations and is applicable only in a general way.
If a wood weighs less than thirty pounds per cubic foot it is con-
sidered light; if between thirty and forty pounds, medium light
or medium heavy; and if more than forty pounds, heavy.
The lightest wood in the United States is that of Leitneria
floridana, the specific gravity of which is 0.21 for body wood and
0.15 for root wood. The wood of Condalia ferrea has a specific
gravity of 1.3; that of Guaiacum sanctum 1.14. From the inves-
tigation of 429 American species, as published in the report of
the Tenth Census of the United States, it appears that 242 species,
including most of the commercial woods, lie between 0.45 and
0.75 in specific gravity.

TABLE III

One Hundred and Fifty Trees of the United States Arranged in

Order of the Average Specific Gravity of Their Dry Woods
(Tenth Census).
Species Sp. Gr. Species Sp. Gr.
Condalia ferrea 1 . 30 Quercus prinoides 86
Guaiacum sanctum 1 . 14 Quercus chrysolepis 85
Quercus virens 95 Hicoria alba 8-1

Quercus texana 91 Ostrya virginiana S3

wood to an equal volume of water at its greatest density, which occurs at a

temperature of 4° C. (39.2 F.). A cubic foot of pure water at this temperature
weighs 62.43 pounds. Dividing the weight in pounds of a cubic foot of
wood by 62.43 will give the specific gravity of the wood.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 51

TABLE III—Continued
Species Sp. Gr. Species Sp. Gr.
Quercus agrifolia 83 Quercus rubra 65
Hicoria glabra 82 Ulmus americana 65
Cornus florida 82 Taxus brevif olia 64
Hicoria laeiniosa 81 Pinus edulis 64
Quercus michauxii 80 Magnolia grandiflora 64
Hicoria myristicaeformis 80 Nyssa sylvatica 64
Pinus serotina 79 Taxus floridana 63
Diospyros virginiana 79 Cupressus macrocarpa 63
Toxylon pomiferum 77 Fraxinus pennsylvanica 63
Quercus laurif olia 77 Larix americana 62
Prosopis juliflora 77 Acer rubrum 62
"Betula lenta 76 Juglans nigra 61
Quercus imbricaria 75 Pinus echinata 61
' Pinus heterophylla 75 Betula papyrifera 60
Quercus prinus 75 Liquidambar styraciflua 59
Ulmus alata 75 Morus rubra 59
Quercus phellos 75 Castanea pumila 59
Quercus alba 75 Juniperus pachyphlcea 58
Quercus macrocarpa 75 Prunus serotina 58
Ilex decidua 74 Ilex opaca 58
Hicoria aquatica 74 Juniperus occidentalis 58
Larix occidentalis 74 Betula nigra 58
Quercus coccinea 74 Betula populifolia 58
Robinia pseudacacia 73 Fraxinus oregona 57
Quercus nigra 73 Platanus occidentalis 57
Celtis occidentalis 73 Pinus monophylla 57
Carpinus caroliniana 73 Castanopsis chrysophylla 56
Swietenia mahagoni 73 Pinus aristata 56
Ulmus racemosa 73 Juniperus utahensis 55
Ulmus crassifolia 72 Pyrus americana 55
Quercus aquatica 72 Pinus taeda 54
Prunus americana 72 Pinus balfouriana 54
Cratasgus crus-galli 72 Magnolia macrophylla 53
Fraxinus quadrangulata 72 Pinus inops 53
Hicoria olivseformis 72 1

Pinus jeffreyi 53
Juniperus monosperma 71 Pseudotsuga taxif olia 52
Fraxinus lanceolata 71 Pinus rigida ".
52
Quercus velutina 70 Tumion taxif olium 51
Pinus palustris 70 Sassafras sassafras 50
Ulmus pubescens 70 Magnolia glauca 50
Quercus palustris 69 jEsculus calif ornica 50
Gymnocladus dioicus 69 Juniperus virginiana 49
Acer saccharum 69 Pinus resinosa 49
Fagus americana 69 Alnus oregona 48
Gleditsia triacanthos 67 Chamaecyparis nootkatensis ... .48
Betula lutea 66 Tumion californicum 48
Fraxinus americana 65 Pinus ponderosa 47
52 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

TABLE III— Continued

Species Sp. Gr. Species Sp. Gr.
Abies magnifioa 47 Pinus coulteri 41
Magnolia acuminata 47 Pinus murrayana 41
Populus grandidentata 46 Populus heterophylla 41
Chamsecyparis lawsoniana 46 Juglans cinerea 41
Picea nigra 46 Tilia pubescens 41
Abies nobilis 46 Picea alba 41
Taxodium distichum 45 Populus tremuloides 40
jEsculus glabra 45 Libocedrus decurrens 40
Tilia americana 45 Asimina triloba 40
Castanea dentata 45 Alnus oblongifolia 40
Catalpa catalpa 45 Pinus glabra 39
Salix nigra 45 Pinus monticola 39
Pinus flexilis 44 Pinus strobus 38
Acer negundo 43 Abies balsamea 38
Picea sitchensis 43 Populus trichocarpa 38
jEsculus octandra 43 Thuya plicata 38
Salix discolor 43 Pinus lambertiana 37
Tilia heterophylla 43 Abies concolor 36
Tsuga canadensis 42 Populus balsamifera 36
Liriodendron tulipif era 42 Abies grandis 35
Abies amabilis 42 Picea engelmanni 34
Sequoia sempervirens 42 Thuya occidentalis 32
Catalpa speciosa 42 Sequoia washingtoniana 29
Pinus albicaulis 42 Leitnena floridana 21

References

Roth, F. Timber, Bui. 10, U. S. Div. Forestry, pp. 25-28.

:

Sargent, C. S. Forests of North America, Part 9, Tenth Census

. of the U. S.,
Washington, 1884, pp. 248-251.
Gayer, K: Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. V, 1908, pp. 50-65.
Nordlinger, H. Die Technischen Eigenschaften der Holzer, Stuttgart, 1860,
:

pp. 115-227.

WATER CONTENT OF WOOD

Water occurs in living sapwood in three states, viz., (1) in
the protoplasmic contents of the cells, (2) in the cell walls, and (3)
as free water wholly or partially filling the lumina of cells, fibres,
and vessels that have lost their contents. In heartwood water
normally exists only in condition (2). In the fresh sapwood of
Pinus strobus, which may be taken as fairly typical, water com-
prises about half of the total weight and is distributed approx-
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 53

imately as follows: in contents of living cells, 5 per cent; satu-

rating cell walls, 35 per cent; free water, 60 per cent.
In a living tree the wood nearest the bark contains the most
water. If no heartwood is present the decrease toward the pith
is gradual; otherwise the change is quite abrupt at the sapwood

limit. In Pinus palustris, for example, the weight of the fresh

wood within an inch of the bark may be 50 per cent of water;
that between one and two inches, only 35 per cent; that of the
heartwood, only 20 per cent. The water content of any par-
ticular section of a tree depends upon the amount of sapwood,
and is therefore greater for the upper than for the lower portions
of the stem; greater for limbs than bole; greatest of all in the
roots.
The water content of wood can readily be determined in the
following manner: saw off a thin section of wood; weigh careful-
ly on a delicate balance dry in an oven at a temperature of 100° C.
;

until a constant weight is obtained; reweigh. The difference

between the fresh weight and the dry weight is the amount of
moisture contained. Computed on a basis of the fresh weight,
— dry weight .,,,.„
t.
Per
j-
cent of moisture
•
j.
= fresh weight
fresh weight
—X 100.

Thus if wood was twice the

the weight of the original block of
final weight, there was as much water
wood; in other words,
as
one-half, or 50 per cent, of the original weight was water. The
figures in the preceding paragraph are on this basis.
Computed on a basis of dry weight,
fresh weight ——dry weight
t>
Per e
cent of moisture = -2
dry weight
-^ —x
5 „ „ ,
100.
nn

In the problem cited above the loss of moisture was 100 per cent
of the dry weight. This method furnishes a constant basis for
comparison, while the other varies with every change in moisture
degree. Subsequent references to the per cent of moisture will
refer to computation on the basis of dry weight.
It is impossible to remove absolutely all the water from wood
without destroying the wood. Wood is considered thoroughly
dried when it ceases to lose weight in a constant temperature of
100° C, though it still retains 2 to 3 per cent of moisture, and
if exposed to higher temperature will continue to give up water.

Seasoning, which is essentially drying, adds appreciably to

the strength, and, in slightly less proportion, to the stiffness of
54 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

wood. A piece of green spruce timber, for example, may become

four times stronger when thoroughly dried.* This is an extreme
case, however, and does not apply to large timbers where check-
ing, which always occurs to some extent, may counterbalance
partially or even entirely the gain in strength due to drying.
In small forms of hardwood material, as implement and
carriage stock, and in coniferous timber in some forms, as cross-
arms for telegraph poles, thorough and uniform reduction of the
moisture content produces a large increase in strength. In fact
a comparatively weak wood may, when perfectly dry, be much
stronger than a strong wood in a green condition. Consequently
tests to determine the mechanical properties of wood must, to
be comparable, take into consideration the moisture content of
the specimens. By means of a great many tests the relation of
the moisture degree to the mechanical properties can be approx-
imated and coefficients or correction factors determined by which
the strength value at any given water content can be reduced to
a standard (usually 12 per cent) or other desired moisture degree, f
Loss of water from cell lumina alone does not affect the mechan-
ical properties of wood. It is only when the cell walls begin to
give up their water that increase in strength, stiffness, hardness,
and resilience occur. Conversely, the absorption of water weakens
wood only to the point where the cell walls become completely
saturated. This critical point has been termed by Tiemann
iloc. tit.) the. fibre-saturation -point. It varies with different treat-
ments of the wood and under different conditions. The water
content at this point is greater in wood previously dried and
especially in wood which has been subjected to high temperature
than it is in gfeen wood. The amount of moisture at the fibre-
saturation point in green wood of various species has been found
by Tiemann (loc. tit.) to be between 20 and 30 (average about 27)
per cent.
The water content of wood materially affects durability.
Since decay is produced by fungi, and to a less extent by bacteria,
both of which require considerable water for their development,

*In comparing the strength and stiffness of wood in green and dry condi-
tions, the fact shouldbe borne in mind that, owing to shrinkage, dry wood is
more compact and contains a greater amount of wood substance per unit of
volume than green wood.
t Such tables have been prepared for several of the commercial woods of
the United States. (See Bui. 70 and Cir. 108, U. S. Forest Service.)
 :

ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 55

all that necessary to render even the most perishable wood

is

indefinitely immune from decay is to keep it dry. Wood con-

taining not more than 10 per cent of moisture will not decay.
Rate of seasoning differs with the kind of wood and with
its shape. A thin piece dries more rapidly than a thicker one;
sapwood more rapidly than heartwood; a light, open wood more
readily than one that is dense and heavy. Large beams or logs
are exceedingly slow in drying, requiring from two to several
years' seasoning in the open air before reaching an air-dry condi-
tion in the interior. Ties require from three months to a year
to season, depending on the kind of timber and the climate.
Much depends upon the method of piling, since boards in open piles
often dry twice as fast as those in solid piles.
As a result of numerous experiments by the U. S. Forest
Service upon large beams of Pinus palustris and P. tceda, the
following conclusions were reached (Bui. 70, p. 123)
" (1) The drying-out process takes place almost wholly through
the faces of the beam and not longitudinally, except near the ends.
" (2) The ratio of evaporation through a surface is proportional
to the rate of growth or density of the wood near the surface,
being most rapid in the case of sapwood.
" (3) If the whole stick is made up of heartwood or the pro-
portion of sapwood is uniform throughout, the longitudinal dis-
tribution of moisture is very regular. If the proportion of sap-
wood is not uniform, on the other hand, the portion containing
the most sap is the most susceptible to moisture influences; i.e.,
it will dry or will absorb moisture the most rapidly.
"The average of two cross-sections of longleaf pine sticks,
12 by 12 inches and 8 by 16 inches and 16 feet long, which were
air-dried for two years, showed an average moisture content in
the outer portion, cut halfway from surface to centre, of 17.7
per cent, while the inner part contained 25.7 per cent.
" From this it is quite evident that where timber of structural
sizes is used, the strength ordinarily reckoned upon should not
be greater than that of the green condition."

References

Roth, F.: Timber, Bui. 10, U. S. Div. Forestry, pp. 29-31.

Tiemann, H. D. The Effect of Moisture upon the Strength and
:
Stiffness of

Wood, Bui. 70, U. S. Forest Service, 1906, p. 144.

56 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Tiemann, H. D.: The Strength of Wood as Influenced by Moisture, Cir-

cular 108, U. S. Forest Service, 1907, p. 42.
Johnson, J. B.: Timber Physics, Part II, Bui. 8, U. S. Div. of Forestry,
1893, pp. 22-24.

SHRINKAGE, WARPING, AND CHECKING

The volume of wood is maximum when the cell walls are

saturated with water. When this condition exists the presence
or absence of free water in the cell cavities and the intercellular
spaces does not affect the volume. When the cell walls begin
to dry, they become thinner, but do not contract to an appreciable
extent longitudinally. A dry wood cell is therefore of practically
the same length as it was in a green or saturated condition, but
is cmaller in cross section, has thinner walls and a larger lumen.

According to Nageli's hypothesis, the cell wall is composed of

aggregations in crystalline form of minute parts or micellce.
These micellce are separated by films of water which become
thinner as the wall dries and thicker as it swells. This shrinkage
is roughly proportional to the thickness of the walls, and in con-
sequence the denser woods or the denser portions of a wood
shrink more than those less dense.
Inasmuch as wood is not a homogeneous substance, but an
intricate structure composed of cells exhibiting from moderate
to extreme variation in shape, size, thickness of walls, and more
especially in arrangement, it follows that shrinkage cannot be
uniform throughout any specimen. Late wood, being denser,
shrinks more than early wood. The ray cells, with their longest
diameters for the most part at right angles to the direction of the
other elements, oppose radial shrinkage and tend to produce
longitudinal shrinkage of wood. Only in the tangential direc-
tion are these otherwise opposing forces parallel. For this reason
as well as the fact that the denser bands of late wood are
tangentially continuous, while radially they are separated by
alternate zones of less dense early wood, wood usually shrinks
more than twice as much tangentially as it does radially. In
all cases, however, shrinkage parallel to the vertical axis is very
slight, one-tenth to one-third of one per cent, and is maximum
in woods with curly or wavy grain or with large or very abundant
rays.
The following table gives the results of a series of shrinkage
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 57

tests made by Mr. Hugh P. Baker at the Yale Forest School.

The given represent the average shrinkage resulting
figures
from reducing green wood to a kiln-dry condition and are com-
puted on the basis of the original measurements.

TABLE IV
Shrinkage of Wood along Different Dimensions

Length
Species.
%

Juniperus virginiana . .

Castanea dentata
Quercus rubra
Hicoria alba
Juglans cinerea
Liriodendron tulipifera
Nyssa sylvatica
58 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

be accommodated by the plasticity of the wood substance, cracks

or checks are formed. These are most common along the rays,
since there the strains are greatest and most complex. However,
when the strength of the rays is greater than the cohesive force
of the cementing substance uniting the two layers of the primary
cell wall, radial fracture passes through the median plane of the
primary wall of the wood cells instead of along the ray.
Variation in moisture content due to irregular drying results
in checks, most of which are temporary, and as equilibrium
becomes again established gradually close and become imper-
ceptible. The more rapidly wood is dried, the greater is the
tendency to check, for even if evaporation could be controlled
so as to proceed uniformly throughout the specimen, the cells
would not be given sufficient time to adjust themselves to the

Fig. 15. —Effects of shrinkage. A, plank cut from middle of log (boxed
heart), showing double-convex surfaces and large season check through upper
half. B, log cut in half, showing the fiat 'surface becoming convex and the appear-
ance of three large season checks. 0, half of a log cut into boards showing warping.

changed conditions. The presence of checks in wood, no matter

how imperceptible, always impairs the strength of the material.
If the outer portion of a piece of wood, especially hard wood,
dries much more rapidly than the inner, a hard shell is formed
on the outside, while the interior retains most of its original
moisture. This condition is known
as case-hardening. This dry
moisture from the interior and
shell resists the transpiration of the
retards drying, besides increasing the strains on the fibres. When
the interior finally dries, the internal strains frequently become
so great that large checks open up, producing a honeycombed
condition.
Checks which result from greater shrinkage along the tangent
than along the radius are permanent and increase in size as drying
progresses (Figs. 1; 15 B). They cause serious difficulty in season-
ing large timbers and especially material in the round, such as
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 59

logs, poles, and posts. If seasoned too rapidly hardwood timbers

may split entirely open so as completely to destroy their value.
In handling such material it is a common practice to forestall
such checking by driving in <S-shaped metal wedges across the
incipient cracks. Such damage can also be reduced by more
careful piling and handling of the material.

References

Roth, F.: Timber, Bui. 10, U. S. Div. Forestry, pp. 32-37.

Boulger, G. S.: Wood, pp. 80-88.
Von Schkenck, H.: Seasoning of Timber, Bui. 41, U. S. Bu. of Forestry, 1903,
p. 48.
Tiemann, H. D.: Effect of Moisture on the Strength and Stiffness of Wood,
Bui. 70, U. S. Forest Service, pp. 76-79; 116-118; 123.
Baxer, Hugh P.: A Study in the Shrinkage of Wood (unpublished thesis,
Yale Forest School, 1904).
Cahrens, C: Zur Kenntniss der innern Structur der vegetabilischen Zell-
membranen, Jahrb. fur wissensch. Botanik, Vol. XXIII, 1892, pp.
567-636.
Nageli, K. : Ueber den innern Bau der Vegetabilischen Zellenmembranen,
Sitzb. d. Akad. Wiss., Miinchen, 1864, Pt. 1, 282-326; Pt. 2, 114-170.

HYGROSCOPICITY

Wood substance has the property of absorbing moisture from

the atmosphere. When artificially dried wood is exposed to the
open air it will increase in weight, due to the addition of hygro-
scopic water. Although the amount of water thus attracted is
always greater than in the surrounding air, it does not remain
constant, but varies with the humidity, and is equal to 8 to 16
(average 12) per cent of the dry weight of the wood. These
variations are accompanied by proportionate changes in volume,
that is, the wood alternately shrinks and swells, or "works."
Hygroscopicity can be reduced, but not entirely eliminated, by
subjecting wood to boiling, steaming, prolonged soaking, or
exposure to high temperature.
This property of wood is a serious hindrance to its use in
certain positions where exact fitting is permanently desired.
Drawers and doors "stick" in damp weather, and become loose
in dry weather, or when artificially heated and dried for con-
60 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

siderable time. Furniture, wainscoting, interior finish, and cabinet

work may be badly damaged by prolonged drying, which opens
up joints, loosens tenons, and causes veneers to separate from
their backing. This property may be largely overcome by soaking
wood in oil or coating the surface with paint, oil, or varnish,
which excludes most of the air and moisture and keeps the con-
dition of the wood uniform. Light, porous woods "work" less
than dense woods. On account of their greater porosity and light-
ness, slowly grown ring-porous woods (Fig. 13) shrink and swell
less than specimens of the same species more rapidly grown
(Fig. 14).
The presence of natural oils, gums, and pigments such as are
commonly found in the heartwood of many species usually reduces
the hj-groscopicity of woods.

References

Roth, F.: Timber, Bui. 10, U. S. Div. For., pp. 30-31.

Exnbk, W. F.: Lorey's Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft, Vol. II, 1903, pp.
128-129.
•Gayer, K.: Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. V (1908), pp. 66-75.

PERMEABILITY

Inall green wood the cells are separated from each other by a

thin membrane, the primary cell wall. The only important

exceptions are the vessels between whose segments there is free
communication vertically. Vessels, however, like other cells, are
separated from each other and from other elements by the primary
wall. This wall ordinarily persists intact unless ruptured by
—
parenchymatous outgrowths tyloses. It is permeable by water
and certain dilute solutions which filter through slowly, but is

impervious to oils and resins. Gases can enter into living cells
only by going into solution, and in that condition diosmosing
through the cell wall.
These facts have an important bearing on the process of
impregnating wood with preservatives to prevent decay. It is
not difficult to force gases or fluids through open vessels of green
wood, but it is impossible to do so if they are plugged with tyloses.
For example, it is very easy to blow through the vessels of green
wood of most red or black oaks, even in pieces of considerable
length. In green wood of the white oaks, on the other hand,
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 61

it isimpossible to force any air through the vessels, even for short
lengths and with very high pressure, since in this case they are
blocked with tyloses. Even in the red or black oaks, however,
air cannot be forced through the other elements of green wood.
When wood becomes dry its penetrability by both gases and
liquids increased to a remarkable extent. The same specimen
is

of white oak which, while green, effectually withstood an air

pressure of 150 pounds per square inch will, when dry, allow the
passage of air, not only through the vessels, but also the other
elements, under a pressure of 5 pounds per square inch or less.
Similar effects are produced by drying any wood beyond its fibre-
saturation point. This fact emphasizes the great importance of
seasoning wood before attempting to impregnate it with pre-
servatives.
According to Tiemann (loc. cit.), the explanation of this
is that the drying of the cell walls causes minute checks or slits
to occur in the primary walls. The dryer the wood becomes the
larger the slits and the more permeable the wood. These slits
do not entirely close when the wood is resoaked, so that wood
once dried cannot be restored to its original condition.
Steaming is said to produce similar results, though the slits
apparently are not as wide as when wood is air-dried. It is prob-
able, however, that the maximum amount of slitting would result
from thoroughly drying wood that had been previously steamed.
Boiling green wood in oil results in more or less seasoning of the
outer portions, thus allowing some penetration by the oil.
Dry woods, however, differ greatly in penetrability. Light,
porous woods as a rule are much easier to impregnate than dense,
compact ones. Heartwood of any species offers more resistance
than the sapwood, due probably to the presence in the walls of
gums, resins, and other infiltrations. Tyloses, which always
reduce penetrability, are mostly absent from the outer portion of
sapwood even when very abundant in the heartwood of the same
tree. In the wood of Gymnosperms it appears that the wood-
parenchyma cells are more penetrable than the tracheids. Open
resin ducts permit the entrance of fluids into the body of the
wood, behaving in a manner similar to the vessels of Dicotyledons.
References

Bailey, Ikvtng W.: The Preservative Treatment of Timbers. I. The

Validity of Certain Theories Concerning the Penetration of Gases and
Preservatives into Seasoned Wood. For. Quarterly, 11: 1: 5-11, Mch.
1913
62 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Bailey, Irving W. The Effect of the Structure of Wood upon its Permeability,
:

No. 1. The Tracheids of Coniferous Timbers. In Bui. 174, Am. Ry.

Eng. Assn., Feb. 1915.
Tiemann, Harry D.: The Physical Structure of Wood in Relation to Its
Penetrability by Preservative Fluids, Bui. 120, Am. Ry. Eng. and
Maintenance of Way Ass'n, Jan. 1910.

CONDUCTIVITY
Dry wood is a very poor conductor of heat, as is well illus-
trated in its use for matches and as handles for utensils and tools
subjected to various temperatures. Increase in density or in
moisture content increases the conductivity of wood. Woods
are most conductive in direction parallel to the grain and least
so in radial direction, the ratio in some instances being as high
as 2 to 1. The between radial and tangential direc-
difference
tions in this regard and is probably due to the fact that
is slight,

in a tangential direction the bands of the denser and therefore

more conductive late wood are continuous, while radially they are
interrupted by alternate bands of the less dense early wood.
Wood dry condition is a non-conductor of electricity.
in a
Increase of water content reduces its value as an insulator. Light,
porous woods are more resistant to the passage of electric currents
than are dense woods; highly resinous woods, more than woods
without resin, since resin and oil are poor conductors of electricity.
Wood is a good conductor of sound, particularly in a longi-
tudinal direction.The denser, the more uniform, and the dryer
the wood
the greater is its ability to transmit sound. Unsound-
ness and decay materially reduce this property.

References

Gayer, Karl: Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. V, 1908, pp. 78-79.

Exner, W. F.: Lorey's Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft, Vol. II, p. 117.
Mathey, Alphonse: Traits d'Exploitation Commerciale des Bois, Vol. I,

Paris, 1906, pp. 63-65.

Nordlinger, H. : Die Technischen Eigenschaften der Holzer, pp. 56-114.

RESONANCE
"If a log or scantling is struck with the ax or hammer, a
sound is emitted which varies in pitch and character with the
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 63

shape and size of the stick, and also with the kind and condition
of wood. Not only can sound be produced by a direct blow,
but a thin board may be set vibrating and be made to give a tone
by merely producing a suitable tone in its vicinity. The vibra-
tions of the air, caused by the motion of the strings of the piano,
communicate themselves to the board, which vibrates in the
same intervals as the string and reenforces the note. The note
which a given piece of wood may emit varies in pitch directly with
the elasticity, and indirectly with the weight, of the wood. The
ability of a properly shaped sounding-board to respond freely
to all the notes within the range of an instrument, as well as to
reflect the character of the notes thus emitted (i.e., whether
melodious or not), depends, first on the structure of the wood,
and next on the uniformity of the same throughout the board.
In the manufacture of musical instruments all wood containing
defects, knots, cross grain, resinous tracts, alternations of wide
and narrow rings, and all wood in which summer and spring
wood are strongly contrasted in structure and variable in their
proportions are rejected, and only radial sections (quarter-sawed,
or split) of wood of uniform structure and growth are used.
" The irregularity in structure, due to the presence of relatively
large pores and pith rays, excludes almost all our broad-leaved
woods from such use, while the number of eligible woods among
conifers is limited by the necessity of combining sufficient strength
with uniformity in structure, absence of too pronounced bands
of summer wood, and relative freedom from resin.
" Spruce the favored resonance wood; it is used for sounding-
is

boards both in pianos and violins, while for the resistant back
and sides of the latter, the highly elastic hard maple is used.
Preferably resonance wood is not bent to assume the final form;
the belly of a violin is shaped from a thicker piece, so that every
fiber is in the original in as nearly an unstrained condition as possi-
ble, and therefore free to vibrate. All wood for musical instruments
is, of course, well seasoned, the final drying in kiln or warm room

being preceded by careful seasoning at ordinary temperatures

often for as many as seven years or more. The improvement of
violins, not by age, but by long usage, is probably due, not only
to the adjustment of the numerous component parts to each
other, but also to a change in the wood itself; years of vibrating
enabling any given part to vibrate much more readily." *
* Roth, F., Timber, Bui. 10, U. S. Div. For., pp. 24-25.
64 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

COLOK

When wood is first formed it isalmost, if not entirely, color-

less, as may be observed in the outermost growth rings in any
species. After a year or two it usually becomes yellowish, and
still later when changed into heartwood a decided deepening of
color results. Exceptions to this rule are rather numerous, for
example, Picea, Tsuga, Abies, Salix, Alnus, Betula, Ilex, and
JEsculus exhibit or no contrast in color between heartwood
little
and sapwood. In all species the sapwood has a very limited
range of color and shade, but the heartwood exhibits great varia-
tion, from the chalky white of Ilex opaca to the ebony black of
old Diospyros virginiana, with practically all intermediate colors,
shades, and tints. In many woods the demarcation in color
between heartwood and sapwood is very sharp and distinct, while
in others the transition is gradual. In some instances {e.g.,
Sequoia, Ilex, Catalpa, Cladrastis lutea) the color is uniform,
while in others (e.g., Liriodendron, Liquidambar, Swietenia) it is
variable not only in different specimens, but in different portions
of the same piece. The golden yellow of Toxylon shows narrow
streaks of red Liquidambar shows black streaks that usually give
;

the finished lumber a handsome watered effect; Liriodendron

varies from deep iridescent blue to yellowish brown; Robinia
varies from light straw-colored to deep golden yellow like Toxylon;
Taxodium is sometimes nearly black, often yellowish, reddish,
brown, or mottled. The deep-colored wood of Juniperus fre-
quently exhibits streaks of white sapwood, the intermingling
resulting from the fluted periphery of the stem.
It is generally true that depth of color of woods is a criterion
of durability. Thus the dark heartwood of Juniperus, Sequoia,
Prosopis, Toxylon, Robinia, and Morus is very resistant to decay,
while that of Salix, Populus, Tilia, JEsculus, Acer, Fraxinus, and
Nyssa is perishable. The deeper color of the heartwood is due
to the infiltration or deposition in the cell walls and lumina of
gums, resins, pigments, tannin, and other substances. To these
is ascribed the greater durability of wood, since sapwood is

invariably not durable under exposure. In some instances, how-

ever (e.g., Chamcecyparis, Taxodium, Catalpa, Sassafras), the
infiltrated substances tend to prevent decay without greatly
deepening the color of the heartwood.
 ECONOMIC "WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 65

Color adds greatly to the value of wood for interior finish,

cabinet work, marquetry, and parquetry. It is a very common
practice to stain wood artificially. Light-colored and therefore
less valuable wood of mahogany, such as commonly grows in the
United States and Mexico, is often darkened; Ilex opaca is readily
stained black to resemble ebony; Betula lenta, when properly
stained, is a good imitation of mahogany; in fact, by the applica-
tion of stains and finishes the variations in color and shade that
can be produced in woods is practically unlimited. It is also
possible by the introduction of certain chemicals to color the
sapwood of a living tree.
For some uses of wood lack of color is prized. This is especially
true of pulpwood, since coloring matter, if present, must be
bleached out. Color is also undesirable in certain grades of
flooring. In handles and spokes dark color is considered a defect,
since it indicates heartwood, which is usually (but erroneously)
thought to be weaker than the colorless sapwood.
All woods darken upon exposure to the atmosphere, probably
due to the oxidation of the coloring matters. The rich golden
yellow of Toxylon and Morus becomes a dark or russet brown;
the sapwood of Alnus oregona turns reddish brown; Pinus monti-
cola and P. strobus often become vinous red, especially near the
end of an exposed piece of wood. On this account the natural
color of a wood can only be seen on fresh-cut sections. Prolonged
—
immersion in water causes wood to darken some turning gray,
others almost black.
Some woods (e.g., Cladrastis lutea, Prosopis, Sequoia, Juglans)
impart color to water in which they are soaked. The color of
many others can be removed by treatment with NaOH or other
chemicals, but it is often necessary to reduce the wood to pulp
before it can be bleached. Many tropical woods {e.g., Clorophora
tinctoria, Hcematoxylon campechianum, Cwsalpina, Pterocarpus)
contain coloring principles of value in the arts for dyeing, though
they have been largely superseded by aniline dyes. Of indigenous
woods, Toxylon pomiferum and several species of Xanthoxylum
are sometimes employed for this purpose, usually as adulterants
of old fustic (Clorophora).
Color is often of great assistance for diagnostic purposes,
though the range of variation and difficulty of description must
always be taken into consideration. Unless otherwise stated, the
colors mentioned in the key refer always to the fresh cross section
5
66 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

of a piece of dry wood. The character of the demarcation in color

between heartwood and sap wood, whether sharp or gradual, is
often an important feature, though usually not exhibited on very
small specimens. The character and amount of coloring matter ex-
tracted by treatment with NaOH is sometimes made use of in
identification.
Abnormal discoloration of wood usually denotes disease.
The black check in Tsuga heterophylla is the result of insect
attacks. The reddish-brown streaks so common in Hicoria are
mostly the result of injury by birds. The bluing of the sapwood
of many soft woods is due to the attacks of fungi. Many fungi
can be determined specifically by the characteristic color they
impart to wood.
References

Roth, F.: Timber, Bui. 10, U. S. Div. For., p. 24.

Gayer, K.: Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. V (1908), pp. 43-46.
Hanausek, T. F. The Microscopy of Technical Products.
:

Mell, C. D.: Fustic Wood, Cir. 184, U. S. Forest Service.

Exner, W. F.: Lorey's Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft, Vol. II, pp. 105-111.
Nordlinger, H. Die Technischen Eigenschaften der Holzer, pp. 46-51.
:

GLOSS OR LUSTRE

Gloss or lustre of wood refers to the manner in which light

is reflectedby the wood elements. The fibres of the bast are
more lustrous than the wood fibres. The fibre of flax is highly
lustrous, while that of cotton is dull. Similar variation occurs
in the elements of different woods. For example, the woods of
F agar a, Rhus, and Toxylon are highly lustrous; those of Acer,
Betula, and Robinia less so; while those of Juglans nigra, Sequoia,
Fagus, and Platanus are dull. The wood of Picea possesses a
pearly lustre; that of Guaiacum and Taxodium is rather greasy
or waxy. In some cases the lustre varies in different parts of
the wood or on different planes. The late wood of Juniperus
virginiana exhibits a frosted lustre on tangential surface. The
rays on quarter-sawed wood of several species, particularly the
oaks, are so lustrous in contrast to the other elements as to give
rise to the term "silver grain," while the rays themselves are
called "mirrors." Woods with high natural lustre are usually
capable of taking a high polish. Lustre is a sign of soundness
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 67

in wood, for incipient decay causes wood to become dull and

"dead." Sound wood in thin sections is translucent and exhibits
double refraction. The presence of rosin in wood increases its
translucency.

References

Gayer, K.: Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. V (1908), pp. 47, 79.
Exner, W. F.: Lorey's Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft, pp. 111-112.
Nordlinger, H. Die Technischen Eigenschaften der Holzer, pp. 46-51.
:

SCENT OR ODOR

Every wood when fresh possesses in some degree a characteristic

scent, though in a great many cases it is so weak or fleeting that
it escapes notice. Odor depends upon chemical compounds (e.g.,
ethereal oils and tannin) which form no part of the wood itself.
Ordinarily it is more pronounced in heartwood than in sapwood.
It is also greater in wood in a green condition than when seasoned,
more evident on moist surfaces than on dry. Upon prolonged
exposure to air, or when submerged in water, wood gradually
loses its scent. In some cases the loss is complete throughout;
in others only the outer portions are affected. Woods deriving
their odors from the presence of ethereal oils, as is the case in
many cedars, apparently may be kept indefinitely and still emit
their characteristic odors when a fresh surface
exposed.
is

Upon exposure to the air for a short time some green woods
(e.g., Quercus) acquire a disagreeable, soured odor, probably due

to the decomposition of certain organic compounds. Woods in

process of decay emit various odors, sometimes very disagreeable
(e.g., Populus), sometimes not unpleasant (e.g., Qitercus), but

always different from the natural scent characteristic of the sound

wood.
The fumes of burning wood are occasionally characteristic.
Resinous woods, as Pinus, give off an odor of tar. The woods of
Juniperus virginiana and Chamcecyparis lawsoniana burn with a
pungent, spicy scent, giving the latter a special value for match-
sticks. The woods of Cercidium and Parkinsonia give off very
penetrating, disagreeable fumes when burned, reducing materially
their desirability for fuel.
The scent of certain woods renders them commercially valuable.
Cigars are believed to be considerably improved by being kept in
68 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

cedar boxes. The scent of cedar (Juniperus virginiana, Chamce-

cyparis lawsoniana, and C. nootkatensis) is apparently disagreeable
to moths and other insects, making the wood desirable for cabinets,
wardrobes, chests, and drawers where furs and woolen clothes
are kept. Cedar shavings are also employed for the same purpose.
Loss of scent from the exposed surface of the wood soon seriously
impairs the efficiency of the wood for this purpose. For some
purposes, especially as receptacles for wines, liquors, drinking-
water, and oils, meats, fish, butter, and other foodstuffs, highly-
scented wood is undesirable since it is apt to taint the
contents.
While scent is often a very valuable aid to the identification
of wood, its utility is lessened by the difficulty and often impos-
sibility of describing an odor so that one unfamiliar with it would
be able to recognize it. Such descriptions are necessarily limited
to comparisons with well-known scents *vhich are usually inade-
quate. The scent of the wood of Pinus is resinous or like tur-
pentine; that of Juniperus and Chamcecyparis thyoides aromatic,
like cedar that of Chamcecyparis nootkatensis, C. lawsoniana,
oil;
and Libocedrus decurrens spicy-resinous that of dark-colored, waxy
;

specimens of Taxodium, like rancid butter; that of Catalpa some-

what like kerosene; that of Viburnum lentago and V. prunifolium
very disagreeable and pungent.
The following genera and species usually can be recognized
by their odor alone: Juniperus, Chammcyparis thyoides, C. lawson-
iana, Libocedrus, Thuya, Tsuga canadensis, Sassafras, Viburnum,
and Catalpa. With a keen sense of smell others may be recog-
nized; for example, Pinus, Taxodium, Quercus, Castanea, Ulmus,
and Betula. Prominent among exotic species characterized by
pronounced scents are the camphor trees (Cinnamomum camphora,
Dryobalanus camphora, Camphora glanduliferum) Indian sandal-
,

wood (Santalum album), and violet-wood (Acacia homophylla).

References

Gayer, K.: Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. V (1908), pp. 47-48.

Roth, F. Timber, Bui. 10, U. S. Div. For., p. 24.
:

Krais, Paul: Gewerbliche Materialkunde, Vol. I, Die Holzer, p. 652.

Exnbr, W. F.: Lorey's Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft, Vol. II, pp. 116-117.
Nordlinger, H. Die Technischen Eigenschaften der Holzer, pp. 51-53.
:
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 69

TASTE
Wood substance itself, being insoluble in water or weak
alkaline solutions, is necessarily tasteless. The characteristic
taste of certain woodsdue then to soluble substances deposited
is

in the cell lumina or infiltrated into the cell walls.In any wood
the most pronounced flavor is obtained from the sapwood; it
is also more pronounced in green material than in dry. This is
probably due to the fact that the substances giving wood its
flavor were in solution or soluble form in the living sapwood.
When submerged in water they may be leached out, and when
exposed to air, oxidized.
Taste is occasionally helpful in identifying woods, though,
like odor, it cannot be described with accuracy. The wood of
Libocedrus decurrens has a very spicy flavor; that of Pinus palus*
tris terebinthic; that of Chamcecyparis lawsoniana spicy-resinous;
that of Sassafras rather spicy. The wood of Castanea has no
special flavor, but on account of the tannin in it, has an astringent
effect on the mouth.

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
Vessels (pp. 14-16)

Jeffrey, Edward C, and Cole, Ruth D.: Experimental In-

vestigations on the Genus Drimys. Annals of Botany, 30: 359-
368, 1916.

Knight, Margaret: Drimys Winteri and Drimys odorata (note).

Annals of Botany, 29: 310-311, 1915.
Thompson, W. P., and Bailey, I. W.: Are Tetracentron, Trocho-
dendron, and Drimys Specialized or Primitive Types ? Memoirs
of the N. Y. Bot. Garden, 6: 27-32. Aug. 31, 1916.

Tracheitis (pp. 16-18)

Gerry, Eloise: A comparison of Tracheid Dimensions in Long-

leaf Pine and Douglas Fir, with Data on the Strength and
Length, Mean Diameter and Thickness of Wall of the Tracheids.
Science, 43: 1106 : 360, 1916.
70 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Gerry, Eloise: Fiber Measurement Studies: Length Variations,

Where they Occur and their Relation to the Strength and Uses
of Wood. Science, 41: 1048 179, 1915. :

Groom, Percy: A Preliminary Inquiry into the Significance of

Tracheid-Caliber in Conifers;. Bot. Gaz., 57:4:287-307,
Apr. 1914.
Lee, H. N., and Smith, E. M.: Douglas Fir Fiber, With Special
Reference to Length. For. Quarterly, Dec. 1916.
Mell, D. C.: Length of Tracheids in Coniferous Wood. Paper
Trade Journal, New York, June 15, 1911, p. 52.
Record, Samuel J.: The Significance of Resinous Tracheids, Bot.
Gaz., 66: 1: 61-67, July 1918.
Sanio, Karl: Leber die Grosse der Holzzellen bei der Gemeinen
Kiefer (Pinns silvestris L.). Jahrb. Wiss. Bot., 8: 401-420,
1872.
Sanio, Karl: Anatomie der gemeinen Kiefer (Pinus silvestris L.)
II. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot,, 9 50-126. :

Shepard, H. B., and Bailey, I. W. Some

: Observations on the
Variation in Length of Coniferous Fibers. Proc. Soc. Am. For.,
9:4: 522-527, Oct. 1914.

Wood Parenchyma (pp. 21-23)

Krah, F. W. Ueber die Vertheilung der parenchymatischen

:

Elemente im Xylem und Phloem der Dicotylen Laubbaume.

Berlin, 1883.

Rays (pp. 23-29)

Chrysler, M. A.: The Medullary Rays of Cedrus. Bot. Gaz.,

59:5:387-396, May 1915.
Holden, Ruth: Ray Tracheids in the Coniferales. Bot. Gaz.,
55: 1: 56-65, 1913.

Langdon, LaDema M.: The Ray System of Quercus alba. Bot.

Gaz., 65: 4: 313-323, Apr. 1918.
Thompson, W. P.: Ray Tracheids in Abies. Bot. Gaz.,
53:4:331-338, Apr. 1912.

Resin Ducts (pp. 29-31)

Record, Samuel J.: Intercellular Canals in Dicotyledonous

Woods, Journ. Forestry, 16: 4: 429-441, Apr. 1918.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 71

Pits (pp. 31-35)

Bailey, Irving W.: The Preservative Treatment of Wood. II.

The Structure of the Pit Membranes in the Tracheids of Conifers
and their Relation to the Penetration of Gases, Liquids, and
Finely Divided Solids into Green and Seasoned Wood. For.
Quarterly, 11: 1: 12-20, Mch. 1913.

Bailey, Irving W. The Structure of the Bordered Pits of Conifers

:

and Its Bearing upon the Tension Hypothesis of the Ascent of

Sap in Plants. Bot. Gaz., 62: 2: 133-142, Aug. 1916.
Brown, Forest B. H.: Variation in the Size of Ray Pits of Coni-
fers. Ohio Naturalist, 15: 542-550, June 1915.

Tyloses (pp. 35-36)

Gerry, Eloise: Tyloses: Their Occurrence and Practical Signif-

icance in Some American Woods. Journ. Agr. Research,
1: 6:445-470, 1914.

Pith Flecks (pp. 36-37)

Brown, H. P.: Pith-ray Flecks in Wood. Cir. 25, U. S. Forest

Service, Washington, D. C, 1913.

Greene, Chas. T. The Cambium Miner

: in River Birch. Journ.
Agr. Research, 1:6: 471-4, 1914.
Nielsen, J. C: Zoologische Studien iiber die Markflecke. Zool.
Jahrb., Abt. System, Geotigr. w. Biol. Trere, 23:6:725-738,
1906.
Density and Weight (pp. 49-52)

Dunlap, Frederick: Density of Wood Substance and Porosity of

Wood. Journ. Agr. Research, 2:6: 423-428, Sept. 1914.
Gaskill, Alfred: Specific Gravity and Weight of the Most Im-
portant American Woods: A Study and Compilation. For.
Quarterly, 11: 4: 527-530, Dec. 1913.
Record, Samuel J. The Mechanical Properties of Wood.
: New
York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1914, pp. 54-58.

Permeability (pp. 60-62)

Teesdale, Clyde H. Relative Resistance

: of Various Conifers to
Injection with Creosote. Bui. 101, U. S. Dept. Agr., Wash-
ington, D. C, 1914.
72 ECONOMIC WOODS OP THE UNITED STATES

Teesdale, Clyde H., and MacLean, J. D.: Relative Resistance

of Various Hardwoods to Injection with Creosote. Bui. 606,
U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C, 1918.

Conductivi'y (p. 62)

Hieuma, Jujieo Experiment

: of the Electric Resistance in Wood.
Extracts from the Bulletin of the Forest Experiment Station,
Meguro, Tokyo. Pub. by Bur. of For., Tokyo, Japan, 1915. pp.
59-65.
 PART II

KEY TO THE ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE

UNITED STATES
EXPLANATORY NOTES

The descriptive key given in the following pages is based upon

features visible with the unaided eye and with a small hand lens,
and also upon features visible only under the compound micro-
scope. The latter are indicated by smaller type.
The small numerals following the names of the woods refer to
a list of references on pp. 109-117.
-The capitals in parentheses following the specific names refer
to the regions indicated on the map (Plate I, Natural Forest
Regions of the United States) and indicate in a general way the
natural distribution of the species:
(P), Pacific Coast Forest; (R), Rocky Mountain Forest; (N),
Northern Forest; (C), Central Hardwood Forest; (S), Southern
Forest; (T), Tropical or Sub-tropical Forest; (n), north; (s), south;
(Int.), Introduced into the United States. Where more than one
region is indicated the more important is placed first.

I. Non-poeous Woods: Gymnosperms, Conifers, Soft-

woods. (For II, see p. 85.)

Vessels absent. Woods comparatively homogeneous; com-

posed mostly of tracheids fairly uniform in structure and arranged
in definite radial rows; barely visible under lens. Growth rings
usually quite distinct on account of the abrupt change in density
and in color between the late wood of one year's growth and the
early wood of the next (see p. 40). Wood parenchyma (resin
cells) and resin ducts present or absent. Rays very fine, scarcely
visible without a lens. Woods with or without pronounced
resinous odor and taste.
73
74 ECONOMIC WOODS OP THE UNITED STATES

A Resin ducts, both vertical and horizontal (fusiform rays),

present; scattered *; the vertical appearing on longitudinal
surface as fine lines or scratches, light or dark in color. Rays
with tracheitis. (For B, see p. 80.)

a Resin ducts plainly visible without lens; numerous to

moderately so, and fairly well distributed. (For b, see p.
78.)

a 1 Traeheids normally without spirals. Resin ducts not constricted

but often closed with tylosal outgrowths of the epithelial cells;

the latter are thin-walled and normally flattened. Wood paren-

chyma only in association with resin ducts, not isolated or zonate.
Ray traeheids comparatively large and numerous, in one to sev-
eral marginal rows and frequently interspersed in high rays and
often entirely composing low rays. Woods with character-
istic but not always pronounced resinous odor. Color
contrast between heartwood and sapwood usually sharp
and distinct. (For b 1 see p. 77.) , Pine. 1

a 2
Moderate contrast in color and density between
seasonal growths; transition between the two por-
tions of growth ring gradual; texture uniform.
Woods soft to medium, comparatively non-resinous.
Color pale straw to reddish-brown. Ray traeheids
with upper and lower walls uniformly thickened or smooth
(Figs. 4, 5, pp. 25-26). Pits present in the tangential walls
of the late wood. Soft Pine Group.

a3 Woods soft, straight-grained. Ray parenchyma cells

in early wood with 1 or 2 large simple pits in each cross-

field, f (Fig. 4, p. 25.)

White or Five-leaved Pine Group.| 2

* As a result, of injury, compact peripheral rows of ducts may arise as in

the case of certain woods in which resin ducts do not occur normally.
t By
" cross-field " is meant the area of intersection of a ray cell and a wood
tracheid. The typical condition of pitting is found only in the early wood as
the pits may be semi-bordered in the summer wood.
t The other members of this group (a ) are P. flexilis James (P), P. albi-
3

caulis Eng. (R, P), and P. strobiformis Eng. (R). Their woods are of no com-
mercial importance. That of P. albicaulis is characterized by resinous tra-
eheids. See author's "Significance of Resinous Traeheids," Botanical Gazette
66:1:61-67 (July, 1918).
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 75

a4 Color varying from light straw or creamy-white

to reddish-brown, more pronounced in summer
wood and deepening upon exposure to sunlight.
Texture comparatively fine. Lustre silky.
Wood readily cleavable into long thin strips.
Resin ducts fairly conspicuous, especially in
second-growth, appearing on longitudinal sur-
face as straw-colored or light-brown lines. No
sugary exudations. Sp. gr. .35-.43. (Eastern)
White Pine, Northern Pine, Pinus strobus L.
(N) 3 Western or Idaho White Pine, P. monti-
;

cola Dougl. (P).

b 4 Color yellowish-white to very light brown, never

deeply reddish; brown stain common. Texture
coarse. Lustre dull. Wood not readily
cleavable into long thin strips. Resin ducts con-
spicuous and usually dark-colored. Sugary
exudations and sugar pockets common on fresh
lumber. Sp. gr. .32-.40. Sugar Pine, P lam-
bertiana Dougl. (P). 4

b3 Wood rather hard, cross-grained, fine-textured.

Color yellowish, uneven, not very distinct from
sapwood. Odor often like beeswax. Sp. gr. .45-
.67. Ray parenchyma cells with 3-6 small piriform * pits

in each cross-field. (Fig. 5, p. 26.)

Foxtail and Nut Pine Group.
Pifion pine, P. edulis Eng. (R)-t 5

b2 Decided contrast in density and usually in color be-

tween seasonal growths; transition between the two
portions of a growth ring usually abrupt; texture
variable, often very uneven. Woods varying from
very hard to soft; moderately to highly resinous.
Color variable, but mostly darker than in soft pines.
Ray tracheids, which often predominate in ray, with upper and

* Pit with lenticular opening and small circular border as in rays of Picea.
t Microscopic structures for this group apply also to P. quadrijolia Pari.
(P), P. cembroides Zucc. (R), P. monophylla T. & F. (R), P. balfouriana Murr.
(P), P. aristata Eng. (P). These woods are not of commercial importance.
76 ECONOMIC WOODS OF* THE UNITED STATES

lower walls irregularly thickened, dentate to reticulate * (Figs.

6, 7, pp. 27-28). Pits rarely present in tangential walls of
the late wood. Pitch Pine Group.

a' Ray parenchyma cells in early wood with 1 or 2 large simple

pits in each cross-field (Fig. 6, p. 27). Wood rather
light and soft, variable, fairly strong, medium-
textured, not highly resinous. Sp. gr. .42-. 54.
Red Pine Group.f Red or Norway Pine, P. resi-
nosa Ait. (L). 6

b 3 Ray parenchyma cells in early wood with 3-6 (occasionally

more) small, irregular, simple (rarely semi-bordered) pits in
each cross-field (Fig. 7, p. 28). Yellow Pine Group.
a4 Woods variable from light and soft to moder-
ately heavy and hard. Western Pines.
a5 Wood fairly uniform, soft, not highly resin-
ous, light-colored. Sp. gr. .35-47. Tangen-
tial surface showing conspicuous " pebbly" or
" dimpled " grain. Lodgepole Pine, P. con-
torta Loud., or P. murrayana "O.C." (R, P). 7

b5 Wood variable from light, soft, non-resinous,

and nearly white to fairly heavy, hard, res-
inous, and reddish-brown in color. Sp. gr.
.39-.60. " Pebbly " grain not characteristic
though occasionall}' present. Western Yel-
low Pine, Western Pine, California, New
Mexico or Arizona White Pine, Western Soft
Pine, Bull Pine, P. ponderosa Laws.f (R, P;. 8

* The very irregular thickenings of the upper and lower walls of the ray

tracheids are peculiar to the pitch pines. Spiral markings and other irregu-
larities of the wall found occasionally in the ray tracheids of certain other
conifers are quite distinct from the heavy sculpturing in the ray tracheids of
the pitch pines.
t The microscopic structure of P. rcsinosa characterizes also one Asiatic
and two European pines which are being planted to some extent in the United
States, namely, Japanese Red Pine, P. dendflora S. & Z., Scotch Pine, P.
sylveslris L.. and Austrian Pine, P. laricio Poir.
% Included under this name are closely related forms whose woods are not
distinguishable. The softest grades of the wood are from the outer portions
of large, ove^-mature timber.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 77

b4 Woods varying from moderately to extremely

heavy and hard. Southern Pines.* 9
a5 Woods usually very dense and resinous, with
large proportion of sharply defined late wood.
a 6 Growth rings mostly wide, variable. Sap-
wood thick. Sp. gr. usually be-
.50-.90,
tween .65 and .75. Slash or Cuban Pine,
P. caribaea Mor., P. heterophylla (Ell.)
Sudw., or P. cubensis Gris. (S). 10
b 6 Growth rings mostly narrow beyond first2
or 3 inches of radius, fairly uniform. Sap-
wood thin. Sp. gr. .50-. 90, usually be-
tween .60 and .70. Longleaf Pine, Georgia
Pine, P. palustris Mill., or P australis
11
Michx. f. (S).

b 5 Woods usually moderately dense and resinous,

widely variable; medium to small proportion
of late wood not always sharply defined.

a6 Growth rings variable, narrow to extremely

broad. Sapwood thick. Sp. gr. .40-. 80,
usually between .45 and .55. Loblolly or
North Carolina Pine, P. taeda L. (S). 12
b 6 Growth rings fairly regular, broad toward
pith and narrow beyond 5-7 inches. Sap-
wood rather thick. Sp. gr. .40-. 80, usually
between .45 and .55. Shortleaf Pine, P.
echinata Mill., or P. mitis Michx. (S). 13
b Tracheids normally with spirals.! Resin ducts widely variable in
size and arranged often in short tangential groups; ducts con-

* Specific identification of the southern pines is very uncertain. Since the

mechanical and physical properties of the woods are factors of the density,
classification for commercial purposes is made on that basis.
f The spirals in the tracheids serve to distinguish the wood of Pseudolsuga
from that of all others resembling it. The tracheids of Taxus and Tumion
are spiralled but the woods are wholly devoid of wood parenchyma, resin
ducts, and ray tracheids. The sporadic occurrence of true spirals in Picea,
Larix and Pinus has been noted and in the rare instances where such is the
case the other anatomical features must be taken into account. Spirals,
which are thickenings upon the inside of the secondary wall, must not be con-
fused with striations which are slits or cracks running spirally in the thick
walls of the late wood and of " compression wood " (rotholz) of many conifers.
78 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

stricted at intervals but rarely closed by tylosal outgrowths of

the epithelial cells; the latter are usually small, thick-walled,
rounded. Isolated wood parenchyma strands (resin cells) occa-
sionally found. Ray tracheids small, usually in single marginal
rows, sometimes showing minute spirals. Ray parenchyma pits

small and more or less piciform. Wood

resembles that of
Southern Pines but for the most part is without very
pronounced resinous odor, usually less pitchy, and on
radial surface usually shows less distinct color con-
trast between seasonal growths. Color contrast be-
tween heartwood and sapwood distinct. Sp. gr. .39-
.68, mostly between .45 and .55. Growth rings more
or less undulating, showing on both cross and longitu-
dinal surfaces. Wood of two general classes (1) Fine- :

grained, fairly uniform-textured, moderately light and

soft, easy to work; color pale reddish-yellow; hence
the local name of " yellow fir." (2) Coarse-grained,
uneven-textured early wood open and weak, late wood
;

dense and flinty; color rather deep red, hence the local
name of " red fir." Douglas Fir, Spruce or Pine,
Oregon Pine, Pseudotsuga taxifolia Brit., P- douglasii
Carr., or P mucronata (Raf.) Sudw. (P, R). 14

b Resin ducts mostly small, inconspicuous, widely scattered

or in small tangential groups; appearing in late wood com-
monly as small whitish dots; usually open; epithelial cells small,
normally thick-walled, rounded. Isolatedwood parenchyma strands
(resin cells) rare; terminal. Tracheids rarely with spirals. Ray tra-
cheids small, usually in single marginal rows, rarely with spirals. Ray
parenchyma cells thick-walled, abundantly pitted in upper, lower
and end walls; pits on lateral walls lenticular or slit -like, small, semi-
bordered, 2-6 in each cross-field in early wood.*

a1 Wood variable, but mostly hard and heavy, with de-

decided contrast between seasonal growths; sometimes
decidedly pitchy. Sapwood thin with distinct line of
demarcation. Larch. 15
* The woods of larch and spruce bear considerable resemblance microscopi-
cally to the woods of the foxtail and nut pine group. The}' can usually be
readily distinguished by the nature of the epithelial cells of the resin ducts,
being thin-walled and flattened in the pines and, with occasional exceptions,
thick-walled and rounded in the others. This is seen to best advantage in the
fusiform rays (tangential section).
 ECONOMIC WOODS OP THE UNITED STATES 79

a 2 Color yellowish-brown, not reddish. Texture

medium. Wood usually in small sizes, not straight-
grained, not highly resinous. Sp. gr. .54-.78, mostly
between .55 and .65. Larch, Tamarack, Hackma-
tack, Larix laricina (Du Roi) Koch., or L. americana
Michx. (N).
b 2 Color red to reddish-brown. Texture coarse and
harsh. Wood obtainable in large sizes, straight-
grained, sometimes extremely dense and very pitchy.
Sp. gr. ,59-.83, mostly between .60 and .70. Western
Larch, Tamarack, L. occidentalis Nutt. (R).
b1 Wood varying from very light and soft to moderately
so, with from slight to decided contrast between
seasonal growths; non-resinous. Texture fine. Lustre
satiny and finely dappled, especially on tangential sur-
face. Sapwood usually without distinct line of demar-
cation. Spruce. 16
2
a Color white or very light, uniform, with little or no
contrast between heartwood and sapwood. Resin
ducts scarcely visible without lens. Sp. gr. .31-.53,
mostly between .35 and .45.

a 3 Grain varying from extremely fine to medium.*

Red Spruce, Picea rubens Sarg., or P rubra Diet.
(N) 17
; Black Spruce, P. mariana Mill., or P.
nigra Link. (N).
b 3 Grain mostly coarse. White or Cat Spruce, P.
canadensis (Mill.) B. S. P., or P. alba Link. (N) f;
Engelmann Spruce, P. engelmanni Eng. (R).
b 2 Color reddish or pinkish, fading gradually outward
into sapwood; deepest in rays. Texture rather
wooly. Resin ducts fairly distinct. Sp. gr. .34-. 65,
mostly between .35 and .40. Sitka Spruce, P.
sitchensis (Bong.) T. & M. (Pn).
* Since fineness of grain (i.e., width of growth rings) is largely determined

by external factors it is an unreliable diagnostic feature and is resorted to here

because constant features of distinction are apparently wanting and also be-
cause it is used to some extent by lumbermen.
f The wood of the eastern spruces, particularly P. canadensis, rather
closely resembles that of the balsam fir, and the two are often associated both
in the forest and in the market. The peculiar dappled lustre of spruce and
the presence of resin ducts and ray tracheids are distinctive.
 f

80 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

B Vertical resin ducts normally absent; may be present as result

of injury in which event they are arranged in a compact
peripheral row (Fig. 10, p. 32) ; horizontal resin ducts (fusiform rays)
absent.* Ray traeheids present or absent.

a Traeheids without spirals. (For b, see p. 85.)

a Woods without aromatic odor.
1 (For b 1 , see p. 82.)
2
a Resin cells absent or few; never visible without
compound microscope. Color of woods not pro-
nounced, though late wood exhibits a slight purplish
tinge. Without sharp demarcation and with little
color contrast between heartwood and sapwood.
a 3 Ray traeheids normally absent. Fir. 18

a4 Color white or pale brown in general appearance,

with late wood rather purplish. Wood often
coarse-grained, soft and weak. Sp. gr. .29-.45,
mostly between .35 and .40. Balsam or Balsam
Fir, Abies balsamea Mill. (N); Lowland Fir, A.
grandis Lindl. (P) White Firs, A. concolor Parry
;

(P) and A. amabilis Forb. (P).

b 4 Color yellowish-brown with reddish tinge; rays
decidedly reddish. Wood moderately to de-
cidedly heavy and hard. Sp. gr. .41-. 58.
Noble Fir, A. nobilis Lindl. (P); Red Fir, A.
magnified Murr. (P).
b 3 Ray traeheids present in single marginal rows and some-
times interspersed. Hemlock. 19
a Odor disagreeable, though not very pronounced
4

in small dry specimens. Wood harsh and

slivery, inclined to split apart at growth rings;

* Traumatic resin ducts occur occasionally in the woods of various species

of Abies, of Tsuga helerophylla both species of Sequoia, and certain species of

,

Cedrus, but in no other genera of this group. Traumatic horizontal canals

have been reported only for certain species of Cedrus and some extinct species
of Sequoia (?) not included in this key.
f Small marginal ray traeheids are characteristic of Tsuga. No ray tra-
eheids have been observed in Taxodium, Tumion (Torreya), and Taxus.
Their more or less sporadic occurrence in Abies, Sequoia, Chamcecyparis,
Thuya, Juniperus, and (very rarely) Libocerlni.t has been noted by the author
or reported by others. (See W. P. Thompson, "Ray traeheids in Abies," Bot.
Gaz., 53. 4: 331-338; also Ruth Holden, "Ray traeheids in the Coniferales,"
Bot. Gaz., 55: 1: 56-65).
ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 81

brittle. Sp. gr. .33-.52, mostly between .40 and

.45. Contrast between seasonal growths very
pronounced; transition abrupt. Color light
buff with reddish-brown tinge. No resin ducts
or aggregates of resinous tracheids. (Eastern)
Hemlock, Tsuga canadensis Carr. (N).
b4 Odorless when dry; green wood slightly sour-
smelling. Wood
of rather uniform texture, not
particularly harsh and splintery, straight-
grained and fairly easy to work. Sp. gr. .30-. 57,
mostly between .40 and .50. Transition from
early wood to late wood rather gradual. Color
light, sometimes pinkish or reddish-brown.
Small black checks common. Aggregates of
resinous tracheids, somewhat resembling resin
ducts on cross section, fairly common; wound
ducts in peripheral rows occasionally present.
Western Hemlock, T. heterophylla Sarg. (P). 20
b 2
Resin cells numerous, visible under hand lens and
often collectively to unaided eye, particularly in sap-
wood; frequently zonate. Color of woods charac-
teristic. Distinct demarcation between heartwood
and sapwood.
a 3 Color varying from light cherry-red to purplish.
Texture rather coarse. Woods without odor or
taste. Wound ducts sometimes present in periph-
eral rows. Resin masses in wood parenchyma
strands appear under lens on longitudinal surface
as rows of black or amber beads. Rays biseriate in
part; occasionally with marginal or isolated ray tracheids;
lateral pits in ray parenchyma cells large and, in early
wood, horizontally elongated; no terminal pits. Bordered
pits in tracheids of early wood commonly paired.
Sequoias. 21
a4 Wood deeply colored, purplish or maroon.
Growth rings usually very narrow. Texture
uniform. Wood weak, brittle, and soft. Sp.
gr. .25-. 33. Giant Sequoia, Sequoia
Bigtree,
washingtoniana (Winsl.) Sudw., or S. gigantea
Dec. (P). 22
82 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

b 4 Wood less deeply colored, mostly light cherry-

red. Considerable variation in width of growth
rings. Wood variable from light, soft and uni-
form-textured to fairly heavy, hard, and show-
ing decided contrast between the two portions
of a growth ring. Resin masses more prominent
than in preceding. Sp. gr. .40-52, mostly be-
tween .40 and .45. Redwood, S. sempervirens
(Lamb.) Endl. (P). 23
b3 Color widely variable, yellowish, reddish, brown,
variegated, or almost black. Texture fine.
Smooth surface of denser specimens usually looks
and feels greasy or waxy, sometimes as though
heavily impregnated with parafnne. Odor some-
what rancid or wanting. Wood variable from very
soft and light to rather hard and heavy. Sp. gr.
.34-. 55, mostly between .40 and .50. No resin
masses visible under lens; under compound microscope
resin in wood parenchyma strands appears mostly in globu-
lar masses. Rays uniseriate, without tracheids; lateral pits
and obliquely elongated; no terminal pits.
in ray cells large
Bordered pits in tracheids of spring wood rather small and
often irregularly disposed or, near ends, arranged in pairs or
in horizontal rows of 3 or 4. Southern or Bald Cypress,*
24
Taxodium distichum Rich. (S).

b 1 Woods with aromatic odor. Cedar Group. 25

a 2 Color light clear yellow or slightly brownish, without
much distinction between heartwood and sapwood.
Late wood inconspicuous. Odor pronounced; pun-
gent. Taste unpleasantly spicy-resinous. Woods
varying from light and soft to moderately so. Tex-
ture fine, uniform. Sp. gr. .40-.54, average about .45.
Yellow Cedars.
* A varietal form, T. dislichum var. imbricarium Sarg., is recognized by

botanists but the wood is scarcely if at all distinguishable from the specific
form. Lumbermen refer to different grades of wood as yellow, red, white, or
black, sometimes in connection with the color, sometimes in reference to
buoyancy of the logs. Cypress lumber is often "pecky" or "peggy," that is,
filled with large fungous-galleries. The wood of the "knees" is extremely
light, soft, and uniform-textured and is used commercially for floats. The
tracheid walls are very thin, the cavities large, and the radial pits are con-
siderably smaller than those in stem wood.
ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 83

a8 Color very light. Texture very fine. Odor

moderately pronounced. Ray tracheids common in
low rays. Yellow Cedar, Yellow or Sitka Cypress,
Chameecyparis nootkatensis Spach. (P).
b 3 Color deep yellow, sometimes brownish. Texture
moderately fine. Odor very pronounced. Ray tra-
cheids rarely present. Port Orford Cedar, Lawson's
Cypress, Oregon Cedar, C. lawsoniana Pari. (P).
b 2 Color varying from light brown to purple, never
yellow. Late wood distinct; often conspicuous.
Odor variable, more or less pronounced, but not
pungent. Taste not unpleasant.
a3 Wood firm and compact, cutting smoothly across
the grain. Moderate contrast between seasonal
growths; transition gradual. Demarcation be-
tween heartwood and sapwood usually distinct.
Red Cedar Group.
4
a Color pale reddish-brown or roseate, uniform;
rays brown. Odor pronounced. Taste spicy.
Resin cells fairly numerous, zonate, mostly in
late wood; usually not visible with lens. Tex-
ture rather fine, uniform. Growth rings regu-
lar; late wood fairly conspicuous. Heartwood
often " pecky " as in Taxodium. Sp. gr.
.34-46, mostly between .35 and .40. Rays not
gummy; 1-8, mostly 3-5, cells high; ray tracheids absent.
Incense Cedar, Libocedrus decurrens Torr. (P). 26
b 4 Color purple or deep red, soon becoming dull
brown upon exposure to sunlight; often streaked
with white; rays deep red or purple. Odor and
taste characteristic but mild; not sweetish or
spicy. Resin cells very numerous, deeply colored,
mostly zonate (Plate II, Fig. 3) in concentric
lines visible with lens and often without it.
Rays gummy, 1-20 cells high, very irregular.
Texture very fine and uniform. Growth rings
often very irregular in width and outline, fre-
quently eccentric; summer wood not conspic-
uous, sometimes doubled or trebled. Wood
84 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

usually knotty except in very small sizes; never

" pecky." Sp. gr. .45-53, average about .49.
Ray tracheitis fairly common and (1) marginal, in which
case they are of irregular shape or upright, or (2) con-
stituting low rays entirely or in alternation with ray

parenchyma Juniper, Red or Pencil Cedar,

cells.

Junipcrus virginiana L. (N, C) Southern Red ;

27
Cedar, J. barbadensis L. (S).*

b3 Wood soft and more or less spongy.

a 4 Decided contrast between seasonal growths;

late thin but hard, early wood very soft;
wood
transition between the two portions of a growth
ring abrupt. Sp. gr. .34-. 42. Color varying
from various shades of brown to decidedly red-
dish; often streaked. Resin cells inconspicuous,
often zonate in widely separated growth rings.
Bordered pits usually in pairs near ends of tracheids in
early wood. Western Red Cedar, Giant Ar-
borvitse, Canoe Cedar, Shingle Cedar, Thuya
28
plicata Don., or T. gigantea Nutt. (P).

b 4 Moderate contrast between seasonal growths;

late wood rather soft; transition between the
two portions of a growth ring gradual. Color
pale brown or pinkish, never very dark; little
contrast between heartwood and sapwood.
Resin cells zonate or diffuse. Bordered pits in

tracheids rarely paired. White Cedar Group.

a 5 Color pale brown intermingling of lighter and
;

darker shades common. Resin cells rarely

visible with lens. Odor very mild. Wood
very soft and rather punky; brash. Growth
rings mostly narrow. Sp. gr. .28-.37, average
about .32. Arborvitae, Northern White Cedar,
T. occidentalis L. (N).

* There are a number

of western species of Juniperus but they are only of
local importance. Their woods resemble the eastern species but are mostly
harder and heavier, and the color of some of them is brown rather than deep
red or purple.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 85

b 5 Color light reddish-brown or pinkish. Con-

centric lines of resin cells visible with lens and
often without it. Odor more pronounced and
wood firmer and less brash than in preceding.
Growth rings mostly moderately wide. Sp.
gr. .30-45, mostly between .30 and .35.
White Cedar, Chamcecyparis thyoides (L.)
B. S. P., or C. sphceroidea Spach. (N, S).
b Tracheids with spirals. Wood parenchyma (resin cells) and ray

tracheids wholly absent. Taxacese.*

a1 Color reddish-brown to rose-red. Clear demarcation
between heartwood and sapwood. Woods without
odor.

a 2 Color bright orange to rose-red; thin sapwood pale

yellow. Wood uniform and very dense. Sp. gr.
.62-. 70. Tracheids very small, thick-walled.
(Western) Yew, Taxus brevifolia Nutt. (P).
b 2 Color brownish-red; thin sapwood nearly white.
Wood somewhat less dense. Sp. gr. .63. Tracheids
comparatively large and not so thick-walled as in preceding.
Florida Yew, T. floridana Nutt. (S).
1
b Color bright clear yellow, without pronounced demar-
cation between heartwood and sapwood. Wood with
characteristic odor. Sp. gr. .4-4-.60, mostly around
.50. California Nutmeg, Tumion californicum (Torr.)
Greene, or Torreya californica Torr. (Ps); Stinking
Cedar, Tumion taxifolium (Arn.) Greene, or Torreya
taxifolia Arn. (S).

II. Porous Woods: Dicotyledons, Hardwoods, Broad-

leaf Woods
Vessels present; varying in size from large and conspicuous to
minute. Woods comparatively heterogeneous, being composed
of several kinds of elements, mostly irregularly disposed. Growth
rings varying from very distinct in the ring-porous woods to in-
distinct in some of the diffuse-porous. Wood parenchyma
* The woods of the Taxaceae are of very limited commercial importance

because of their scarcity and small size.

86 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

present in variable amount; often conspicuous. Resin ducts

absent. Gum ducts sometimes present in a few species. Rays
varying from minute to large and conspicuous.
A Ring-porous Woods. Largest pores localized in a distinct
ring or band in early wood.* (For B, see p. 95.)

a Late wood with radial lines or patches (frequently

branched or fan-like) composed of small pores and paren-
chyma, usually lighter colored than remainder of wood;
also with parenchyma in fine concentric lines, distinct to
indistinct.! (For b, see p. 88.)

a1 Rays all very fine, inconspicuous.! Woods soft to

moderately hard; stiff but not strong; sp. gr. .45-. 59.

a 2 Pores in early wood few, small, nearly circular, open,

and rather widely separated in a single row. Color
of wood light brown or roseate. Odorless and taste-
less. Vessels without spirals; bordered pits circular, tending
to become scalariform in small vessels; perforations simple with
tendency to scalariform with few bars; pits into ray cells either

half-bordered or simple. Rays uniseriate (occasionally bise-

riate in median portion), 5-15 cells high; slightly heteroge-
neous. Western Chinquapin, Castanopsis chrysophylla
de C. (P).
b 2 Pores in early wood very numerous, large, mostly
oval or elliptical, open, and in a broad zone. Color
of wood brown; stains blue-black in contact with
iron when moist. Odor of fresh wood mild but dis-
tinct. Taste somewhat astringent due to tannin
content. (Microscopic features given in preceding apply
here.) Chestnut,§ Castanea detitata Borkh. (C, N). 29

* This feature may be obscure in very narrow growth rings where the pro-
portion of late wood is so reduced that the wood appears diffuse-porous.
t The visibility of wood parenchyma is usually increased by moistening
the smoothly cut end of the specimen.
t The distinctness of the rays refers to the cross section unless otherwise
stated.
§ The chinquapin chestnut (Caxlaiica pumila Mill.) is a small southern tree
of only local importance for fence posts and fuel. . The wood is mostly harder,
heavier and of slower growth than the other species. The structures of the
two woods are nearly identical.
 ;

ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 87

b1 Rays of two kinds: (1) large and conspicuous,* showing

as broad flakes on radial surface and as distinct lines
on the tangential; (2) very fine and inconspicuous,
mostly invisible without lens. (See Plate III, Fig. 1.)
Wood hard and heavy; usually very tough and strong;
sp. gr. .65-. 90. Odor of fresh wood characteristic.
(Microscopic features given above also apply here, except as to
size of rays.) Oak. | 30

a 2 Pores in latewood individually distinct under lens

and few enough to be readily counted; arranged
mostly in fairly definite radial rows (except in nar-
row growth rings). Pores in early wood usually
crowded in a broad zone and becoming gradually
smaller outward (occasional exceptions). All pores
usually open; sometimes partially or wholly filled
with tyloses. Ray lines on tangential surface usually
short (rarely exceeding 1 inch), and more or less in-
terrupted by wood fibers. Color of wood typically
pale reddish-brown, deeper near knots. Pores in late
wood are thick-walled and more or less circular in outline.
(Plate Fig. 6.)
II, Black and Red Oak Group.
Red Oak, Quercus rubra L. (C, N) Black or Yellow
;

Oak, Q. velutina Lam. (C, N); Spotted Oak, Q.

texana Buckl. (C, S) Spanish Oak or Southern Red
;

Oak, Q. digitata Sudw., or Q. falcata Michx. (S, C);

Scarlet Oak, Q. coccinea Muench. (C, N) Pin Oak, ;

Q. palustris Muench. (C) Black Jack, Q. marilandica

;

Muench. (C, S) California Black Oak, Q. californica

;

(Torr.) Coop. (P) Water Oak, Q. nigra L. (S, C)

;

Laurel Oak, Q. laurifolia Michx. (S) Shingle Oak,

;

Q. imbricaria Michx. (C, N) Willow Oak, Q. phellos

;

L. (S).

* Occasional specimens of branches or of rather small stems are found

which have few or no large rays. Oak wood is quite distinct, however, even

when this prominent feature is wanting.

f The author is of the opinion that the features so far recognized as con-
stant in the woods of the oaks will permit separation into general groups only.
Fortunately, this classification corresponds very closely to the technical
properties of the woods and this fact renders specific distinctions of much less
importance.
8S ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

b 2 Pores in late wood rarely individually distinct under

lens and not few enough to be readily counted; ar-
ranged in fan-shaped patches often joined tangen-
tially in outer portion. Pores in early wood in few
(1-3) rows, usually not crowded; transition to small
pores of summer wood abrupt;* usually closed with
tyloses except in outer sapwood.f Ray lines on
tangential surface often quite long (up to 5 inches)
narrow, and straight. Color of wood pale to medium
dark brown; not reddish. J Pores in late wood are thin-
walled and angular in White Oak Group. §
outline.
White Oak, Querent alba L. (C, N) (Frontispiece) 31 ;

Bur Oak, Q. macrocarpa Michx. (C, N) (Figs. 13, 14,

p. 42) Overcup Oak, Q. lyrata Walt. (C, S) Post
; ;

Oak, Q. minor Sarg., or Q. stellata Wang. (C; A, S);

Oregon Oak, Q. garryana Dougl. (P); Chestnut or
Rock Oak, Q. prinus L (N, C) 32 Chinquapin or ;

Yellow Chestnut Oak, Q. acuminata (Michx.) Houba,

or Q. muhlenbergii Eng. (C, S); Swamp White Oak,
Q. platanoides (Lam.) Sudw., or Q. bicolor Willd.
(X, C); Cow Oak or Southern Swamp White Oak,
Q. michuaxii Nutt. (S, C).
b Late wood without distinct radial lines or patches, but
with tangential or with dotted markings.
a 1 Pores in late wood very small, very numerous and
arranged in conspicuous tangential or concentric bands
or festoons, broken near early wood; usually producing
wavy or zig-zag markings on tangential surface. Wood
parenchyma not visible with lens.
a 2 Pores in early wood in few to several rows except
sometimes in narrow growth rings; open.

* In the white oaks of the South where the growth is rapid the transition

from large to small pores is often nearly as gradual as in the red oaks. The
pores in the summer wood are also larger and more distinct, but the fact that
they are too numerous to count readily with a lens and have thin walls and
angular outlines permits ready separation into the white oak class. A some-
what similar structure has been observed in Quercus garryana.
t In Q. prinus the pores are often open as in the black oak group.
t One finds occasional exceptions to this statement. Certain grades of
white oak are locally known as "pink oak" on account of the color.
§ For evergreen and live oaks which are diffuse-porous, see p. 98.
 ;

ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 89

a3 Rays very distinct. Color yellowish or gray. No

odor. Wood very coarse-textured; hard and
heavy; sp. gr. .65-.80. Rays heterogeneous. Vessels
with spirals; perforations simple; pits into ray cells half-
Hackberry, Celtis occidentalis L. (C, N, S)
bordered.
Sugarbeny, C. mississippiensis Bosc. (S).

b 3 Rays indistinct without dark or

lens. Color
chocolate-brown. Odor suggesting
some- licorice
times noticed. Wood coarse-textured, wooly;
straight-grained; hard and heavy; sp. gr. .65-. 80.
Rays homogeneous. Slippery
Otherwise as in preceding.
or Red Elm, Ulmus pubescens Walt., or U. fulva
Michx. (C, N, S).

b Pores in early wood mostly in a single row; occasion-

2

ally more in wide growth rings. Rays indistinct

without lens. Woods without odor. (Microscopic
features as in preceding.) Elm. 33
a 3 Pores in early wood rather large and distinct,
mostly open, forming a continuous row (Plate III,
Fig. 2), sometimes more than one row. Growth
rings often very uneven and widely variable in
thickness in different portions. Texture coarse
and wooly. Color light brown to gray or nearly
white. Wood very tough and difficult to split;
moderately hard and heavy; sp. gr. .60-. 75.
White Elm, U. americana L. (C, N). 34
b 3 Pores in early wood small to minute, mostly closed
with tyloses in heartwood; larger pores few and
rather widely separated in a band of small ones.
Growth rings fairly even and uniform. Texture
medium, not very wooly. Color light brown to
pinkish. Woods hard to very hard; heavy and
tough; sp gr. .70-. 85.

a Bands of small pores in late wood rather few,

4

narrower than intervening spaces. Growth

rings distinct. Wood straight-grained, fairly
easy to split. Rock or Hickory Elm, U.
racemosa Thom., or U. thomasi Sarg. (C, N). 35
90 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

b4 Bands of small pores in late wood numerous,

wider than intervening spaces, often very wavy
and branched. Growth rings not always dis-
tinct. Wood cross-grained, difficult to split.

Winged Elm, U. alata Michx. (S, C); Cedar

Elm, U. crassifolia Nutt. (S).

b 1
Pores in late wood variable in size from fairly large to
minute, clustered, associated with parenchyma which
often is confluent into tangential bands irregular and
•broken or more or less continuous in outer portion of
wide rings.
a2 Woods hard and heavy. Odorless. Color pro-
nounced. Tyloses present or absent. Rays fine
but distinct.
a 3 Tyloses present, light-colored; gum deposits absent
or only occasional.

a4 Wood decidedly variable in density but not

horn-like; sp. gr. .55-. 65. Color orange-yellow
to yellowish-brown, not uniform; becoming
russet-brown upon exposure. Pores only par-
tially filled with tyloses. Band of pores in early
wood varying from narrow to broad. Rays
very conspicuous on radial surface. Small ves-
sels with spirals; perforations simple; pits into ray cells

simple or half-bordered. Rays heterogeneous. Red

Mulberry, Morus rubra L, (C, S). (Plate V,
Fig. 1); "White Mulberry, M. alba L., (Int.).

b 4 Woods extremely hard, like horn; sp. gr. .77-. 84.

Color of freshly exposed wood mostly yellow
(see below) All pores of heartwood completely
.

filled with tyloses. Band of pores in early

wood narrow. Rays not conspicuous on radial
surface. Small vessels with spirals; perforations simple;
pits into ray cells simple or half-bordered. Rays more
or less heterogeneous, or with considerable irregularity
in the shape of the cells.

a 5 Color of freshly exposed wood golden yellow,

becoming orange-brown upon exposure to
sunlight; usually with rather distinct reddish
ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 91

streaks showing on longitudinal surface.

Lustre high. Very small pin knots due to
thorns common. Wood usually knotty and
cross-grained, without worm holes. Osage
Orange, Toxylon pomiferum Raf., or Madura
aurantiaca Nutt., (C, S). Plate III (Fig. 4). 36
b 5 Color varying from golden-yellow to brown,
often greenish in young trees; usually uni-
form in same specimen not striped with red.
;

Lustre not so high as in preceding; wood

mostly straighter-grained and freer from
knots. Large worm holes common. Black
or Yellow Locust, Robinia pseudacacia L.
37
(C, A). Plate III (Fig. 3).

b 3 Tyloses absent or rare, not light-colored; dark-

colored gum deposits present.
a* Wood parenchyma conspicuous in numerous
very irregular tangential bands which include
the pores. Pores in late wood varying in size
from minute to as large sometimes as in early
wood; arrangement very irregular. Dark red
gum deposits in vessels conspicuous, showing as
dark wavy lines on tangential surface. Wood
dull mahogany color; thin sapwood greenish
yellow. Sp. gr. .77. Vessels without spirals; per-
forations simple; pits into ray cells half-bordered. Rays
homogeneous. Mesquite or Algaroba, Prosopis
juliflora (Schwartz) de C. (Rs). 38
b4 Wood parenchyma mostly in patches about the
pores in late wood, sometimes confluent in
outer portion. Pores in outer portion of growth
ring all very small; distribution fairly regular.
Gum deposits usually inconspicuous. Sp. gr.
.67-.70. Small vessels with spirals; perforations simple;
pits into ray cells half-bordered. Rays mostly homoge-
neous.

a 5 Pores in outer portion of late wood usually

in groups of 5-20; individual pores visible
under lens. Sapwood thin. Texture very
 f

92 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

coarse. Color light cherry-red to reddish-

brown. No small pin knots due to thorns.
Kentucky Coffee Tree,* Gymnocladus dioicus
Koch, or G. canadensis Lam. (C). (Plate III,
Fig. 5.)
b 5 Pores in outer portion of late wood minute
and usually in groups of 10-25; individual
pores mostly invisible under lens. Sapwood
thick. Texture moderately coarse. Color
as above. Small pin knots due to thorns
common. Honey or Sweet Locust, Thorn
Tree, Gleditsia triacanthos L. (C, S). (Plate
III, Fig. 6.)

b 2 Woods light and soft. Odor characteristic. Color

not pronounced; mostly light brown. Tyloses
present.
a3 Rays fine but very distinct. Odor aromatic or
spicy,usually pronounced. Color light orange-
brown. Texture coarse. Sp. gr. about 50. Vessels
without spirals; perforations simple; pits into ray cells half-

bordered or simple. Rays heterogeneous (Fig. 3, A, p.

24). Sassafras, Sassafras variifolium (Salisb.)
Ktze., or S. sassafras Karst. (S, C). 39
b 3 Rays indistinct without lens. Odor mild, some-
what suggesting kerosene. Color light brown to
chestnut, appearing somewhat bluish on ends of
specimen. Texture rather fine. Wood lighter
and softer than preceding; sp. gr. 40-45. Small
vessels with spirals; all perforations simple; pits into ray
cells Rays heterogeneous. Com-
half-bordered or simple.
mon Catalpa or Indian Bean, Catalpa bignoniodes
Walt., or C. catalpa (L.) Karst. (C, S); Hardy
Catalpa, C. speciosa Ward. (C). 40
b Pores in late wood few, solitary, or sub-divided radially
into 2-4. Woods odorless and tasteless.
*This tree is sometimes called "mahogany" in eastern U. S.
tIn this group of woods, which includes ash, persimmon and hickory, the
sapwood, which is wide and white is more commonly employed than the heart-
wood for such purposes as implement stock (ash), tool handles and wheel stock
(hickory), and shuttles (persimmon).
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 93

a1 Wood parenchyma about pores in late wood and often

extending wing-like from them; may become confluent
into irregular tangential or concentric lines, especially
near outer margin of wide growth rings; parenchyma
also terminal. Pores in late wood all much smaller
than those in early wood the latter usually in a rather
;

broad zone, 3-10 pores wide (rarely 1-2). Rays

scarcely distinct without lens. Vessels without spirals;
perforations simple; pits into ray cells half -bordered. Rays homo-
geneous. Terminal parenchyma thick-walled, abundantly and
irregularly pitted. Ash.* 41
a 2 Pores in late wood rarely joined by wood paren-
chyma. Wood of medium hardness and strength.

a 3 Pores in late wood isolated, few, large; in early

wood in very broad zone, often over one-half
width of ring. Wood comparatively light and
soft; sp. gr. .47. Color decidedly brown. Ray
cells small. Black or Brown Ash. F. nigra Marsh.
(C, N) (Plate V, Fig. 2).

b 3 Pores in late wood in radial groups of 2-5, and near

outer margin of growth ring somewhat tangen-
tially grouped; in early wood in zone of medium
width, usually less than one-third of ring. Color
light brown, often with reddish tinge. Wood
moderately hard and strong. Sp. gr. .57. Ray
Oregon Ash, F. oregona Nutt. (P).
cells large.

b 2 Poresin late wood usually joined tangentially by

wood parenchyma. Wood mostly very hard and
strong, sp. gr. .63-72. Color gray-brown, often
with reddish tinge; sapwood white.

a 3 Pores in early wood in rather broad zone; nu-

merous.

* The determination of the ash woods is often difficult or impossible.

specific
Lumbermen usually recognize two kinds, namely, white and brown. These
two unequal groups are readily distinguishable by their gross features. Some
of the wood from southern swamp-grown trees has the structure of white ash
but is very light, soft and brash; sp. gr. .38. It is sometimes called "punk
ash" or "soft ash."
94 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

a 4 Lines of pores in late wood short, narrow, com-

posed of few pores and considerable wood paren-
chyma; mostly near outer margin of growth
ring; occasionally absent or very indistinct in
narrow rings. White Ash, Fraxinus americana
L. (C, N). 42

b 4 Lines of pores in late wood long, narrow, promi-

nent, composed of abundant wood parenchyma
and inconspicuous pores; usually well distrib-
uted. Blue Ash, F. quadrangulata Michx. (C);
Red Ash, F. pennsylvanica Marsh. (N).
b 3 Pores in early wood in rather narrow zone; fairly
numerous. Lines of pores in late wood quite
long and conspicuous; well distributed. Green
Ash, F. lanceolata Borh. (C, N, S); Pumpkin
Ash, F. profunda Bush. (C).

b 1
Wood parenchyma in numerous fine concentric lines
independent of pores. Pores in late wood sometimes
approaching in size those in early wood which are not
abundant and usually arranged in a very irregular zone.
a 2 "Ripple marks" (see p. 39) plainly visible on tan-
gential section; wavy; 60 to 80 per inch. Lines of
wood parenchyma indistinct without lens; finer
than the rays. Pores open. Color of heartwood
of old trees dark brown to black, often streaked;
sapwood white or gray. Wood very hard, heavy
and strong; sp. gr. .79. Rays in horizontal seriation;
fairly uniform in height; 1-2 (rarely 3) cells wide; cells
large; heterogeneous. (Plate IV, Figs. 4, 5.) Vessels without
spirals; perforations simple; pits into ray cells half-bordered.

Persimmon, Diospyros virginiana L. (S, C). 43

b 2 " Ripple marks " absent. Lines of wood parenchyma

distinct asthe rays; visible without lens. Pores
partially or wholly closed with tyloses. Color of heart-
wood brown to reddish-brown sapwood white, often
;

with pinkish tinge and. sometimes with dark reddish

or rusty streaks. Rays irregularly disposed; not
uniform in height or shape; 1-5 cells wide; cells small;
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 95

somewhat heterogeneous. (Plate IV, Fig. 3.) Vessels without

spirals; perforations simple; pits into ray cells simple or half-
bordered. Hickory.* 44
a3 Wood very hard, heavy (sp. gr. .80-85), tough,
Strong, resilient. Wood fibres normally very thiek-
walled.f Shagbark, Hicoria ovata Brit. (C, N)
(Plate IV, Fig. 3) Big Shellbark,
; H
laciniosa Sarg. .

(C); Mocker Nut, H. alba Brit. (C, N, S); Pignut,

H. glabra Brit. (C, N, S).
b 3 Wood hard, heavy (sp. gr. .70-.75), brittle, fairly
strong. Wood fibres comparatively thin-walled. Pecan
H. pecan Brit. (S, C) Nutmeg Hickory, H. myris-
;

ticasformis Brit. (S); Bitternut, H. minima Brit.

(C, N, S); Water Hickory, H. aquatica Brit. (S).f

B Diffuse-porous Woods. Pores fairly uniform in size and dis-

tribution throughout growth ring; occasionally more numerous
and very often somewhat larger in early wood, but without
forming a distinct ring or band.
a Pores variable from large to small, all or at least a portion
of them readily visible to the unaided eye; comparatively
few to numerous. Large vessels very distinct on longi-
tudinal surface. Woods (except Juglans cinerea) moder-
ately to extremely dense. (For b, see p. 99.)
a1 All rays fine. Pores not in continuous radial lines.
(For b see p. 98.)
1
,

a 2 Pores comparatively large in early wood, diminishing

in size toward outer margin of growth ring; some-
times approaching ring-porous. Growth rings dis-
tinct. Vessels without spirals; perforations simple.

a 3
Wood parenchyma in numerous very fine concen-
independent of pores. Pores often in
tric lines,
echelon arrangement; solitary or in radial groups

* Specific distinction within the two groups of hickory woods is ordinarily

not possible. The commercial names "red hickory" and "white hickory"
refer to heartwood and sapwood, respectively. By "second-growth hickory"
is meant wide-ringed wood and particularly the sapwood.
Occasional exceptions to this general rule have been noted.
t
is so nearly diffuse-porous that it can usually be dis-
X Hicoria aquatica
tinguished from the other species.
96 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

of 2-5; tyloses present. Color brown or purplish;

never yellow. Rays fine,scarcely visible to un-
aided eye; 1—1 seriate, few to 30 cells high; mostly homo-
geneous. Pits between vessels and ray cells mostly simple.
Growth rings terminated by narrow band of very thick-
walled, flattened wood fibres. Walnut. 45
a4 Wood gr., .60-70.
rather dense; sp. Odor mild
but characteristic. Color rich dark or chocolate-
brown or purplish; sometimes variegated. Sap-
wood usually rather wide. Wood parenchyma with
abundant crystals. Ray cells circular (tangential section).

Black Walnut, Juglans nigra L. (C, A) (Plate

IV, Fig. 6); California Walnut, J. calif ornica
Wats. (Ps).*
b 4 Wood light and soft; sp. gr. .35-45. Odorless.
Color light chestnut brown with darker zones.
Sapwood very thin. Crystals absent. Ray cells
small and compressed laterally. Butternut, White
Walnut, J. cinerea L. (C, N).

b3 Wood parenchyma about pores and, in late wood,

joining groups of pores into irregular tangential
lines. Pores irregularly disposed; solitary or in
short radial groups. Tyloses absent. Color yel-
low. Wooddense; sp. gr. .60-70. Rays fine, 1-6,
mostly 3-4, wide and few to 40 cells high; mostly
cells

heterogeneous. Pits between vessels and ray cells half-

bordered. Terminal fibres flattened but not thicker-walled
than others. Yellow-wood, Cladrastis lutea (Michx.
f.) Koch. (Sc).

b 2 Pores of approximately same size throughout growth

ring; no tendency to become ring-porous. Growth
rings not always distinct.

a3 Wood parenchyma in tangential lines. "Ripple

marks" present or absent. Pores resinous or
gummy.

*
In the Yale collection is a board of Juglans cnlifornica in which the late
wood is much lighter in color and the fibres much thinner-walled than in early
wood.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OP THE UNITED STATES 97

a4 Wood parenchyma conspicuous in few widely

separated apparently terminating growth
lines,
rings; also about pores. "Ripple marks," when
present, readily visible to unaided eye; about
50 per inch. Rays fine but distinct. Pores
rather large, uniform in size and distribution,
solitary or in radial groups of 2-3; often filled
with dark red gum or with white deposits.
Gum ducts occasionally present in peripheral
row. Native wood hard and heavy; sp. gr. .73;
color rich reddish brown; often highly figured.*
Vessels without spirals; perforations simple; pits into
ray cells half-bordered. Rays 1-4 cells wide, few to 20
or more cells high; heterogeneous. Wood fibres often
finely septate; pits simple. Mahogany, Swietenia
46
mahagoni Jacq. (T).

b4 Wood parenchyma in numerous fine, wavy

lines. "Ripple marks" always present, uni-
form, invisible to unaided eye but distinct with
lens; about 250 per inch. Rays very fine, in-
distinct. Pores not large but distinct, variable
in size and distribution; solitary or in radial
groups of 2-3. Color dark yellowish brown
with greenish tinge, not uniform; becomes very
dark and oily in old trees. Wood with inter-
locked or criss-cross grain; extremely dense; sp.
gr. 1.14. Vessels without spirals; perforations simple;
pits into ray cells small, half-bordered. Rays uniseriate;
homogeneous; arranged in horizontal seriation. Wood
fibres not septate; pits bordered. Lignum-vitse, Guai-
acum sanctum L. (T).

* The true mahogany is native to a region extending from the extreme

southern part of Florida to the West Indies, and along the Gulf Coast in Mexico
from Tampico through Central America into the northern part of South
America. There is a wide variation in the properties of the wood from differ-
ent localities. That from Florida is like the hardest and heaviest of the West
Indian grades. Mexican mahogany is the most variable in quality, some of
it being light, soft and porous like Spanish cedar. There are many other
woods which appear on the market as mahogany. See Mell's "True Mahog-
any," Bui. No. 474, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1917.
98 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

b 3 Wood parenchyma about pores; not in tangential

lines. No "ripple marks." Pores not resinous
or gummy.
a4 Wood extremely dense; sp. gr. .83; fibres much
interlaced. Alternate bands of wood varying
in density and direction of fibre common, but
growth rings not sharply defined. Pores con-
spicuous, irregularly distributed, often in diag-
onal chains which may be zig-zag; tyloses
present. Rays very fine, indistinct. Vessels
without spirals; perforations simple; pits into ray cells

half-bordered or simple. Rays 1-2, occasionally more,

cells wide and 1-25 cells high; somewhat heteroge-

neous. Blue Gum, Eucalyptus globulus Lab. (Int.,

Ps, T). 47
b Wood moderately dense, sp. gr. .65; grain vari-
4

able from straight to wavy. Growth rings dis-

tinct, due to denser band of late wood. Pores
rather small, mostly in radial groups of 2-6,
fairly uniformly distributed; tyloses absent.
Rays fine but distinct. Vessels without spirals;
perforations simple; pits into ray cells half-bordered or
simple. Rays 2-3 seriate, few to 25 cells high; mostly

homogeneous. California Laurel, Pepperwood,

Umbellaria californica (H. & A.) Nutt. (P).
b1 Some of the rays usually
very broad.* Pores some-
what variable in size but distinct; arranged in radial
lines or bands between broad rays, extending across
the growth ring and often continuous from one ring to
another. Wood parenchyma commonly in concentric
lines as well as about pores, frequently conspicuous.
Wood very dense; sp. gr. .85-.95. Color light to dark
brown, sometimes tinged with red. Evergreen and
Live Oak Group. 48 Quercus virginiana Mill. (8); Q.
agrifolia Nee. (Ps); Q. chrysolepis Liebm. (Ps.); Q.
wislizeni A. de C. (Ps); Tanbark Oak, Q. densiflora
H. & A., or Pasania densiflora Oerst. (P). 49

* It is not uncommon to find specimens of the woods of this group without

broad rays, though in such cases there is a tendency to aggregation of the uni-
seriate rays.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 99

b Pores small to minute,* often indistinct without lens

(especially in dense woods), mostly very numerous and
well distributed throughout growth ring. Vessels not
conspicuous.
a1 Woods dense to moderately so.f Rays variable from
fine to broad. (For b 1 , see p. 105.)
a 2 Pores in radial lines, not crowded laterally. Wood
parenchyma in tangential lines.

a 3 Lines of wood parenchyma visible with lens on

moist cross section. Pores in early wood visible
to unaided eye. Wood dense, difficult to split.
Vessels with spirals; perforations simple; pits into ray cells
simple or nearly so. Wood fibres without spirals; pits
bordered.

a4 Rays all very fine, indistinct. Pores near pe-

riphery of growth ring minute and in groups
which appear to the unaided eye as white dots.
Growth rings sometimes sinuous; distinct.
Color light brown or roseate. Sp. gr. .83. Rays
heterogeneous in part. Hop Hornbeam, Ironwood,
Ostrya virginiana Koch. (N, C) (Plate V, Fig. 6).

b 4 Some of the rays broad, aggregated. Pores in

late wood sometimes as in preceding. Growth
rings always sinuous; distinct or fairly so.
Color yellowish white. Sp. gr. .73. Rays homo-
geneous. Blue Beech, Water Beech, or Horn-
beam, Carpinus caroliniana Walt. (N, C). 60
b 3 Lines of wood parenchyma not visible with lens.
Pores not visible without hand lens; arranged in
regular radial lines; no white dots. Rays distinct.
Growth rings regular; rather indistinct. Wood
moderately dense; sp. gr. .51-. 66, average .58;
fairly easy to split. Color chalky white, often

* In a few woods of this group, particularly cottonwood and black willow,

the pores, at least in early wood, are readily visible, but their abundance and
the softness of the wood permit no confusion with the preceding group.
t A partial exception occurs in the case of Nyssa, some of the species of
which produce light and soft woods.
100 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

bluish. Vessels with spirals; perforations sealariform with

many bars; pits into ray cells half -bordered. Wood fibres

with spirals; pits bordered. Rays heterogeneous; of two

kinds: (1) Large (3-6 cells wide and up to 80 cells high)
with all except marginal cells uniformly low; (2) fine (mostly
uniseriate and few to many cells high) with all cells large.
Holly, Ilex opaca Ait. (S, C).

b 2 Pores not in radial lines although often in short

radial groups; frequently crowded. Wood paren-
chyma sometimes in tangential lines but not visible
with lens, except indistinctly in Cornus and occasion-
ally in Fagus.

a 3 Ravs quite distinct to unaided eye. (For b 3 see

,

p. 103.)

a 4 Conspicuously broad rays present; not aggre-

gated.
a 5 Rays nearly all broad, numerous; fairly regu-
larly disposed and conspicuous on tangential
surface; of deeper color than surrounding
tissue,producing very distinct "silver grain "
on radial or "quarter-sawed" surface. Wood
parenchyma in irregular tangential rows
but not visible with lens. Pores crowded.
Woods fairly dense, usually cross-grained,
splitting irregularly; sp. gr. Color .47-. 57.
light brown, often striped. Late wood thin,
of lighter color than the early wood. Vessels
without spirals; perforations mostly simple but often
sealariform with few bars; bordered pits sometimes
sealariform; pits into ray cells half -bordered. Rays
homogeneous. Wood fibres with bordered pits.

Sycamore or Buttonball, Platanus occidentalis

L. (C, N, S); P. racemosa Nutt. (Ps); P
wrightii Wats. (Es). 61
b 5 Only a portion broad variable, irregu-
of rays ;

larly distributed; visible on tan-

readily
gential surface; intermediate rays very fine.
Color of rays not pronounced, hence "silver
grain " less conspicuous than in preceding
ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 101

Wood parenchyma in tangential rows, occa-

sionally visible with lens. Pores crowded.
Wood dense; usually straight-grained; sp. gr.
.63-.80, average .69. Color reddish brown to
nearly white; uniform. Late wood rather
thick, of darker color than the spring wood.
Vessels without spirals; large perforations simple, small
ones often soalariform; pits into ray cells half-bordered
or simple.Rays heterogeneous. Wood fibres with
bordered pits. Beech, Fagus americana Sw., or
F. grandifolia Ehr. (C, N, S). 52

b4 Xo conspicuously broad rays present.

a5 Wood parenchyma in somewhat broken tan-

gential lines, faintly visible in part with lens
on moist cross section. Rays light red or
pink in color, very distinct. Color roseate
to reddish-brown, sometimes with greenish
hue. Wood very heavy, hard and tough.
Vessels without spirals; perforations soalariform with
many bars; bordered pits often soalariform; pits into
ray cells half-bordered. Rays heterogeneous. Wood
fibres with slit-like pits with distinct borders.

a6 Wood very dense, sp. gr. .76-. 89, average

.82. Rays 1-7 cells wide, few to 80 cells high.
Flowering Dogwood, Cornus florida L.
(N, C, S).

b 6 Wood dense; sp. gr. .75. Rays 1-4 cells wide,

few to 40 cells high. (Western) Dogwood.
Cornus nuttallii Aud. (P.)

b5 Wood parenchyma not in tangential lines.

Vessels with spirals; perforations simple; pits not
scalariform; pits into ray cells half-bordered.

a 6 Color rich reddish-brown or vinous. Rays

on radial surface appear considerably
lighter than background. Pores numerous,
solitary or in groups, often radial, of 2-6;
usually more abundant and larger in early
wood but with gradual transition. Vessels
102 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

plugged at intervals with dark red gum.

Gum ducts common. Wood variable in
density; sp. gr. .48-71, average .58. Rays
mostly 3-5 cells wide, occasionally uniseriate, and
few to 100 cells high; somewhat heterogeneous.
Wood fibres with bordered pits. Black Cherry,
Prunus serotina Ehrh. (C, N, S).
b 6 Color variable from very light to decidedly
reddish. Rays on radial surface appear
considerably darker than background;
variable in size. Pores not crowded, fairly
evenly distributed; solitary or in radial
groups of 2-3; fairly uniform in size
throughout growth ring. Grain often
curly, "landscape," or "birds-eye." Rays
homogeneous. Wood fibres with bordered to simple
pits. Maple.* 53
a7 Part of the rays comparatively large,
broader than the pores, conspicuous.
Pith flecks rare. Growth rings very dis-
tinct on account of deeper-colored late
wood. Wood dense; ave. sp. gr. .69. Rays
5-7 cells wide with intermediate rays uniseriate.

Hard, Sugar, or Rock Maple, Acer sac-

charum Marsh. (N, C.) 54 Black Maple, ;

A. nigrum Michx. (N, C).

b 7 With less variation in the size of the rays,
the large ones not so broad as the pores;
low, inconspicuous. Growth rings often
indistinct. Woods variable from soft to
moderately hard. Uniseriate rays few.
8
a Color deep and rich. Pith flecks un-
common. Sp. gr. .49. Oregon Maple,
A. macrophyllum. (P).

* Boxelder or ash-leaved maple, Acer negundo L., or Negundo aceroides

Moench. (N, C, S, R), and varietal form, californicum (T.
its G.) Sarg. (Ps),&
produce rather light (sp. gr. .43), soft woods, cream-colored or yellowish white.
The pores are small and numerous; often in radial groups of 2-6. Rays are
without color.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 103

b 8 Color pale, often with greenish tinge.

Pith flecks very common, often abund-
ant. Sp. gr. .62. Soft or Red Maple,
A. rubrum L. (N, C, S); Silver Maple,
A. saccharinum L. (N, C, S).
b3 Rays indistinct without lens.
a4 Wood mostly straight-grained, easy to split.
Growth rings usually distinct. Wood paren-
chyma scattered, sometimes in broken tangen-
tial lines in outer late wood and in a single
terminal layer usually visible as a faint white
line. Vessels without spirals; densely pitted with ex-
tremely small bordered pits with slit-like openings; perfora-
tions scalariform; pits into ray cells half -bordered. Rays
1-5 cells wide; homogeneous. Wood fibres with bordered
pits. Birch. 55
a 5
Wood mostly heavy, hard and strong. Color
brown tinged with red, sometimes deeply
reddish; often figured. Pith flecks rare.
a6 Specific gravity .69-. 82, average .76. Rays
widest of genus, bluntly tapering; cells round
(tangential section). Sweet, Black or Cherry
Birch, Betula lenta L. (S, C, N).*
b 6 Specific gravity .58-.72, average .66. Rays
narrower, cells flattened laterally (tangential sec-
tion). Yellow Birch, B. lutea Michx. f.

(N, C).
b5 Wood considerably less dense than in pre-
ceding group; sp. gr. average .58-60. Color-
less or light brown. Pith flecks common.
a6 Pores rather large, readily visible to unaided
eye. Wood rather coarse-textured; some-
times cross-grained. Sp. gr. .55-. 60. River
or Redf Birch, B. nigra L. (S, C, N).

* The woods of Betula lenta and B. lutea appear on the market together

without distinction as to species, and have identical uses. The former is some-
what harder and stronger as a rule.
t The names "red birch" and "white birch" are often used commercially
to designate the heartwood and sapwood, respectively, of Betula lenta and B.
lutea.
104 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

b e Pores very small, indistinct to unaided eye.

Woods fine-textured and straight-grained;
lighter-colored than preceding. Sp. gr. .46-
.64. Paper, White * or Canoe Birch, B.
papyri/era Marsh. (N, Rn, Pn) 66 Gray ;

Birch, B. popuhfolia Marsh. (N).

b4 Woods mostly cross-grained, tough to split.

Growth rings usually indistinct. Wood paren-

chyma scattered, not in tangential lines or terminal.

a 5
Wood very dense; sp. gr. about .75. Color
reddish-brown or roseate; sapwood yellowish.f
Pores minute, well distributed, very numer-
ous. Vessels without spirals; bordered pits round;
perforations simple; pits into ray cells half-bordered.
Rays 3-4 cells wide; homogeneous. Wood fibres with
numerous large bordered pits. Apple, Pyrus malus
L. (Int.) 57

b 5 Woods variable in density. The denser ones

colorless or light brown. Grain more inter-
locked than preceding. Rays 1-5 cells wide;
heterogeneous. Vessels mostly without spirals; sca-
lariform bordered pits common; perforations sca-

lariform with many bars. Pits in wood fibres not

conspicuous.

a 6 Color reddish-brown, often with irregular

dark streaks producing "watered " effect on
smooth longitudinal surface; sapwood often
variegated. Lustre rather dull. Pores
minute, abundant, uniformly distributed;
tyloses present. Gum ducts occasionally
present in peripheral row. Wood mod-
erately hard to rather soft; inclined to
warp; sp. gr. .50-. 60. Vessels without spirals
except indistinctly on overlapping ends of seg-

* The names "red birch" and "white birch'' are often used commercially
to designate the heartwood and sapwood, respectively, of Belula lento, or B.

lutea.
t In the use of applewood for handles it is customary to steam the sapwood.
This treatment produces a rich uniform color resembling that of black cherry.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 105

ments; pits into ray cells simple or half-bordered;

no "resin plates.'' Rays 1-2 cells wide, few to
30 cells high; containing Red dark gum. or
Sweet Gum, Gumwood, " Hazel," Li-
quidambar styraciflua L. (S, C). (Plate VI,
58
Fig. I.)

b 6 Color brown to nearly white, fairly uniform.

Lustre high. Pores variable in size and
abundance in different species; tyloses ab-
sent. Gum ducts absent. Light-colored trans-
verse "resin plates" usually present in vessels and
fibres of heartwood.* Vessels wholly without spirals.

a 7
Wood usually rather dense, tough and
strong; sp. gr. .56-.75, average .64.
Pores minute, not crowded. Black or
Sour Gum, Pepperidge, Nyssa sylvatica
Marsh. (C, N, S).
b7 Wood rather light and soft; tough but
not strong; sp. gr. .40-56, average about
.50. Pores small, crowded. Tupelo, Bay
Poplar, N. aquatica L. (S, C) N. bifiora ;

Walt. (S). 59
b1 Woods mostly light and soft. Rays fme.f
a 2
Rays distinct to unaided eye.

a3 Growth rings terminated by distinct light-colored

line of parenchyma; no parenchyma lines within
growth ring. No "ripple marks" on wood.
Vessels as below; tyloses few, thin-walled, incon-
spicuous. Woods soft but firm, occasional speci-
mens rather hard; straight-grained, as a rule.
Rays fairly uniform for each species; heterogeneous
(marginal cells square or upright); cell walls very thick,
abundantly and irregularly pitted; pits into vessels often in
groups with common border. Terminal parenchyma in 2-3
rows; cells thick-walled and very irregularly pitted (tangen-
tial section).

*
See author's "Significance of Resinous Tracheids," Botanical Gazette,
66 : 61-67, (July 1918).
1 :

f A partial exception occurs in Alnus where aggregate rays are often found.
106 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES
t

a4 Pores rarely in radial groups. Color widely

variable, depending upon age of tree and locality
of growth, from clear yellow to green, brown or
purplish; sapwood often variegated or striped,
light gray or nearly white. Curly and mottled
grain not uncommon. Sp. gr. .38-.48, average
.42. Vessels with round or elliptical bordered pits in
rows, sometimes scalariform in part; without spirals;

perforations scalariform with few bars. Rays mostly

3-seriate, few to 60, mostly 20-40, cells high. Poplar,
Yellow Poplar, Tulip-tree, Whitewood. Lirio-
dendron tulipifera L. (C, N). (Plate VI, Figs.
60
2, 4).
4
b Pores often in radial groups of 3-8. Vessels with
scalariform bordered pits (Plate VI, Fig. 3); spirals in-

distinct.

a 5 Color mostly yellow or greenish; often closely

resembling Liriodendron. Sp. gr. .42-. 54,
average .47. Vessel perforations usually simple.
Rays homogeneous; mostly 2-seriate and 10-15 cells
high. Cucumber Tree, Magnolia acuminata
L. (C, A).
b 5 Color light brown. Sp. gr. about .50. Vessel
perforations scalariform with few bars. Rays hete-
rogeneous; 2-4 cells wide, mostly 50-100 cells high.
White or Sweet Bay, M. glauca L. (S).
b Wood parenchyma not visible with
3
lens. Wood
elements, except rays, in storied arrangement,
producing somewhat indistinct "ripple marks " on
tangential surface; 55-60 per inch. Wood light,
soft, compact, moderately strong; sp. gr. .38-. 52,
mostly between .40-45. Color light brown to
creamy white. Rays of two general sizes: (1) uniseriate
and 10-15 cells high; (2) 3-5 cells wide and 50-100 cells

high; mostly homogeneous. Vessels with spirals; tyloses

absent; perforations simple; bordered pits not scalariform;
pits into ray cells small, half-bordered. Wood parenchyma
in numerous fine tangential lines. BassWOOd, Lin, Tilia
americana L. (N, C); T. pubescens Ait. (S, C);
T. heterophylla Vent. (A, C, S). 61
ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 107

b 2 Raysindistinct to unaided eye and often with lens,

except for occasional aggregate rays in Alnus oregona.
a3 Rays fairly distinct with lens.

a 4
Wood of very fine texture.Pores minute, in-
visible without lens, very uniformly distributed.
Color pale yellow to nearly white. Lustrous.
Growth rings terminated by fine line of wood
parenchyma. Pith flecks absent. Wood light,
soft, compact, tough, often with curly or inter-
locked grain; sp. gr. .42-.50. Vessels with spirals;
perforations simple; pits into ray cells half-bordered;
often grouped. (Fig. 3, C, p. 24). Rays all uniseriate;
heterogeneous.

a 5 "Ripple marks" distinct on tangential sur-

face; fairly regular; 65-70 per inch; all ele-
ments storied. Yellow Buckeye, JEsculus
octandra Marsh. (C). 62
b 5 "Ripple marks" absent or local; very irreg-
ular. Ohio Buckeye, A. glabra Willd. (C).
(Plate VI, Figs. 5, 6); California Buckeye, A.
californica Nutt, (Ps).
b4 Wood of only moderately fine texture. Pores
barely visible to unaided eye; somewhat larger
and more numerous in early wood; often in
short radial groups. Color light brown tinged
with red; surface of freshly cut sapwood soon
stained greenish-brown upon exposure. Lustre
dull. Pith flecks common. "Ripple marks"
absent except possibly over small areas. Wood
light, firm, moderately strong; sp. gr. about .48.
Growth rings not terminated by parenchyma.
Broad rays occasionally present, being aggre-
gates of small rays. (Plate V, Figs. 3, 4).
Ordinary rays 1-2 cells wide; homogeneous. Vessels
without spirals; perforations scalariform, few to many
bars; pits into ray cells Wood paren-
half-bordered.

chyma scanty, diffuse. Red Alder, Alnus oregona

63
Nutt., or A. rubra Bong. (P).
b3 Rays indistinct even under lens.
108 ECONOMIC WOODS OP THE UNITED STATES

a4 Color of wood reddish-brown, usually variable.

Lustre dull. Texture coarse. Pores very
abundant, readily visible to unaided eye; smaller
in late wood and sometimes in irregular tan-
gential arrangement in wide growth rings.
Wood light and soft but fairly tough; sp. gr. .41-
.47. Wood parenchyma terminal in 1-2 rows, usually
invisible with lens. Vessels without spirals; perforations
simple; pits into ray cells simple. Rays uniseriate; het-
erogeneous. Black Willow, " Brown Cotton-
wood," Salix nigra Marsh. (C, N, S, Es, Ps). 64

b 4 Color pale brown, grayish or white. Woods

very light and soft. Growth ring terminated by
fine light-colored line of parenchyma, more or
less distinct. Vessels without spirals; perforations
simple; pits into ray cells simple. Rays uniseriate;
homogeneous.

a 5 Texture rather coarse and wooly. Lustre

dull. Pores abundant, visible without lens,
smaller in late wood and sometimes in irregu-
lar tangential arrangement in wide growth
rings. Sp. gr. .32-. 48, average about .40.
Poplar, Cottonwood, Populus deltoides Marsh.
(N, C, S, R) 65 P hetero-phylla L.
; (S, C); P.
trichocarpa T. J. G. (P).

b 5 Texture very fine and silky. Lustre high.

Pores abundant, usually invisible without
lens; fairly uniform in size and arrangement.
Sp. gr. .36-51, mostly .40-45. Aspen, Pop-
lar, Popple, P. tremuloides Michx. (N, C, R,
P); P. grandidentata Michx. (N, C). 66
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 109

REFERENCES
1
Pine:
Bailey, Irving W. The Structure of the Wood in the Pineae. Bot. Gaz.,
:

48:1:47-55, July 1909.

Bailey, Irving W.: Anatomical Characters in the Evolution of Pinus.
Am. Nat., 44: 284-293, May 1910.
Hall, William L., and Maxwell, Hu: Uses of the Commercial Woods
of the United States, II. Pines. Bui. 99, U. S. Forest Service, 1911.
Burgerstein, Alfred Vergleichende anatomische Untersuchungen des
:

Fichten- und Larchenholzes. Denkschrift f kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. Math.-

.

Natur. Classe, 59: 6: 214-215, 1894.

*White Pine Group:

Rockwell, F. I.: The White Pines of Montana and Idaho: Their Distri-
bution, Quality and Uses. For. Quarterly, 9: 2: 219-231, June 1911.

'Pinus strobus:
Spalding, V. M.: The White Pine. Bui. 22, U. S. Div. Forestry, 1899.
Detwiler, Samuel B.: The White Pine. Amer. For., 22: 271: 387-394,
July 1916.

*Pinus lambertiana:
Larsen, Louis T., and Woodbury, T. D.: Sugar Pine. Bui. 426, U. S.
Forest Service, 1916.
Cooper, Albert W. Sugar Pine and Western Yellow Pine
: in California.
Bui. 69, U. S. Forest Service, 1906.
h Pinus edulis:
Phillips, F. J.: A Study of Pifion Pine. Bot. Gaz., 48: 3: 216-223, Sept.
1909.
Heller, A. A.: The Nut Pine. Muhlenbergia, 5: 31-35, 1909.

ePinus resinosa:
Woolsey, Theodore S., Jr., and Chapman, Herman H: Norway Pine
in the Lake States. Bui. 139, U. S. Forest Service, 1914.

''Pinus contorla:
Mason, D. T.: The Life History of Lodgepole Pine in the Rocky Moun-
tains. Bui. 154, U. S. Forest Service, 1915.
Mason, D. T.: Utilization and Management of Lodgepole Pine in the
Rocky Mountains. Bui. 234, U. S. Forest Service, 1915.

s Pinus ponderosa:
Munger, Thornton T.: Western Yellow Pine in Oregon. Bui. 418, U. S.
Forest Service, 1917.
Cooper, Albert W. Sugar Pine and Western Yellow Pine
: in California.
Bui. 69, U. S. Forest Service, 1906.
Woolsey, Theodore S., Jr.: Western Yellow Pine in Arizona and New
Mexico. Bui. 101, U. S. Forest Service, 1911.
Zimmermann, C. W.: Tests of Western Yellow Pine Car Sills, Joists, and
Small Clear Pieces. Bui. 497, U. S. Forest Service, 1917.
110 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

^Southern Pines:
Fernow, B.E.: Southern Pine: Mechanical and Physical Properties. Cir.
12, U. Div. Forestry, 1896.
S.
Mohb, Charles, and Roth, Filibert: The Timber Pines of the Southern
United States, together with a Discussion of the Structure of their Wood.
Bui. 13 (rev. ed.), U. S. Div. Forestry, 1897.
Betts, H. S.: Properties and Uses of the Southern Pines. Cir. 164, U. S.
Forest Service, 1909.
Record, Samuel J.: Southern Yellow Pine for Structural Purposes.
American Architect, Apr. 11, 1917, pp. 223-228.
w Pinus cariboea:
Mattoon, Wilbur R.: Some Characteristics of Slash Pine. For. Quar-
terly, 14: 4: 578-588, Dec. 1916.
Mattoon, Wilbur R.: The Slash Pine. Amer. For., 23:279:158-160..
Mch. 1917.
ll
Pinus palustris:
Koehler, Arthur: A Visual Method of Distinguishing Longleaf Pine.
Amer. Lumberman, Sept. 11, 1915, pp. 34-35.
Fernow, B. E.: Timber Physics. Part II.: Results of Investigations on
Longleaf Pine. Bui. 8, U. S. Div. Forestry, 1893.
Bitting, Katherine G. The Histological Difference between Pinus tceda
:

and Pinus palustris. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., Indianapolis, Ind., 1908, pp. 127-
129.
Buttrick, P. L.: Commercial Uses of Longleaf Pine. Amer. For.,
21:261:896-908, Sept. 1915.
12
Pinus tceda:
Ashe, W. W. Loblolly or North Carolina Pine. Bui. 24, N. C. Geol. and
:

Econ. Survey, 1915.

Sterrett, W. D.: Forest Management of Loblolly Pine in Delaware,
Maryland, and Virginia. Bui. 11, U. S. Forest Service, 1914.
Zon, Raphael: Loblolly Pine in Eastern Texas. Bui. 64, U. S. Forest
Service, 1905.
Hatt, W. Kendrick: Second Progress Report on the Strength of Structural
Timber. Cir. 115, U. S. Forest Service, 1907.
13
Pinus echinata:
Mattoon, Wilbur R.: Shortleaf Pine: Its Economic Importance and
Forest Management. Bui. 308, U. S. Forest Service, 1915.
Mattoon, Wilbur R.: Life History of Shortleaf Pine. Bui. 244, U. S.
Forest Service, 1915.
Detwiler, Samuel B.: Shortleaf Pine. Amer. For., 22:273:513-520.
Sept. 1916.

"Pseudolsuga:
Cline, McGarvey, and Knapp, J. B.: Properties and Uses of Douglas Fir.
Bui. 88, U. S. Forest Service, 1911.
Detwiler, Samuel B.: Douglas Fir. Amer. For., 22: 266: 67-75, Feb.
1916.
Frothingham, E. H. Douglas Fir: A Study of the Pacific Coast and Rocky
:

Mountain Forms. Cir. 150, U. S. Forest Service, 1909.

 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 111

Knapp, Joseph B.: Fire-killed Douglas Fir: A Study of Its Rate of De-
terioration, Usability,and Strength. Bui. 112, U. S. Forest Service, 1912.
Lee, H. N.: Canadian Woods for Structural Timbers. Bui. 59, For.
Branch, Dept. Int., Canada, 1917.
Record, Samuel J.: Douglas Fir. Amer. Architect, 112: 2195: 329-333,
Nov. 7, 1917.
ls
Larch:
Ross, A. H. D.: Commercial Importance of Tamarack. Can. Lumberman
and Woodworker, 35: 15: 36-37, Aug. 1, 1915.
16
Spruce:
Sudwohth, George B.: The Spruce and Balsam Fir Trees of the Rocky
Mountain Region. Bui. 327, U. S. Forest Service, 1910.
Hodson, E. R., and Foster, J. H.: Engelmann Spruce in the Rocky
Mountains. Cir. 170, U. S. Forest Service, 1910.
Jeffrey, Edward C: The Comparative Anatomy and Phylogeny of the
Coniferales. Part II, Abietines. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. His., 6: 1, 1905.
Bastin, E. S., and Trimble, H. : A Contribution to the Knowledge of North
American Conifera?. Amer. Journ. Pharm., 68: 8: 409-422, 1896.
u Picea rubens:
Buttrick, P. L.: The Red Spruce. Amer. For., 22:276:705-711, Dec.
1916.
Murphy, Louis S.: The Red Spruce: Its Growth and Management. Bui-
544, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1917.

Sudworth, George B.: The Spruce and Balsam for Trees of the Rocky
Mountain Region. Bui. 327, U. S. Forest Service, 1916.
Thompson, W. P.: Ray Tracheids in Abies. Bot. Gaz., 53: 4: 331-338,
Apr. 1912.
"Hemlock:
Ross, A. H. D. The Commercial Importance of Hemlock.
: Can. Lumber-
man and Woodworker, 35: 12: 32-33, June 15, 1915.
x Tsuga heterophylla:
Hanzlik, Edward J., and Oakleaf, Howard B.: Western Hemlock: Its
Forest Characteristics, Properties and Uses. Timberman, Portland, Ore.,
Oct. 1914.
Allen, Edward T. The Western Hemlock. Bui. 33, U. S. Bur. For., 1902.
:

Oakleaf, Howard B. Wood-using Industries of Oregon. Pub. by Oregon

:

Cons. Assn., Portland, Ore., 1911, pp. 29-30.

"Sequoia:
Detwiler, Samuel B.: The Redwoods. Amer. For., 22:270:323-332,
June 1916.
Hall, William R., and Maxwell, Hu: Uses of Commercial Woods of the
United States. I. Cedars, Cypresses, and Sequoias. Bui. 95, U. S. Forest
Service, 1911, pp. 57-62.
Jeffrey, Edward C. The Comparative Anatomy and Phylogeny of the
:

Coniferales. Part I, The Genus Sequoia. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. His.,
5: 10: 441-459.
112 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Jeffrey, Edward C: A Fossil Sequoia from the Sierra Nevada. Bot.

Gaz., 38: 5: 321-332, Nov. 1904.
^Sequoia washingtoniana:
A Short Account of the Big Trees of California. Bui. 28, TJ. S. Div. For.,
1910.
a Sequoia sempervirens:
Fisher, Richard T., et al: The Redwood. Bui. 38, U. S. Bur. For., 1903.
Gordon, Marjorie: Ray Tracheids in Sequoia sempervirens. New.
Phytologist, 11: 1: 1-7, Jan. 1912.
u Taxodium:
Mattoon, Wilbur R. Southern Cypress.
: Bui. 272, U. S. Forest Service,
1915.
Record, Samuel J.: The Southern Cypress. Amer. Architect, Oct. 18,
1916, pp. 247-254.
Detwiler, Samuel B.: The Bald Cypress. Amer. For., 22: 274: 577-585,
Oct. 1916.
Roth, Filibert: Progress in Timber Physics: Bald Cypress (Taxodium
distichum). Cir. 19, U. S. Div. For., 1898.
Hall, William R., and Maxwell, Hu: Uses of Commercial Woods of the
United States. I. Cedars, Cypresses, and Sequoias. Bui. 95, U. S. Forest
Service, 1911, pp. 41-47.

™Cedar Group:
Hall, William R., and Maxwell, Hu: Uses of Commercial Woods of the
United States. I. Cedars, Cypresses, and Sequoias. Bui. 95, U. S. Forest
Service, 1911, pp. 11-40.
Ross, A. H. D.: The Commercial Importance of Cedar. Can. Lumber-
man and Woodworker, 35: 13: 26-28, July 1, 1915.
w Libocedrus:
Mitchell, J. Alfred: Incense Cedar. Bui. No. 640, U. S. Dept. Agr.,
1918.
27
Juniperus:
Mohr, Charles: Notes on the Red Cedar. Bui. 31, U. S. Bur. For., 1901.
White, L. L. Production of Red Cedar for
: Pencil Wood. Cir. 102, U. S.
Forest Service, 1907.
w Tkuya plicata:
Knapp, Joseph B., and Jackson, Alexander G. Western Red Cedar in
:

the Pacific Northwest. West Coast Lumberman, Seattle-Tacoma, Feb. 1 and

Mch. 1, 1914.
Detwiler, Samuel B.: Western Red Cedar. Amer. For., 22: 267: 131—
137, Mch. 1916.
Flavelle, Aird: British Columbia Red Cedar. Can. Lumberman and
Woodworker, 35: 20: 30-32, Oct. 15, 1915.
n Castanea:
Murdock, John, Jr.: Chestnut: Its Market in Massachusetts. Pub.
State Forester of Mass., Boston, 1912.
Detwiler, Samuel B.: The American Chestnut Tree. Amer. For.,
21:262:957-960, Oct. 1915.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 113

Buttrick, P. L. : Commercial Uses of Chestnut. Amer. For., 21 : 262 960-

:

967, Oct. 1915.

Buttrick, P. L.: Chestnut as a Pulp Wood. Pulp and Paper Mag., Nov.
I, 1915, pp. 554-5.
Ashe, W. W.: Chestnut in Tennessee. Bui. 10, B, Tenn. Geol. Survey,
Nashville, 1912.
Zon, Raphael: Chestnut in Southern Maryland. Bui. 53, U. S. Bur. For.,
1904.
Lavaille, J. B.: Le Chataignier, Paris, 1906.

30
Oak:
Sudworth, George B., and Mell, C. D.: The Identification of Important
North American Oak Woods. Bui. 102, U. S. Forest Service, 1911.
Record, Samuel J.: An Easy Identification of the Oaks. Hardwood
Record, Dec. 25, 1914, p. 23.
Ross, A. H. D.: The Commercial Importance of Oak. Can. Lumberman
and Woodworker, 35: 17: 28-30, Sept. 1, 1915.
Bailey, Irving W.: Notes on the Wood Structure of the Betulaceae
and Fagaceae. For. Quarterly, 8: 2: 178-190, June 1910.
Bailey, Irving W. On the Origin of the Broad Ray in Quercus. Bot. Gaz.,
:

49:3:161-167, Mch. 1910.

Bailey, Irving W.: Reversionary Characters of Traumatic Oak Woods.
Bot. Gaz., 50: 5: 374-380, Nov. 1910.
Groom, Percy: The Evolution of the Annual Ring and Medullary Rays of
Quercus. Annals of Botany, 25: 983-1004, Oct. 1911.
Abromeit, Johannes: Ueber die Anatomie des Eichenholzes. Berlin,
1884.

31
Quercus alba:
Greeley, W. B., and Ashe, W. W.: White Oak in the Southern Appala-
chians. Cir. 105, U. S. Forest Service, 1907.
Langdon, LaDema M.: The Ray System of Quercus alba. Bot. Gaz.,
65:4:313-323, Apr. 1918.
Detwiler, Samuel B. The American White Oak.
: Amer. For., 22: 265 :
3-
II, Jan. 1916.

32
Quercus prinus:
Foster, H. D., and Ashe, W. W.: Chestnut Oak in the Southern Appa-
lachians. Cir. 135, U. S. Forest Service, 1906.

"Hib:
Brush, W. D.: Utilization of Elm. Bui. No. 683, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1918.
Record, Samuel J.: The Wood of the Elms. Barrel and Box, Nov. 10,
1912, p. 33.

^Ulmus americana:
Detwiler, Samuel B.: The American Elm. Amer. For., 22: 269: 259-
267, May 1916.

^Ulmus racemosa:
Frothingham, E. H.: Rock Elm. Journ. Forestry, 16: 7: 834-836, Nov.;
16: 8: 950, Dec. 1918.
114 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

^Toxylon:
Maxwell, Hu: Utilization of Osage Orange. Pub. Farm Wagon Dept.,
Natl. Implement and Vehicle Assn., U. S. A., 1911.
Sudworth, George B., and Mell, Clayton D.: Fustic Wood: Its Sub-
stitutesand Adulterants. Cir. 184, U. S. Forest Service, 1911, pp. 8-9.
Kressman, F. W.: Osage Orange: Its Value as a Commercial Dyestuff.
Journ. Ind. and Eng. Chem., 6:6: 462-464, June 1914.
^Robinia:
Detwiler, Samuel B.: The Locusts: Identification and Characteristics.
,Amer. For., 23: 278: 88-93, Feb. 1917.
Record, Samuel J. Some Woods of the Pea Family. Hardwood Record,
:

Mch. 25, 1913, pp. 28-29.

Jaensch, Th.: Zur Anatomie einiger Leguminosenholzer. Ber. d. deut-
schen Bot. Gesellschaft, Vol. II, Berlin, 1884.
Saupe, K. Alwin: Der Anatomische Bau des Holzes der Leguminosen und
sein Systematischenwerth. Regensburg, 1887.
Vadas, Engen. Beitrage zur Anatomie des Robinienholzes. Natur.
:

Zeitsch. f. L.- u. Forstw., 1905, 303-308.

3S
Prosopis:
Forbes, R. H.: The Mesquite Tree: Its Products and Uses. Bui. No. 13,
Ariz. Agr. Exp. Sta., Tucson, 1895.
Maxwell, Hu and Hatch, Charles F.: Wood-using Industries of Texas.
Lumber Trade Journ., New Orleans, June 15, 1912, pp. 31-32.
m Sassafras:
Knoblauch, E.: Anatomie des Holzes der Laurineen. Flora, 22-26: 339-
400, 1888.

^Catalpa:
Hall, William L.: The Hardy Catalpa. Bui. 37, U. S. Bur. For., 1902.
Roberts, H. F.. The Hardy Catalpa. Bui. No. 108, Exp. Sta., Kansas
State Agr. Col., Manhattan, 1902.
Record, Samuel J. The Hardy Catalpa. Pub. 22, Dept. Botany, Wabash
:

College, Crawfordsville, Ind., 1906.

Sterrett, W. D.: The Ashes: Their Characteristics and Management.

Bui. No. 299, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1915.
Sterrett, W. D.: Utilization of Ash. Bui. No. 523. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
1917.
Record, Samuel J. : The Wood of the Ashes. Hardwood Record, Nov. 10,
1912, pp. 28-29.
n Fraxinus americana:
Detwiler, Samuel B. White Ash. : Amer. For., 21 : 264: 1081-1089, Dec.
1915.
43
Diospyros:
Molisch, H. Vergleichende Anatomie des Holzes der Ebenaceen und ihrer
:

Verwandten. Sitz. d. kaiserl. Akad. d. Wissenschaft, 80, Pt. 1, Wien, 1879.

Record, Samuel J.: Persimmon: Its Uses and Its Substitutes. Sou.
Lumberman, Dec. 25, 1912, pp. 95-96.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 115

Fletcher, W. F. The Native Persimmon.

: Farmers' Bui. 685, U. S. Dept.
Agr., 1915.

"Hickory:
Boisen, Anton T., and Newluj^T. A.: The Commercial Hickories. Bui.
80, U. S. Forest Service, 1910.
Hatch, Charles F.: Manufacture and Utilization of Hickory, 1911. Cir.
187, U. S. Forest Service, 1911.
Detwiler, Samuel B.: The Hickories. Amer. For., 22:272:451-457,
Aug. 1916.
^Walnut:
Sudworth, George B., and Mell, Clayton D.: Identification of North
American Walnut Woods. Hardwood Record, Sept. 10 and 25, 1914.
Record, Samuel J. The Walnuts and the Hickories. Hardwood Record,
:

Apr. 25, 1913, pp. 27-29.

m Swietema:
Mell, C
D.:True Mahogany. Bui. No. 474, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1917.
Record, Samuel J.: Mahogany and Some of Its Substitutes. Journ.
Forestry, 17: 1:1-8, Jan. 1919.
Sudworth, George B., and Mell, Clayton D.: "Colombian Ma-
hogany": Its Characteristics and Its Use as a Substitute for True Mahogany.
Cir. 185, U. S. Forest Service, 1911.
Busch, P.. The Commercial Mahoganies. Tropenpflanzen. 15:9:479-
493, 1911.
DrxoN, Henry H. Mahogany, and the Recognition of Some of the Differ-
:

ent Kinds by Their Microscopic Characteristics. Sci. Proc, Royal Dublin

Soc, 15 (n. s): 34: 431-486, Dec. 1918.
€Eucalyptus:
Betts, H. S., and Smith, C. Stowell: Utilization of California Eucalypts.
Cir. 179, U. S. Forest Service, 1910.
Tiemann, H. D.: Eucalyptus Lumber. Hardwood Record, Sept. 25 and
Oct. 10, 1913.
Woodbury, T. D.: Yield and Returns of Blue Gum in California. Cir.
210, U. S. Forest Service, 1912.
m Euergreen Oaks:
Bailey, Irving W.: Notes on the Wood Structure of the Betulaceae and
Fagacea;. For. Quarterly, 8: 2: 178-185, June 1910.
Sudworth, George B.,and Mell, CD.: The Identification of Important
American Oak Woods. Bui. 102, U. S. Forest Service, 1912.

®Quercus densiflora:
Jepsox, Willis Linn, and Betts, H. S.: California Tanbark Oak. Bui.
75, U. S. Forest Service, 1911.

^Carpinus:
Bailey, Irving W. Notes on the Wood Structure of the Betulaceae
. and
Fagaceaa. For. Quarterly, 8: 2: 178-185, June 1910.
bl
Platanus:
Brush, Warren D.: Distinguishing Characteristics of North American
Sycamore Woods. Bot. Gaz., 64: 6: 480-496, Dec. 1917.
116 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES
i2
Fagus:
Maxwell, Hu: Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States. Beech,
Birches, and Maples. Bui. No. 12, U. S. Forest Service, 1913.
KMaple:
Maxwell, Hu: hoc cit.
Record, Samuel J.: Differentiating Between Maples. Hardwood Record,
July 10, 1913, pp. 26-27.
Ross, A. H. D. Commercial Importance of Maple. Can. Lumberman and
:

Woodworker, 35: 18: 36-37, Sept. 15, 1915.

Holden, Ruth: Some Features in the Anatomy of the Sapindales. Bot.
Gaz., 53:1:50-57, Jan. 1912.
uAcer saccharum:
Maxwell, Hu: Commercial Uses of Sugar Maple. Amer. For.,
21: 263: 1022-1030, Nov. 1915.
^Birch:
Maxwell, Hu: Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States. Beech,
Birches, and Maples. Bui. No. 12, U. S. Forest Service, 1913.
Detwiler, Samuel B.: The Birches. Amer. For., 22: 268: 195-201, Apr.
1916.
Record, Samuel J. : The Wood of the Birches. Hardwood Record, Oct.
25, 1912, pp. 32-33.

w Betula papyrifera:
Dana, S. T.: Paper Birch in the Northeast. Cir. 163, U. S. Forest Service,
1909.

"Apple:
Record, Samuel J.: Making Hand-saw Handles. Wood Worker, In-
dianapolis, 31: 10: 37-38, Dec. 1912.

m Liquidambar:
Chittenden, Alfred K., and Hatt, W. Kendrick: The Red Gum. Bui.
58, U. S. Bur. For., 1905.
Record, Samuel J.: Red Gum. American Architect, Apr. 19, 1916; also
Decorative Furnisher, 30: 4: 42-44, 54, July 1916.
Detwiler, Samuel B.: The Red Gum. Amer. For., 22: 275: 641-647, Nov.
1916.
m Nyssa:
Holroyd, H. B.: The Utilization of Tupelo. Cir. 40, U. S. Forest Service,
1906.
Sudworth, George B., and Mell, Clayton D.: Distinguishing Char-
acteristics of North American Gumwoods. Bui. 103, U. S. Forest Service,
1911.
Von Schrenk, Hermann: Tupelo. Sou. Lumberman, Anniv. Ed., 1907.
mLiriodendron:
The Tulipor Yellow Poplar Tree. Amer. For., 21 8: 833-840, Aug. 1915.
:

Groppler, Robert: Vergleichended Anatomic des Holzes der Magnolia-

ceen. Stuttgart, 1894. See also Bot. Centralblatt, 60: 373.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OP THE UNITED STATES 117

5
~®Tilia, Aesculus:
Record, Samuel J.: Tier-like Arrangement of the Elements of Certain
Woods. Science, 34: 75-77, Jan. 12, 1912.
a Alnus:
Bailey, Irving W.: The Relation of the Leaf-trace to the Formation of
Compound Rays in the Lower Dicotyledons. Annals of Botany, 25: 97: 225-
241, Jan. 1911.
Oakleaf, Howard B.: The Wood-using Industries of Oregon. Pub.
Oregon Conservation Assn., 1911.
M Salix:
Penhallow, D. P. : A Systematic Study of the Salicaceae. Am. Naturalist,
39:464, Aug. 1905.
Lamb, George N.: Willows: Their Growth, Use, and Importance. Bui.
316, U. S. Forest Service, 1915.
Detwiler, Samuel B.: The Willows: Identification and Characteristics.
Amer. For., 23: 277: 3-10, Jan. 1917.
Holden, Ruth: Reduction and Reversion in the North American Salicales.
Annals of Botany, 26: 165-173, Jan. 1912.
^Populus:
Williamson, A. W. Cottonwood : in the Mississippi Valley. Bui. No. 24,
U. S. Forest Service, 1913.
Burgerstein, A.: Diagnostische Merkmale der Markstrahlen von Popidus
und Salix. Ber. d. deut. bot. Gesellschaft, 29, Nov. 10, 1911.
Breton-Bonnard, L.: Le Peuplier. Paris, Lucien Laveur, 1903.

Weigle, W. G., and Frothingham, E. H.: The Aspens: Their Growth and
Management. Bui. 93, U. S. Forest Service, 1911.
 ,

BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Woods in General

Abromeit, Johannes :Ueber die Anatomie des Eichenholzes. Berlin, G.

Bernstein, 1884.
Boulger, G. S.: Wood: A Manual of the Natural Histories and Industrial
Applications of the Timbers of Commerce (2d ed.). London, Edward Arnold,
1908.

Charpentier, Paul: Timber: A Comprehensive Study of Wood in All its

Aspects (trans, from the French by Joseph Kennell). London, Scott, Green-
wood & Co., 1902.

DeBary, A.: Comparative Anatomy of the Vegetative Organs of the

Phanerogams and Ferns (English edition), Oxford, 1884, pp. 495-496. (Classi-
fication condensed from Sanio).

Gayer, Karl: Forest Utilization (Vol. 5 of Schlich's Manual of Forestry;

German by W. R. Fisher; 2d ed.). London, Bradbury, Agnew
trans, from the
& Co., 1908.

Hanausek, T. F. : The Microscopy of Technical Products (English edition)

New York, 1907.
Hartig, Th.: Anatomie und Physiologie der Holzpflanzen. Berlin, Julius
Springer, 1878.
Hubert, E. Le Bois
: et le Liege, Paris, J. B. Bailliere & Sons, 1902.
Jaccard, P.: Etude Anatomique de Bois comprim^s, Zurich, Switzerland,
F. Lohbauer, 1910.
Jeffrey, Edward C. The Anatomy of
: Woody Plants. Chicago, Univ. of
Chicago Press, 1917.
Jones, W. S.: The Structure of the Timbers of Some Common Genera of
Coniferous Trees. Quar. Journ. Forestry, 6: 2: 112-134, Apr. 1912.
Kottmeier, H., and Uhlmann, F. Das Holz. : Leipzig, Quelle & Meyer,
1910.

Krais, Paul: Gewerbliche Materialkunde: Die Holzer. Stuttgart, Felix

Krais, 1910.
Laris, E.: Rohholzgewinnung und Gewerbseigenschaften des Holzes.
Vienna and Leipzig, 1909.
Laslett, Thomas: Timber and Timber Trees, Native and Foreign (2d ed.;
revised and enlargedby H. Marshall Ward). London and New York, Mac-
millan & Co., 1894.

Note. — For publications referring to species listed in the Key see list of
references, pp. 109 to 117.
119
120 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Mackenzie, D. F.: The Identification of Timber; with a Uniform Series

of Photo-micrographs. Trans. Highland and Agr. Soc. of Scotland, Ser. 5,
Vol. 12, pp. 183-224, 1900.

Mathey, Alphonse : Traite d'Exploitation Commerciale des Bois. Vols.

1-2. Paris, Lucien Laveur, 1908.
Muller, N. J. C: Atlas der Holzstructur. Halle A. S., Wilhelm Knapp,
1888.

Sanio, Carl: Vergleichende Untersuehungen iiber des Holzkorpers, Bot.

Zeit., 21:51:401-8, 1863.
Schacht, Hermann: Der Baum. Studien iiber Bau und Leben der
hoheren Gewachse. Berlin, G. M. F. Muller, 1853.
Schroeder, Julius: Das Holz der Coniferen. Dresden, 1872.
Schwartz, T.: Forstliche Botanik. Berlin, 1892.

Solereder, Hans: Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. Vols. 1-2.

(English edition), Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1908.
Stephenson, William: The Trees of Commerce (rev. ed.). London, W.
Ryder & Son, 1908.
Stone, Herbert: The Timbers of Commerce and Their Identification.
London, W. Ryder & Son, 1904.
Wiesner, Julius: Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzen Reiches. Vol. 2. Leipzig,
Wilhelm Engelmann, 1903.
Wilda, Hermann: Das Holz: Aufbau, Eigenschaften und Verwendung.
Leipzig, G. J. Goschen, 1910.

II. Woods of United States and Canada

1. Miscellaneous

Ashe, W. W.: Loblolly or North Carolina Pine, N. C. Geol. and Econ.

Survey Bui. No. 24, Raleigh, N. C, 1915.
Bailey, Irving W. The Role
: of the Microscope in the Identification and
Classification of the "Timbers of Commerce." Journ. of Forestry, 5: 12: 176-
191, Feb. 1917.

Basttn, Edson S. and Trimble, Henry: A Contribution to the Knowledge

of the North American Conifers. Reprint, Am. Journ. Pharm., Vols. 68-69,
1896-7.
Baterden, J. R. Timber.
: New York, D. Van Nostrand & Co., 1908.

Betts, H. S., and Greeley, W. B.

Structural Timber in the United States.
:

International Engineering Congress, San Francisco, Cal., 1915.

British Columbia Western Soft Pine. Bui. 17, British Columbia,

Forest Branch. Victoria, 1916.

Britton, N. L.: North American Trees. New York, Henry Holt & Co.,
1906.

Burns, G. P. and Otis, C. H.: The Trees of Vermont. Contains: "The

Structure and Identification of Our Common Lumber Woods" by C. H. Otis,
pp. 194-232. Bui. No. 194, Vermont Agr. Exp. Sta., Burlington, Vt., 1916.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 121

Dickerson", Cynthia: Trees and Forestry: An Elementary Treatment of

the Subject Based on the Jesup Collection of North American Woods in the
American Museum of Natural History. Pub. by the Museum, New York,
1910.

Elliott, S. B. The Important Timber Trees of the United States.

: Boston
and New York, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1912.
Gibson, Henry H., and Maxwell, Hu: American Forest Trees. Chicago,
Hardwood Record, 1913.

Hough, Franklin B.: The Elements of Forestry. Cincinnati, The Robert

Clarke Co., 1898.
Hough, Romeyn B.: American Woods (Sections and Text). Vols. 1-13,
Lowville, N. Y., the author, 1893-1913.
Hough, Romeyn B.: Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and
Canada East of the Rocky Mountains. Lowville, N. Y., the author, 1907.
Koehler, Arthur: Guidebook for the Identification of Woods used for
Ties and Timbers. U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C, 1917.
Jepsox, Willis L. : The Silva of California (Vol. II, Memoirs of the Uni-
versity of California). Berkeley, University Press, 1910.
Lazenby, William R. Qualities and Uses : of the Woods of Ohio. Bui. 6,
Ohio Biol. Survey. Columbus, O., 1916.
Lee, H. N.: Canadian Woods for Structural Timbers. Dept. of Int.,
Canada. Forestry Branch, Bui. No. 59, Ottawa, 1917.
Levison, J. J. : Studies of Trees. New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1914.

Mohr, Charles, and Roth, Filibert: The Timber Pines of the Southern
United States, together with a Discussion of the Structure of their Wood.
Bui. 13 (rev. ed.) U. S. Div. Forestry, Washington, D. C, 1897.

Newlin, J. A., and Wilson, Thomas R. C: Mechanical Properties of

Woods Grown in the United States. Bui. No. 556, U. S. Dept. Agr., Wash-
ington, D. C, 1917.

Noyes, William: Wood and Forest (2d ed.). The Manual Arts Press,
Peoria, 111., 1911.
Penhallow, David P. : A
Manual of the North American Gymnosperms,
exclusive of the Cycadales, but together with Certain Exotic Species. Boston,
Ginn & Co., 1907.
Pi^rHOT Gifford, and Ashe, W. W.: Timber Trees and Forests of North
Carolina. Bui. 6, N. C. Geol. Survey, Chapel Hill, N. C, 1897.

Prichard, R. P. The Structure of the Common Woods of New York and

:

the Wood Collection. Bui. N. Y. State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y.,

March 1915.

Rattinger, K. K.: Die Nutzholzer der Vereinigten Staaten; I. Die Nadel-

holzer. Wiesbaden, Verlag Forstbiiro, 1910.

Record, Samuel J.: The Mechanical Properties of Wood. New York,

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1914.
Roth, Filibert: Timber: An Elementary Discussion of the Characteristics
and Properties of Woods. Bui. No. 10, U. S. Div. of Forestry, Washington,
D. C, 1895.
122 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Sargent, Chas. S.: Report on the Forests of North America (exclusive of

Mexico). Vol. 9, Tenth Census, Washington, D. C, 1884.

Sargent, Chas. S.: The Woods of the United States, with an Account of
the Structure, Qualities and Uses Jesup Collection). New York, D. Appleton
(

& Co., 18S5.

Sargent, Chas. S.: The Silva of North America: A Description of the
Trees which Grow Naturally in North America, exclusive of Mexico. Vols.
1-14. Boston and New York, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1891-1902.
Sargent, Chas. S.: Manual of the Trees of North America (exclusive of
Mexico). Boston and New York, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1905.
Shinn, Charles H. Economic Possibilities of
: Pinm sabiniana. Proc. Soc.
Am. Foresters, 6: 1: 68-77, 1911.

Snow, Charles H.: The Principal Species of Wood (2d ed.). New York,
John 'Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1908.
Snow, Charles H.: Wood and Other Organic Structural Materials. New
York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1917.
Southern Yellow Pine Timbers. Including Definition of the New
"Density" Rule. Adopted and copyrighted by the American Society for
Testing Materials. Approved and adopted by the Southern Pine Association
of New Orleans, La., Nov. 1915.

Sterrett, W. D.: Scrub Pine. Bui. 94, U. S. Forest Service, Washington,

D. C, 1911.
Sudworth, George B.: Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope. U. S. Forest
Service, Washington, D. C, 1908.
Sudworth, George B.: Miscellaneous Conifers of the Rocky Mountain
Region. Bui. No. 680, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C, 1918.

Sudworth, George B.: The Pine Trees of the Rocky Mountain Region.
Bui. No. 460, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C, 1917.
Sudworth, George B., and Mell, Clayton D.: The Identification of
Important North American Oak Woods, based on a Study of the Secondary
Wood. Bui. 102, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. G, 1911.
Sudworth, George B., and Mell, Clayton, D.: Distinguishing Char-
of North American Gumwoods, based on the Anatomy of the
acteristics
Secondary Wood. Bui. 103, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C, 1911.
Sudworth, George B., and Mell, Clayton D.: Identification of North
American Walnut Woods. Hardwood Record, Chicago, Sept. 10 and 25,
1914.
Thelen, Rolf: The Structural Timbers of the Pacific Coast. Proc. Am.
Soc. Test Mat., 8: 558-567, 1908.
Zon, Raphael: Balsam Fir. Bui. No. 55, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington,
D. C, 1914.
2. Uses of Woods; Wood-using Industries

Armstrong, Andrew K.: Wood-using Industries of California. Bui. No.

3, Cal. State Board of Forestry, Sacramento, 1912.
Betts, H. S.: Properties and Uses of the Southern Pines. Cir. 164, U. S.
Forest Service, Washington, D. C, 1909.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 123

Brooks, A. B.: Wood Manufacturing Industries of West Virginia. Vol. 5,

Chap. 9, pp. 430-461, West Virginia Geological Survey, Morgantown, W. Va.,
1910.
Brush, W. D.: Utilization of Elm. Bui. No. 683, U. S. Dept. Agr., Wash-
ington,D. C, 1918.
Clinb, McGarvet, and Knapp, J. B.: Properties and Uses of Douglas Fir.
Bui. 38, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C, 1911.
Dodge, Charles Richards: A Descriptive Catalogue of Manufactures
from Native Woods, as Shown in the Exhibit of the U. S. Dept. of Agr. at the
World's Industrial and Cotton Exposition at New Orleans, La. Special Re-
port No. 10, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C, 1886.
Dunning, C. W.: The Wood-using Industries of Idaho. Reprint, Pacific
Lumber Trade Journal, Seattle, Wash., July 1912.
Dunning, C. W.: Wood-using Industries of Ohio. Pub. by Ohio Agr.
Exp. Sta., Wooster, O., 1912.
Gould, C. W., and Maxwell, Hu: The Wood-using Industries of Missis-
sippi. Reprint, Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La., March 15, 1912,
pp. 19-29.
Gould, Clark W., and Maxwell, Hu: The Wood-using Industries of
Tennessee. Reprint, The Southern Lumberman, Nashville, Tenn., May 25,
1912.

Hall, William L., and Maxwell, Hu: Uses of Commercial Woods of the
United States: I. Cedars, Cypresses, and Sequoias. Bui. 95, U. S. Forest
Service, Washington, D. C, 1911.

Hall, William L., and Maxwell, Hu: Uses of Commercial Woods of the
United States: II. Pines. Bui. 99, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C,
1911.
Harris, John T., and Maxwell, Hu: The Wood-using Industries of
Alabama. Reprint Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La., May 1, 1912.
Harris, J. T., Maxwell, Hu, and Kiefer, Francis: Wood-using In-
dustriesand National Forests of Arkansas. Bui. 106, U. S. Forest Service,
Washington, D. C, 1912.
Harris, John T. Wood-using Industries of New York.
: Series 14, No. 2,
of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y., 1913.
N. Y. State College
Hatch, Charles F.: Manufacture and Utilization of Hickory, 1911. Cir.
187, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C, 1911.
Hatch, Charles F., and Maxwell, Hu: The Wood-using Industries of
Missouri. Reprint, St. Louis Lumberman, St. Louis, Mo., March 15, 1912,
pp. 68-82.
Hoffman, B. E. Alaska Woods, Their Present and Prospective Uses.
: For.
Quarterly, 11: 2: 185-200, June 1913.
Kellogg, R. S.: Lumber and Its Uses. Chicago, Radford Architectural
Co., 1914.
Knapp, Joseph Burke: Montana's Secondary Wood-using Industries.
Reprint,The Timberman, Portland, Ore., Nov. 1912.
Lamb, G. N.: Farm Woodlot Timber: Its Uses and Principal Markets.
Bui. No. 51, Dept. of Agr. Extension, Purdue University, LaFayette, Ind., 1916.
124 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Lamb, George N.: Willows: Their Growth, Use, and Importance. Bui.
No. 316, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1915.
Lazenby, William R. The Economic Uses of Wood. Pub. by Ohio State
:

University, Columbus, O., 1904.

Lazenby, William R.: Qualities and Uses of the Woods of Ohio. Vol. 20,
No. 9, Ohio State University. Bui. 6, Vol. 2, No. 2, Ohio Biol. Survey, 1916.
Lee, H. X.. Canadian Woods for Structural Timbers. Bui. No. 59,
Forestry Branch, Dept. Int. Canada, Ottawa, 1917.
Lewis, R. G., and Boyce, W. Guy H.: Wood-using Industries of the
Maritime Provinces. BuL No. 44, Forestry Branch, Dept. of Int. Canada,
Ottawa, 1914.
Lewis, R. G., and Boyce, W. Guy H.: Wood-using Industries of Ontario.
Bui. No. 36, Forestry Branch, Dept. Int. Canada, Ottawa, 1913.

Lewis, R. G., and Boyce, W. Guy H.: Wood-using Industries of the

Prairie Provinces. Bui. No. 50, Forestry Branch, Dept. Int. Canada, Ottawa,
1915.
Lewis, R. G., and Douctt, J. A. Wood-using Industries
: of Quebec. Bui.
No. 63, Forestry Branch, Dept. Int. Canada, Ottawa, 1918.

MacMillan, H. R.: Wood-using Industries, 1910. Bui. No. 21, Forestry

Branch, Dept. Int. Canada, Ottawa, 1912.
Mason, D. T.: Utilizati.n and Management of Lodgepole Pine in the
Rocky Mountains. Bui. Ni 234. U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C,
1915.
Maxwell, Hu: Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States: Beech,
Birches, and Maples. Bui. No. 12, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C,
1913.

Maxwell, Hu: The Uses of Wood. American Forestry, 24: 293-300,

May to Dec. 1918.
Maxwell, Hu: Utilization of Osage Orange. Pub. by Farm Wagon Dept.,
Nat'l Implement and Vehicle Ass'n., U. S. A., 1911.

Maxwell, Hu: Wood-using Industries of Florida. Pub. by Fla. Dept. of

Agr., Talahassee, 1912.
Maxwell, Hu The Wood-using Industries of Louisiana.
: Reprint, Lumber
Trade Journal, New Orleans, La., Jan. 1, 1912.

Maxwell, Hu: The Wood-using Industries of Maryland. Bui. Maryland

State Board of Forestry, Baltimore, Md., 1910.
Maxwell, Hu: A Study of the Massachusetts Wood-using Industries.
Pub. by State of Mass., Boston, 1910.
Maxwell, Hu: Wood-using Industries of Michigan. Pub. by Public
Domain Commission, Lansing, Mich., 1912.
Maxwell, Hu, and Harris, John T. The Wood-using Industries of Iowa.
:

Pub. by Agr. Exp. Sta., Iowa State College of Agr. and Mechanic Arts, Ames,
Iowa, 1913.
Maxwell, Hu, and Harris, John T. Wood-using Industries of Vermont.
:

Forestry Pub. No. 11, Dept. of Agr. and Forestry of the State of Vt., Rutland,
Vt., 1913.
 ECONOMIC "WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 125

Maxwell, Hu, and Harris, John T. Wood-using Industries of Minnesota.

:

Pub. by Minn. State Forestry Board, St. Paul, Minn., 1913.

Maxwell, Hu, and Hatch, Charles F. The Wood-using Industries of :

Texas. Reprint, Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La., June 15, 1912.
Nellis, J. C. The Wood-using Industries of Indiana. Reprint, Hardwood
:

Record, Chicago, 111., March 1, 1916.

Nellis, J. C. The Wood-using Industries of Maine. Report Forest Com-
:

missioner, Waterville, Me., 1912.

Nellis, J. C. : Lumber Used in the Manufacture of Wooden Products. Bui.
No. 605, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C, 1918.

Nellis, J.C, and Harris, J. T.: Wood-using Industries of West Virginia.

Bui. No. 10, W. Va. Dept. of Agr., Charleston, W. Va., 1915.
Oakleaf, Howard B. Wood-using Industries of Oregon, with Special Re-
:

ference to the Properties and Uses of Oregon Woods. Pub. by Ore. Conserva-
tion Ass'n., Portland, Ore., 1911.

Oakleaf, Howard B.: Washington's Secondary Wood-using Industries.

Pacific Lumber Trade Journal, Seattle, Wash., 1911.
Pierson, Albert H.: Wood-using Industries of Connecticut. For. Pub.
No. 7, Bui. 174, Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta., New Haven, Conn., Jan. 1913.
Pierson, Albert H.: Wood-using Industries of New Jersey. Pub. by
Forest Park Reservation Com. of New Jersey, Union Hill, N. J., 1914.
Pratt, Merritt B.: The Use of Lumber on California Farms. Bui. No.
299, Agr. Exp. Sta., Berkeley, Cal., 1918.
Simmons, Roger E. : The Wood-using Industries of Illinois. Pub. by Uni-
versity of Illinois, Urbana, 111., 1911.

Simmons, Roger E.: A Study of the Wood-using Industries of Kentucky.

Pub. by Dept. Agri., Labor and Statistics, Frankfort, Ky., 1910.
Simmons, Roger E.: Wood-using Industries of New Hampshire. Pub.
by State of N. H. Forestry Com., Concord, N. H., 1912.
Simmons, Roger E.: Wood-using Industries of North Carolina. Econ.
Paper No. XX, N. C. Econ. and Geol. Survey, Raleigh, N. C, 1910.
Simmons, Roger E. Wood-using Industries of Pennsylvania.
: Bui. No. 9,
Dept. of Forestry, Harrisburg, Pa., April, 1914.
Simmons, Roger E.: Wood-using Industries of Virginia. Pub. by Dept.
of Agr. and Immigration, Richmond, Va., 1912.
Smith, Franklin H. A Study of the Wisconsin Wood-using Industries.
:

Pub. by Forestry Dept., Madison, Wis., 1910.

Surface, G. T.: The Commercial Woods of the United States and Their
Uses. Reprint, Bui. Geog. Soc. of Phila., Vol. VIII, No. 3, July 1910.
Swan, O. T. The Wood-using Industries of Georgia.
: Reprint, Lumber
Trade Journal, New Orleans, La., Mar. 15, 1915.
Wolfe, Stanley L.: Wood-using Industries, of South Carolina. Pub. by
Dept. of Agr., Commerce and Industries, Columbia, S. C, 1913.
 APPENDIX
The Woods of the United States
Wood of economic importance is obtained from certain repre-
sentatives of the highest sub-division of the plant world the —
Spermatophytes or true flowering and seed-bearing plants. Bot-
anists separate this large group, chiefly on the basis of floral and
fruit characters, into two classes, viz., the Gymnosperms and the
Angiosperms.
The Gymnosperms are all woody plants, either trees or shrubs.
Of the fifteen genera indigenous to the United States, two (Taxus
and Tumion or Torreya) belong to the Taxaceae or yew family and
are of little or no commercial importance. The other thirteen
belong to the Coniferae or true cone-bearers.
The woods of the Coniferae, commonly known as coniferous
woods or softwoods, are esteemed for structural purposes because
they combine a high degree of strength and stiffness with com-
paratively light weight and ease of manipulation. They are
separable into (a) the pine-like and (b) the cedar-like. The first
includes the pines (Pinus), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga), spruces
(Picea), larches (Larix), true firs (Abies), and the hemlocks (Tsuga).
The second group embraces the junipers
(Juniperus), various
cedars (Chamcecyparis, Thuya, Libocedrus), the cypresses (Cupres-
sus and Taxodium), and the sequoias (Sequoia). The cedar-like
woods are characterized by their resistance to decay and also, with
the exception of Taxodium and Sequoia, by their fragrant scent.
The Angiosperms are very abundantly represented in the flora
of this country and include a large proportion of herbaceous forms.
Two Monocotyledons and the
sub-classes are recognized, viz., the
Dicotyledons, referring to the number of cotyledons or seed-leaves
of the embryo. There are also fundamental differences in their
stem structures.
Monocotyledonous stems are mostly unbranched and the wood
is confined to isolated strands disposed irregularly in a mass of

softer tissue, becoming more and more compact toward the surface.
In general, there are lacking certain important features which
characterize the stems of both Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons,
127
128 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

viz., (a)a distinct central core of pith, (b) a covering of bark, and
between these two (c) a fairly uniform mass of wood which in-

creases in thickness by the addition of periodic layers on the outside.

Some well-known representatives of the Monocotyledons are
the grasses (including maize, wheat, many other cereals, the bam-
boos, etc.), the sedges, lilies, bananas, rattans, palms, and yuccas.
The woody types are confined chiefly to tropical and sub-tropical
regions where they are extensively used but not in the form of
lumber. There are seven kinds of palms and nine kinds of yuccas
of tree size native to the United States. They are used to some
extent locally but as a commercial source of wood are wholly
negligible.
As stated on p. 7 there are, according to Sargent's "Manual of
the Trees of North America," 57 families and 147 genera of Dico-
tyledons with representatives of tree size in this country. The
total number of species described is 607. Various others have
been introduced, mostly for decorative purposes but also to a small
extent for forest planting, and a few have become naturalized, but
only in rare instances do their woods contribute to our commercial
supply. Sudworth's "Check List " * enumerates 495 trees, includ-
ing a few which have become thoroughly naturalized. This dis-
crepancy is accounted for mostly by the large number of species of
Crataegus, 132 in all, described by Sargent as against 25 listed by
Sudworth. Not a single representative of this genus is of commer-
cial importance for its wood, and of the 34 species belonging to
the other genera of the Rosaceae only one, Prunus serotina, is a
source of valuable lumber. One willow out of 21 species, about 20
oaks out of a total of 47, and about a dozen pines out of the 34
native to this country are commercially valuable. In the Govern-
ment reports on lumber production only 30 kinds are considered
of sufficient importance to justify separate tabulation, while about
20 are grouped under the single heading of "minor species."
The following list includes the most important families and
genera of the Dicotyledons. Included in it are seven families
which are really of secondary importance so far as the amount of
the wood produced is concerned. These are, Aquifoliaceae,
Bignoniaceae, Ebenacese, Hippocastanaceae, Lauracea, MeliaceEe,
and Moraceae.
* Sudworth, George B.: Cheek List of the Forest Trees of the United
States, TheirNames and Ranges. Bui. No. 17, U. S. Division of Forestry,
Washington, D. C, 1898.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 129

TABLE V
Important Families and Genera of Dicotyledons in the
United States
Aceracece Leguminosos
Acer (maple) Gleditsia (honey locust)
Aquifoliaceoe Gymnocladus (Ky. coffee-tree)
Ilex (holly) Robinia (black locust)
Betulacece Prosopis (mesquite)
Alnus (alder) Magnoliacem
Betula (birch) Liriodendron (tulip-tree)
Bignoniaceoe Magnolia (magnolia; cucumber)
Catalpa (catalpa) Meliaceoe
Cornacece Swietenia (mahogany)
Cornus (dogwood) Moraceos
Nyssa (tupelo) Morus (mulberry)
Ebenacece Toxylon (Osage orange)
Diospyros (persimmon, Oleacece
Fagaceoe Fraxinus (ash)
Castanea (chestnut) Platanacece
Castanopsis (chinquapin) Platanus (sycamore)
Fagus (beech) Rosacea
Quercus (oak) Prunus (black cherry)
Hamamelidacece Salicaceoe
Liquidamabar (red gum) Populus (poplar; cottonwood)
Hippocastanaceoe Salix (willow)
jEsculus (buckeye) Tiliacetz
Juglandacece Tilia (basswood)
Hicoria (hickory) Ulmacece
Juglans (walnut) Celtis (hackberry)
Lauraceos Ulmus (elm)
Sassafras (sassafras)

TABLE VI
Numerical Conspectus of the Trees of the United States
130 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

WOOD STRUCTURE
Wood is a fibrous structure composed of cells which are for the
most part greatly elongated in a vertical or axial direction. Longi-
tudinal surfaces accordingly show the fibrous nature of wood to the
best advantage, while the cross section appears under the micro-
scope more or less like a fine honey-comb. Some wood cells are
large enough to be readily seen, others are at the limit of vision
and require a hand lens for distinctness, and a much larger number
are not individually visible without considerable magnification.
All wood cells when first formed contain living protoplasm but
a large proportion of them apparently lose it very early. Such
cells provide channels for sap-flow from root to leaf, lend strength
and rigidity to the stem, and in some instances supply spaces for
storage of excess food and reservoirs for waste products. Since
these functions are in part physiological it seems unlikely that the
protoplasm has entirely disappeared from the elements concerned,
even if its presence cannot be directly demonstrated, since cells
without living protoplasm can only function mechanically.
The wood cells which obviously retain hving protoplasm
throughout their functional period may be referred to as food cells
(parenchyma) since they are primarily concerned with the dis-
tribution and storage of plant food. This food is elaborated in
the leaves (and other green tissues) and is transported along the
stem chiefly through certain channels (sieve-tubes of the phloem)
in the inner bark. The cells (ray parenchyma) which divert por-
tions of the food current into the wood are typically elongated in a
horizontal or radial direction, while those (wood parenchyma)
which distribute it vertically in the stem are axially elongated.
Plant food assumes various forms, the principal ones being starch,
sugars and fats; the change from one form to another is brought
about by the action of certain ferments or enzymes.
Structurally, a wood cell consists of a cell wall of ligno-cellulose,
inclosing a lumen or cavity (with or without visible contents), and
completely surrounded by a pectic layer called the middle lamella.
The lignified wall provides a strong and rigid framework. The
middle lamella limits the individual cells and cements them firmly
together to form the wood-mass. The cavity serves various pur-
poses such as the transportation of food and water, aeration,
storage, etc., and must accordingly be in communication with the
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 131

cavities of adjacent cells and in some instances with intercellular

spaces also.
Where the cell walls are thin enough there is no need for special
provision for intercommunication. The process of thickening
reduces the permeability of the walls and makes necessary the
leaving of thin or unthickened spots called pits. Were the wall
uniformly thickened throughout, the lumen would become isolated
and the function of the cell would be reduced to that of reinforce-
ment only, a condition approximated in the libriform fibres of
certain woods such as Toxylon and Robinia. At the other ex-
treme, there are elements (vessels) concerned with the rapid con-
duction of water which are composed of vertical series of cells
whose pits at the ends have given place to true openings or per-
forations. The only fundamental difference between a perforation
and a pit is that in a pit the middle lamella, somewhat modified,
forms a limiting or pit membrane. The presence of minute per-
forations in this membrane can be demonstrated by passing finely
divided solid particles through it.
Some cells have simple pits while others appear under the
compound microscope to have a more or less distinct border.
This border is due to the wall overhanging the margin of the pit
membrane. Pits between food-cells are simple while those be-
tween water-carriers are bordered. Where the two types of cells
are in communication the half of the pit in the food-cell is always
simple and the corresponding portion in the other may be either
simple or bordered. In the latter case the pit is structurally half-
bordered, though in surface view it may not be distinguishable
from one that is bordered on both sides. Pits exhibit a wide range
of variation in size, shape and arrangement, and possess high value
for purposes of classification of woods. (For further details see
pp. 31-35.)

CLASSIFICATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF SECONDARY WOOD

On p. 13 the cellular elements of wood are referred to three
principal types, viz., vascular, fibrous and parenchymatous.
Some authors prefer the following classification: (a) vessels (cell-
fusions serving for the conduction of water) (b) parenchyma (food
;

cells which conduct and store carbohydrates); (c) prosenchyma

(cells serving chiefly to give mechanical support but often partici-
pating in functions of the other groups). The prosenchyma in-
132 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

eludes all of the vertical elements of the wood except vessels and
parenchyma, namely, libriform fibres, septate fibres, intermediate
or substitute fibres, fibre-tracheids, and tracheids.
Libriform fibres are the cells referred to on p. 18 as typical wood
fibres. Fibre-tracheids are fibrous cells with distinctly bordered
pits and are intermediate between libriform fibres and vessel-like
tracheids; they do not occur in Gymnosperms though the tracheids
of the late wood might with some justification be so-called.
The
following diagram shows the relationships of the various
elements. In this the tracheid appears as the dominant element.
Vessels are composed of segments which were originally tracheids
before fusion; intermediate forms occur. Fibre-tracheids and
libriform fibres may be considered as modifications of the tracheid
in which the mechanical function of strength is emphasized at the
expense of water conduction. Intermediate forms between these
cells and parenchyma are shown in the diagram which were not
brought out in the other classifications. Epithelial cells of resin
ducts are shown as specialized forms of parenchyma.

,T
-
^-^
,
^" ^^ TRACHETDS

Fibre-tracheids
Ray

^ *a,
tracheitis

e
^s-^ -
Ray parenchyma

t\ >
£
*••
/
Epithelial celU

Vessels I
—^ 5 '

'Substitute fibres '

"*""*""^,l^'
I
!" * ISeptate fibres [" Wood parenchyma
l i

Libriform fibres

VESSELS

Vessels are compound elements; they are composed of segments

which have become fused at the ends (and sometimes at the sides
as well) into vertical series. Each segment normally arises from a
single cambial cell and when first formed is completely inclosed by
the middle lamella and is morphologically a tracheid. After fusion
the cells function, not as a series of individuals, but as a continuous
tube.
The segments may abut on each other squarely at the ends
or overlap more or less. Both forms may occur
same vessel, in the
though decidedly elongated tips are characteristic of certain
species. Such tips are usually provided with bordered pits and in
some instances exhibit spiral thickenings even though the body of
 .

ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 133

the segment does not. Sometimes segments are fused through

their lateral walls, or the end of one segment may be joined to the
lateral wall of another, but such forms are to be considered ex-
ceptional.
The plane of contact between segments may be (a) horizontal
:

or transverse, that is, at right angles to the axis of the vessel; (6)
oblique or inclined, almost always facing the ray; (c) vertical or
longitudinal. The last may be considered an extreme form of the
oblique unless it occurs where segments are fused through their
lateral walls.

VESSEL PERFORATIONS

The opening from one segment into another is called the vessel
perforation.The various types and modifications of vessel per-
forations supply features highly important for diagnostic purposes.
The two principal forms are :(a) the simple and (b) the scalariform.
Insofar as our commercial woods are concerned knowledge of these
two types is sufficient. There are various other forms, however,
though most of them are modifications or malformations of the
two principal types. The reticulate form is not uncommon,'
especially in the Rosaceae, and tendency to it is seen in the branch-
ing and anastomosing bars in almost all woods with scalariform
perforations. In Rosa sp. the author has observed in a single
section, simple (predominating), scalariform, reticulate, pit-
perforate, and various composite perforations.
The following classification shows the range of variation in
perforations, though there are innumerable forms of the composite.
A few instances, mostly exotics, are cited as illustrations of the
rarer kinds.

TYPES OF VESSEL PERFORATIONS

Simple: (Single opening, circular, elliptical or elongated-elliptical.)

Scalariform: (Openings slit-like or elongated between cross
bars.)
Bars transverse (Common form).
Bars vertical (Very rare. In certain Composite and Axyris
amarantoides)
Reticulate : (Irregular openings as meshes between anastomosing
. bars.)
 .

134 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

Mtjltiperforate (Plural
: circular or elliptical openings.)
Few comparatively large openings (Ephedra; occasionally in
Yaccinium uliginosum and Leitneria floridana)
Numerous small openings (Canella alba; Menziesiaferruginea).
Pit-perforate: (Not readily distinguishable from pits.) (Oc-
casionally in Meisteria cernua, Lithospermum fruiticosum,
Cheirodendron sp., Rosa sp.)
Composite: (Mostly malformations occasionally met with.)
Simple-scalarif orm : (Qaillaja, certain Bignoniaceas, etc.)
Simple-reticulate: (Sorbus aucuparia, Sidonia vulgaris, Rosa
sp., Cheirodendron gaudichaudii, etc.)
Scalariform-reticulatc (Didymopanax morototoni.)
:

Simple perforations characterize a large majority of our native

woods. Where the plane of perforation is transverse or only
slightly inclined the simple type is almost invariably found.
Where the perforation is inclined it may be either simple or scalari-
form. The opening may be circular, elliptical, or oblong-
elliptical. The elliptical form prevails where the plane of perfora-
tion is oblique. Usually the end walls are not completely removed
in the formation of a simple perforation and the border remaining
is called the annular ridge. This ridge may vary in width from
very narrow to fairly broad.
There are a number of families in which all of the investigated
genera have exclusively simple perforations. Prominent among
these are the following: Aceracege, Bignoniaceae, Ebenacese, Jug-
landacese, Leguminosae, MoraceaB, Salicacese, and Tihacese. There
are a number of others in which the simple type predominates but
where scalariform perforations are occasionally or rarely found in
the secondary wood or where, from the nature of the perforations
in the primary wood, they are to be expected. Important ex-
amples are the Betulacese, Fagaceae and Rosacea?. Both simple
and scalariform perforations may occur commonly side by side in
the secondary wood, as for example, in Fagus and Platanus. Oc-
casionally a segment is found in which the perforation at one end
is simple and at the other scalariform. Table VII includes nearly
all of the genera of native trees having vessel perforations exclu-

sively or predominately simple. The representatives of the

families marked with (*) exhibit some tendency toward the forma-
tion of the scalariform type. The more important genera are
sho vn in italics.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 135

TABLE VII
Indigenous Woods with Vessel Perforations Exclusively or Pre-
dominantly Simple
Acerace^b *
Ericace^: Parkinsonia Malus
Acer Arbutus Prosopis Prunus
Anacardiace^i Arctostaphylos Robinia Sorbus
*
Cotiims EuphorbiacEjB Sophora Vauquelinia
Rhus Drypetes Zygia RuBIACEjE
Fagace^ *
Anonace^; LeITNERIACEjE Pinckneya
Anona Castanea Leitneria RUTACE^E
*
Asimina Castanopsis MaGNOLIACEjE Amyris
Betulace-e * Fagus Magnolia Fagara
Carpinus Quercus acuminata Helietta
Ostrya HlPPOCASTANACE-E MeLIACEjE Ptelea
BlGNONIACEiE JZsculus Swietenia Salicace^e
i
Catalpa JUGLANDACE^; Morace^b Populus
Chilopsis Hicoria Morus Salix
Crescentia Juglans Toxylon Sapindace^e
* Oleace^b
BORAGINACE.E LaURACEjB Exothea
Ehretia Ocotea Chionanthus Hypelate
BuRSERACE^i Persea Fraxinus Sapindus
Bursera Sassafras Osmanthus Ungnaria
Cactace^i Umbellaria POLYGONACEjE Sapotace^e
Cereus Leguminos^; Coccolobis Bumelia
Opuntia Acacia RHAMNACEiB Chrysophyllum
Capparidace* Cercidium Ceanothus Sideroxylon
Capparis Cercis Colubrina SlMARUBACE^E
Caprifoliace^i* Cladrastis Condalia Ailanthus (Nat.)
Sambucus Dalea Krugiodendron Simaruba
CoMBRETACEjB Eysenhardtia Reynosia Tiliace^e
*
Buceras Gleditsia Rosacea Tilia
Conocarpus *
Gymnocladus Amelanchier ULMACE.E
Laguncularia Icthyomethia Cercocarpus Celtis
EbENACEjE Leuca?na Chrysobalanus Planera
Diospyros Lysiloma Crataegus Ulmus
Olneya Heteromeles ZyGOPHYLLACEjE
Lyonothamnus Guaiacum
* With some tendency to scalariform, particularly in the region of primary wood.

Scalariform perforations look like a grid-iron or grating with an

ellipticalor elongated-elliptical contour. The bars, with very
rare exceptions, are arranged horizontally or transversely. As
the plane is almost invariably strongly oblique and facing the ray,
the structure is seen to much better advantage in radial sections

than in the transverse and tangential. Macerated material is

better still since a portion of the tilted plate is likely to be cut off
in sectioning. Bars may also be seen in the lumina of some of the
vessels in the transverse section, especially if the section is rather
thick.
The number of bars in a perforation varies from very few to
136 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

more than 100. Within the same species, however, the variation
is within narrower limits, though the number is never constant.
In Magnolia and Liriodendron, for example, the number of bars is
usually less than 15 and the spaces are wide, while in Ilex, Nyssa,
and Liquidambar the bars are much more numerous and are closely
spaced.
In the following table are listed the genera of native woods in
which the vessel perforations are exclusively scalariform. In a
few cases, perhaps, simple perforations will occasionally be found
in association with the predominant type. The list is believed to
be complete so far as the trees are concerned but not for the shrubs.
Eight of the genera yield wood of commercial importance. It will
be noted that no ring-porous wood is included. Scalariform per-
forations are never found in large vessels, such for instance as are
individually distinct to the unaided eye, presumably because the
presence of gratings would interfere with the function of large
vessels, namely, the rapid conduction of water in quantity. Solere-
der calls attention to "the striking fact that the occurrence of
scalariform perforations in the vessel often goes hand in hand with
small lumina and the presence of bordered pits on the prosen-
chyma." (Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, p. 1138.)

TABLE VIII
Indigenous Woods with Vessel Perforations Exclusively Scalariform
AqUIFOLIACEjE Magnoliace^e
Ilex Liriodendron
Betulace^; Magnolia (mostly)
Betula Myricace^e
Alnus Myrica*
Corylus Myrtace^e
CaPRIFOLIACEjE Eugenia
Viburnum RfflZOPHORACEiE
CORNACEjE Rhizophora
Cornus SaXIFRAGACEjE
Nyssa Philadelphus
Cyrillace.e Hydrangea
Cyrilla Ribes
Cliftonia SyMPLOCACEjE
Ericaceae Symplocos
Rhododendron Staphyleace^b
Kalmia Staphylea
Vaecinium StyraCEjE
Andromeda Mohrodendron
Hamamelidace^j Theace^
Liquidambar Gordonia
Hamamelis
* Some simple perforations present in Myrica cali/ornica.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 137

VESSEL markings: SPIRALS AND PITS

The first-formed elements of the primary wood, those nearest

the pith, have walls characteristically marked with annular and
spiral thickenings. During the process of rapid elongation of the
stem these elements are stretched out, the spirals or rings sepa-
rated, and the thin, unpitted walls between the thickenings are
likely to be torn and broken down. Such elements comprise that
portion of the primary wood known as the -protoxylem. The cells
of the primary wood subsequently formed make up what is known
as the metaxylem. The walls of the vascular elements of the
metaxylem are thickened in a scalariform (ladder-like), reticulate
(net-like), or pitted (dotted) manner.
The vessels (and tracheids) of the secondary wood are pitted,
are without annular thickenings, and may or may not be spiral.
The presence of spirals is a valuable diagnostic feature, and the
vessels of smaller lumina exhibit them to best advantage. In a
given wood all of the vessels may bear spirals or, especially where
there is considerable variation in the size, only the smaller vessels

may be thus marked. Conspicuously large vessels are invariably

without spirals just as they are also without scalariform perfora-
tions.
Spirals exhibitconsiderable variation in distinctness. In
some Ulmus, they are very pronounced, in others, e.g.,
cases, as in
Tilia, they are fine but distinct, and again they may be very fine
and indistinct, as in Magnolia. In some instances, as previously
stated, only the overlapping tips of the segments are spiral and
these are often indistinct.
Tracheids which closely resemble vessel segments except in the
absence of perforations, have the same markings as the vessels.
Fibre-tracheids may also be spiral. This is normally the case
in Ilex and occasionally in certain Rosacea?, Ericaceae, and others.
The author has noted them in Arbutus and Arctostaphylos. Their
presence provides a valuable diagnostic feature.
138 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

TABLE IX
Indigenous Woods with Spiral Markings in Part or in All of
the Vessels

ACERACE/E Oxydendrum Rhamnace^e

Acer Rhododendron Ceonothus
AnACARDIACEjE Vaccinium Rhamnus
Cotinus Hamamelidace^e Rosacea
Rhus Liquidambar Amelanchier
AnONACEjE HlPPOCASTANACEjE Aronia
Asimina Msculus Cercocarpus
Aquifoliace^b Leguminosje Prunus
Ilex Cercis Pyrus (in part)
Bethlace^e Gleditsia Rosa
Carpinus Oymnocladus Sorbus
Osirya Robinia Scrophulariace^e
BlGNONIACEiE LeITNERIACEjE Paulownia (Nat.)
Catalpa Leitneria SIMARTJBACE.E
BORAGINACE.E Magnoliace^e Ailanthus (Nat.)
Ehretia Magnolia Koeberlinia
Cheiranthodendr^e Meliace^e Tiliace^e
Fremontodendron Melia (Nat.) Tilia
Ericaceae Morace.e UlmacejE
Arbutus Broussonetia (Nat.) Celtis
Arctostaphylos Morus Ulmus
Andromeda Toxylon Planera
Kalmia Oleace^e
Chionanthus
Osmanthus

The vessels of secondary wood are always pitted. (See pits,

p. 31.) This featureseen to best advantage in macerated
is

material, especially where the vessels are so large that most of the
wall is cut away in sectioning. The nature of the pitting is de-
termined by the contiguous elements. The number, form, and
arrangement of the pits on a given area of wall depends upon the
particular kind of cell in contact there and the breadth of the sur-
face of contact. The character of the pitting between adjacent
vessels and between vessels and ray parenchyma is the most im-
portant for diagnostic purposes.
Pits between vessels are invariably bordered. The features
worthy of special notice are the arrangement of the pits, the size
and contour of the border, and the nature of the pit mouths. It
is very common to find vessels in groups so compressed that the
walls of mutual contact are flattened out broadly. In walls thus
flattened it is not uncommon to find pits that are greatly elongated
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 139

transversely and arranged in a vertical series like the rungs of a

ladder. This scalariform pitting is characteristic of the vessels in
Magnolia, is common in Liriodendron and Nyssa, less so in Liqui-
dambar, Ilex and Platanus, and of sporadic occurrence in Castanea,
Castanopsis, Quercus, and some others. Since radial grouping is
the most common, the pitted surfaces usually appear to better
advantage in tangential than in radial sections.
Pits between vessels and ray cells are simple on the ray side
but may be bordered, simple, or transitional on the other. These

TABLE X
Nature of Pitting of Vessel Wall where in Contact with Ray
Parenchyma

Family
140 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

pits may be very small, medium or large, often with considerable

variation in the same specimen.
In woods with heterogeneous
rays the marginal cells are usually more prominently pitted than
the others. In Gordonia and Oxydendrum the pits are simple
or only slightly bordered and are frequently in scalariform ar-
rangement. In Sideroxylon and Chrysophyllum many of the pits
are small and bordered while others are large, simple or nearly so,
elliptical or elongated-elliptical and disposed horizontally, verti-
cally or diagonally, resembling perforations rather than pits. In
Magnolia it is common to find much elongated borders about
groups of small pits.
Table X gives for the different families the dominant type
of pits in vessels where in contact with the rays. Where both
types are indicated with connecting line it refers to their occur-
rence side by side in the same wood; otherwise in different woods
of same family. An arrow indicates transitions from the pre-
vailing type.

VESSEL CONTEXTS

The principal contents of vessels that have ceased to function

actively as water-carriers are (a) (parenchymatous in-
tyloses
trusions) and (6) various deposits or excretions such as gums,
resins, lime, etc. Sometimes such features are constant and con-
spicuous enough to be of value for diagnostic purposes. In a great
many cases, however, there is too much variation for dependable
results. Generally it is merely a question as to whether the pores
appear open or closed rather than exact determination by micro-
scopic means of the presence or absence of certain contents. The
feature is of most importance in woods with large pores.
The following table gives the results of some investigations by
the author on the occurrence of tyloses and gum deposits in in-
digenous woods and a few that have been introduced. The find-
ings do not in all cases agree with those of other investigators and
in some instances are not to be considered as final, especially where
non-occurrence is indicated, owing to the great likelihood of varia-
tion in different specimens.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 141

TABLE XI
Occurrence of Tyloses and Gum Deposits in Vessels of Indigenous
Woods

Genus
142 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

RING-POROUS AND DIFFUSE-POROUS WOODS

There are 36 indigenous genera, exclusive of shrubs and vines,

with ring-porous woods, at least in part, and 4 that have become
thoroughly naturalized in the United States. These 40 genera
are representatives of 20 famihes of which only four, each con-
sisting of a single genus, are exclusively ring-porous. Sixteen of
these genera supply wood of more or economic importance.
less
In the case of Quercus the live oaks are mostly diffuse-porous,
while one species of Hicoria and one or two of Ulmus are rather
intermediate, at least in certain instances. Some species of Prosopis
are diffuse-porous and some other genera, e.g., Leitneria and
Ptelea, produce woods which require rather close observation to
note their ring-porous nature.
There are 35 families whose indigenous representatives are
exclusively diffuse-porous. Eleven of these families include 15
genera of economic woods. Of a total of 147 indigenous dicotyle-
donous woods, 113 or nearly 80 per cent are diffuse-porous. Inso-
far as the economic woods are concerned, however, the division is
about equal.
 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 143

TABLE XII
Families with Indigenous Representatives Exclusively
Diffuse-porous

Aceraceae Cornaceae Platanaceae

Aquifoliacese Cyrillaceae Polygonaceae
Betulaceae Ericaceae Rhamnacea?
Boraginaceae Euphorbiaceae Rhizophoracese
Burseraceae Hamamelidaceae Rosacea?
Canellaceae Hippocastanaceae Salioaceae
Capparidacea? Koeberliniacea? Styraceae
Caprifoliaeeae Magnoliaceae Symplocaoeae
Caricaceee (?) Myricaceae Theaceae
Celastraoeae Myrsinaceae Theophrastaceae
Combretaceae Myrtaceae Tiliacese
Nyctaginaceae Zygophyllacese

TABLE XIII
Indigenous Ring-porous Woods
Acacia Cotinus Paulownia (Nat.)
Ailanthus (Nat.) Dalea Parkinsonia
Asimina Diospyros Pinckneya
Avieennia Ehretia Prosopis
Broussonetia (Xat.) Eysenhardtia Ptelea
Bumelia Fraxinus Quercus
Castanea Fremontodendron Rhamnus
Castanopsis Gleditsia Rhus
Catalpa Gvmnocladus Robinia
Celtis Hicoria (Carya) Rapindus
Cercis Leitneria Sassafras
Chilopsis Melia (Nat.) Sophora
Chionanthus Morus Toxylon
Ulmus
 . .

144 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

TABLE XIV
Nature of Pitting in Wood Fibres of Indigenous Woods

Genus Simple
Bor-
Genua Sim » te B
dered d e°red

Acacia X Juglans X
Acer X Kalmia X
iEsculus -X Leitneria X
Ailanthus (Nat.) Liquidambar X
Alnus X Liriodendron X
Amelanchier X Magnolia X
Amyris -X Melia X
Andromeda X Mohrodendron. . . . X
Anona X Morus
Arbutus X- Myrica X
Arctostaphylos X- Nyssa -X
Asimina X Ocotea X
Avicennia X Olneya X
Betula X Ostrya X
Broussonetia (Nat.). X Oxydendrum X
Bumelia X Parkinsonia X
Bursera X Paulownia (Nat.). X
Carpinus X Persea X
Castanea X Planera X
Castanopsis X Platanus X
Catalpa X Populus X
Ceanothus X Prosopis X
Celtis X Prunus X
Cercis X Ptelea X
Cercocarpus X Pyrus X
Chilopsis X Quercus X
Chionanthus X Rhamnus X
Chrysophyllum X- Rhizophora X
Cladrastis X Rhododendron. . .

Cornus X Rhus X
Cotinus X Robinia X
Crataegus X Salix X
Cyrilla X Sambucus X
Diospyros X Sapindus X
Eucalyptus (Int.). . . X Sassafras X
Fagus X Sideroxylon X
Ficus X Swietenia X
Fraxinus X- Symplocos X
Fremontodendron. . X Tilia -X
Gleditsia X Toxylon X
Gordonia X Ulmus X
Guaiacum X Umbellaria X
Gymnocladus X Vaccinium X
Hamamelis X Viburnum X
Hicoria (Carya) .... X Xanthoxylum X
Ilex X
Arrows indicate transitions from the prevailing type.
 . . ..

ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES 145

TABLE XV
Kinds of Rays in Indigenous Dicotyledonous Woods

Genus
Homo- Hetero- Homo- Hetero-
geneous geneous geneous geneous

Acacia X Juglans X-
Acer X Kalmia X
jEsculus -x Leitneria X
Ailanthus (Nat.) X Liquidambar X
Alnus X Liriodendron X
Amelanchier X Magnolia X
Amyris X Melia (Nat.) X
Andromeda X Mohrodendron. . . X
Anona -X Morus X
Arbutus X Myrica X
Arctostaphylos X Nyssa X
Asimina X Ocotea X
Avicennia X Olneya X
Betula X Ostrya X
Broussonetia (Nat.).. X Oxydendrum X
Bumelia X Parkinsonia
Bursera X Paulownia (Nat.) X
Carpinus X Persea X
Castanea -X Planera X
Castanopsis -X Platanus X
Catalpa X- Populus X
Ceanothus X Prosopis X
Celtis X Prunus
Cere is X Ptelea
Cercocarpus X Pyrus X
Chilopsis X Quercus X-
Chionanthus -X Rhamnus -X
Chrysophyllum X Rhizophora X
Cladrastis X Rhododendron. . X
Cornus X Rhus X
Cotinus X Robinia X-
Crataegus X- Salix X
Cyrilla X Sambucus X
Diospyros X Sapindus X
Eucalyptus (Int.). . . Sassafras X
Fagus -X Sideroxylon X
Ficus X Swietenia X
Fraxinus X Symplocos X
Fremontodendron. . . . X Tilia X
Gleditsia X Toxylon X-
Gordonia X Ulmus X
Guaiacum X Umbellaria X-
Gymnocladus X Vaccinium X
Hamamelis X Viburnum X
Hicoria (Carya) X- Xanthoxylum. . . .
X
Ilex X
Arrows indicate transitions from the prevailing type.
146 ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES

TABLE XVI
Indigenous Woods with "Ripple Marks"

Species
 INDEX
Abies 23, 29, 30, 45, 64, 127 Anona 8,135,144,145
amabilis 52, 80 Anonacese 135, 138, 139
balsamea 17, 52, 80 Appendix 127
concolor 80
17, 52, Apple 104
grandis 17, 52, 80 Aquifoliaceae
magnifica 52, 80 128, 129, 136, 138, 139, 143
nobilis 52,80 Araliaeeae 139
Acacia. . . .68, 135, 141, 143, 144, 145 Arborvitee 84
Acer 7, 27, 40, 43, 44, 47, 64, 66, 129, Arbutus 135, 137, 138, 141, 144, 145
135, 138, 141, 144, 145 Arctostaphylos
macrophyllum 102 135, 137, 138, 141, 144, 145
negundo 52,102 Arizona white pine 76
californicum 102 Aronia 138
nigrum 102 Artemisia 146
rubrum 20, 37, 51, 103 Ash 92, 93, 129
saccharinum 37, 103 Asimina 8, 52, 135, 138, 141, 144, 145
saccharum 37, 47, 51, 102 Aspen 108
Aceracese Avicennia 141, 143, 144, 145
36, 129, 134, 135, 138, 139, 143 Axyris 133
^sculus 7, 15, 22, 24, 25, 27, 40, 47,
64, 129, 135, 138, 141, 144, 145, 146 Bacchahis 146
ealifornica 51, 107 Bald cypress 82
glabra 52, 107 Balsam fir 79,80
octandra 39, 107 Bark 5, 8-10, 127
Aggregate rays 27 Basswood 106, 129
Ailanthus Bast fibres 8, 66
7, 135, 138, 141, 143, 144, 145 Bay 106
Alder 107,129 poplar 105
Algaroba 91 Beech 101, 129
Alnus 7, 26, 51, 105, 107, 129, 136, Betula 7, 10, 15, 27, 37, 43, 64, 66,
139, 141, 144, 145 68, 129, 136, 139, 141, 144, 145
Amelancbier. . . 135, 138, 141, 144, 145 lenta 37, 51, 65, 103
Amyris 135, 141, 144, 145 lutea 37, 51, 103
Anacardiaceae 135, 138, 139 nigra 20, 37, 51, 103
Andromeda 136, 138, 144, 145 papyrifera 37, 51, 104
Angiosperms 6, 11, 127, 129 populifolia 37, 104
Annual rings 40-43 Betulacese
Annular ridge 134 36, 129, 134, 135, 138, 139, 143
147
148 INDEX

Big shellbark hickory 95 California nutmeg 85

Biglovia 146 walnut 96
Bignoniacese white pine 76
128, 129, 134, 135, 138, 139 Cambium 11, 12
Bigtree 81 Camphor trees 68
Birch 103, 129 Camphora 68
Bitternut hickory 95 Canella 134
Black ash 93 Canellaceae 139, 143
birch 103 Canoe cedar 84
cherry 102, 129 Capparidaceae 1 35, 139, 143
gum 105 Capparis 135
jack oak 87 Caprifoliacea; 135, 136, 139, 143
locust 129 Caricaceae 143
maple 102 Carpinus, 9, 26, 41, 51, 99, 135, 138,
oak 87 139, 141, 144, 145
spruce 79 Carya (see Hicoria)
walnut 96 Case-hardening 58
willow 99, 108 Castanea 20, 40, 47, 48, 52, 68, 69,
Blue ash 94 129, 135, 139, 141, 143, 144, 145
beech 99 dentata 57, 86
gum 98 pumila 51, 86
Boraginacea; 135, 138, 139, 143 Castanopsis 51, 86, 129, 135, 139, 141,
Bordered pits 16, 31-35, 131 143, 144, 145
Boxelder 99 Cat spruce 79
Broadleaf woods 7, 17, 85 Catalpa 44, 64, 68, 92, 129, 135, 138,
Brousonnetia 138, 141, 143, 144, 145 141, 143, 144, 145
Brown ash 93 bignoniodes 92
"cottonwood" 108 catalpa 9252,
Buceras 135 speciosa 52, 92
Buckeye 107, 129 Ceanothus 135, 138, 144, 145
Bull pine 76 Cedar 82, 83, 127
Bumelia 135, 141, 143, 144, 145 elm 90
Bur oak 88 -like woods 127
Bursera 135, 141, 144, 145 Cedrus 80
Burserace» 135, 139, 143 Celastraceae 139, 143
Butternut 96 Cell wall 130
Buttonball 100 Celtis 20, 25, 27, 44, 45, 51, 129, 135,
138, 141, 143, 144, 145
Cactace^e 135 mississippiensis 89
Caesalpina 65 occidentalis 89
Caesalpineae 30 Cercidium 67, 135, 141
Calcium oxalate 21 Cercis. . .135, 138, 143, 144, 145, 146
California black oak 87 Cercocarpus. .135, 138, 141, 144, 145
buckeye 107 Cereus 135
laurel 98 Chamaecyparis 64, 80, 127
 INDEX 149

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana 20, 52, 67, Cortex 8

68, 69, 83 Corylus 136, 139
nootkatensis 51, 68, 83 Cotinus, 135, 138, 141, 143, 144, 145
sphaeroidea 85 Cottonwood 99, 108, 129
thyoides 20, 68, 85 Cow oak 88
Checking of wood 56 Crataegus. 51, 128, 135, 141, 144, 145
Cheiranthodendrae 138 Crescentia 135, 146
Cheirodendron 134 "Cross-field" 74
Cherry 102, 129 Crystals 9, 19, 21
birch 103 Cuban pine 77
Chestnut 86, 129 Cucumber tree 106, 129
oak 88 Cupressus 51, 127
Chilopsis 141, 143, 144, 145 Cypress 82, 127
Chinquapin 86, 129 Cyrilla 136, 144, 145
chestnut 86 Cyrillacea: 136, 139, 143
oak 88
Chionanthus 135, 138, 143 Dalbergia 146
Chrysobalanus 135 Dalea 135, 143
Chrysophyllum. . . . 135, 140, 144, 145 Density 49-52
Cinnamomum 68 Dicotyledons, 7, 13, 14, 21, 30, 41, 61,
Cladrastis 64, 96, 135, 141, 144, 145 85, 127, 128, 129
Chlorophora 65 Didymopanax 134
Cliitonia 136 Diffuse-porous woods,
Chilopsis 135 16, 43, 95, 142-3
Coccolobis 135 Diospyroa 21, 22, 39, 51, 64, 94, 129,
Coffee tree 92, 129 135, 141, 143, 144, 145, 146
Color of wood 64-66 Dipterocarpeas 30
Colubrina 135 Dogwood 129
Combretaceas 135, 143 Douglas fir 78, 127
Common catalpa 92 pine 78
Composite 133 spruce 78
Composite perforations 133-4 Drimys 14
"Compression wood" 77 Drying of wood 53
Condalia 50, 135 Dryobalanus 68
Conductivity 62 Drypetes 135
Coniferae 6, 127 Ducts, gum 30
Conjugate cells 25 resin 9, 23, 29-31, 78
Conocarpus 135 Dyewoods 65
Cork 9, 10
cambium 9 Eastern hemlock 81
Cornaceae 129, 136, 139, 143 Ebenaceae. . . .128, 129, 134, 135, 139
Cornus, Ehretia 135, 138, 143
7, 15, 100, 129, 136, 141, 144, 145 Elements of wood 13, 131
florida 51, 101 Elm 89, 129
nuttallii 101 Epidermis 8
150 INDEX

Epithelial cells 22, 78, 132 Gloss 66-67

Ephedra 134 Gordonia 136, 140, 144, 145
Ericaceae. 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 143 Grain 46-48
Eucalyptus .47, 57, 98, 141, 144, 145 Gray birch 104
Eugenia 136 Green ash 94
Euphorbiaceae 135, 139, 143 Growth rings 16, 40-43
Evergreen oak 98 Guaiacum 15, 50, 66, 97, 135, 138,
Exothea 135 141, 144, 145, 146
Eysenhardtia 135, 143 Gum 15, 140-1
ducts 30
Fagace*: 129, 134, 135,139 -wood 105
Fagara 66, 135 Gymnocladus 7, 15, 44, 47, 51, 92,
Fagus 7, 9, 20, 26, 43, 44, 47, 51, 66, 129, 135, 141, 143, 144, 145
100, 101, 129, 134, 135, 141, 144, Gymnosperms 6, 7, 11, 13, 16, 25, 31,
145 38, 40, 43, 61, 73, 127, 129
False rings 41
Fascicular cambium 12 Hackberry 89, 129
Fibres 13, 18-20, 88 Hackmatack 79
Fibre-saturation point 54 Haematoxylon 65
tracheids 132 Hamamelidaceae
Fibrous elements 13, 131 129, 136, 138, 139, 143
Fibro-vascular bundles 7, 12 Hamamelis 136, 141, 144, 145
Ficus 141, 144, 145 Hard maple 102
Fir 80, 127 -woods 7, 85
Five-leaved pines 74 Hardy catalpa 92
Flowering dogwood 101 "Hazel" 105
Foxtail pines 75, 78 Heartwood 6, 44-45, 64
Fraxinus 7, 25, 27, 40, 44, 47, 48, 64, Helietta 135
129, 141, 143, 144, 145 Hemlock 32, 80, 127
americana 22, 51, 94 Heterogeneous rays 24, 25, 145
lanceolata 51, 94 Heteromeles 135
nigra 22, 93 Hickory 92, 95, 129
oregona 51, 93 elm 89
pennsylvanica 51, 94 Hicoria 2, 21, 22, 44, 66, 129, 135, 141,
profunda 94 142, 143, 144, 145
quadrangulata 51, 94 alba 20, 50, 57, 95
Fremontodendron aquatica 51, 95
138, 141, 143, 144, 145 glabra 51, 95
Fusiform rays 25, 29 laciniosa 10, 51, 95
Fustic 65 minima 95
myristicaeformis 95
Giant arborvim: 84 ovata 95
sequoia 81 pecan 95
Gleditsia 15, 51, 92, 129, 135, 138, Hippocastanaceae
141, 143, 144, 145 128, 129, 135, 138, 139, 143
 INDEX 151

Holly 100, 129 Larix occidentalis 79

17, 51,
Homogeneous rays 25, 145 Laurel oak 87
Honey locust 92, 129 Lauraceae 128, 129, 135, 139
"Honey-combed" wood 58 Leguminosae. 129, 134, 135, 138, 139
.

Hop hornbeam 99 Leitneria 31, 50, 52, 135, 138, 141,

Hornbeam 99 142, 143, 144, 145
Hydrangea 136 Leitneriaceae 135, 138, 139
Hygroscopicity 59-60 Leueaena 135
Hypelate 135 Libocedrus 17, 22, 52, 68, 69, 80,
83, 127
ICTHTOMBTHIA 136 Libriform fibres 131, 132
Idaho white pine 75 Lignumvitae 97
Ilex 19, 20, 45, 51, 64, 65, 100, 129, Lin 106
136, 137, 138, 139, 141, 144, 145 Liquidambar 14, 19, 20, 30, 33, 40, 47,
Incense cedar 83 51, 57, 64, 105, 129, 136, 138, 139,
Interfascicular cambium 12 141, 144, 145
Intermediate fibers 25, 132 Liriodendron 8, 10, 15, 20, 22, 35, 43,
Ironwood 99 45, 52, 57, 64, 106, 129, 136, 139,
141, 144, 145
Jtjglans 7, 8, 15, 21, 65, 129, 135, 141, Lithospermum 134
144, 145 Live oak 16, 98
calif ornica 96 Loblolly pine 77
cinerea 52, 57, 95, 96 Locust 91, 129
nigra 20, 61, 66, 96 Lodgepole pine 76
Juglandaceae 134, 135, 139 Longleaf pine 77
Jumper 84, 127 Lowland fir 80
Juniperus 10, 22, 41, 44, 45, 47, 51, 64, Luster 66-67
68, 80, 84, 127 Lyonothamnus 135
barbadensis 84 Lysiloma 135
virginiana. . . .49, 57, 66, 67, 68, 84
Maceration of wood 4
Kalmia 136, 138, 141, 144, 145 Maclura 91
Kentucky coffee tree 92, 129 Magnolia 8, 15, 22, 35, 40, 51, 129,
Key to woods 73 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 144,
"Knees" of cypress 82 145
Knots 48-49 acuminata 15, 20, 51, 106, 135
Koeberlinia 138 glauca 51, 106
Koeberliniaceae 139, 143 Magnoliaceae
Krugjodendron 135 14, 33, 129, 135, 136, 138, 139, 143
Mahogany 92, 97, 129
Laguncttlaria 135 Malus 135
Larch 78, 127 Maple 63, 102, 129
Larix 25,29, 31, 36, 127 Medullary rays 21, 23
americana 46, 51, 79 spots 36
laricina 79 Meisteria 134
152 INDEX

Melia 138, 141, 143, 144, 145 Oregon pine 78

Meliaceae 128, 129, 135, 138, 139 Osage orange 91, 129
Menziesii 134 Osmanthus 135, 138
Mesquito 91, 129 Ostrya.50, 99, 135, 139, 141, 144, 145
Metaxylem 11, 137 Overcup oak 88
Middle lamella 130 Oxydendrum.,138, 140, 141, 144, 145
Mockernut hickory 95
Mohrodendron 136, 141, 144, 145 Palms 128
Monocotyledons 7, 127-8, 129 Paper birch 104
Moracex 128, 129, 134, 135, 138, 139 Parenchyma. .19, 21-23, 86, 131, 132
Morus 44, 51, 64, 65, 90, 129, 135, 138, Parenchymatous elements. .13, 131 . .

141, 143, 144, 145 tracheids 17, 27

Mulberry 90, 129 Parkinsonia
Multiperforate perforations. . . . 134 67, 135, 141, 143, 144, 145
Myrica 136, 144, 145 Pasania 98
Myricacea) 138, 139, 143 Paulownia.. 138, 141, 143, 144, 145
. .

Myrsine 139, 143 Pecan hickory 95

Myrtacea; 136, 139, 143 "Pecky" or "peggy" cypress.. 82
cedar 83
Negundo 102 Pencil cedar 84
New Mexico white pine 76 Pepperidge 105
Noble fir 80 Pepperwood 98
Non-porous woods 73 Perforations of vessels
North Carolina pine 77 14, 15, 131, 133-6
Northern pine 75 pit membranes „. , 34
Norway pine 76 Pericycle 8
Nut pine 75,78 Permeability of wood 60-62
Nutmeg 85 Persea 135, 141, 144, 145
hickory 94 Persimmon 92, 94, 129
Nyctaginaceae 139, 143 Phelloderm 9
Nyssa 8, 45, 47, 57, 64, 99, 129, 136, Phellogen 9
139, 141, 144, 145 Philadelphus 136
aquatica 105 Phloem 8, 11, 129
biflora 105 Physical properties of wood
sylvatica 20, 24, 51, 57, 105 2, 5, 49-69
Picea 25, 27, 29, 31, 36, 45, 52, 64, 77
Oak 16, 87, 129 79, 127
Ocotea 135, 144, 145 alba 52, 79
Odor of wood 67-68 canadensis 79
Ohio buckeye 107 engelmanni 17, 52, 79
Oleaceae 129, 135, 138, 139 mariana 79
Olneya 135,141,144,145,146 nigra 52, 79
Opuntia 135 rubens 17, 79
Oregon ash 93 rubra 79
oak 88 sitchensis 17, 52, 79
 INDEX 153

Pignut hickory 95 Platanus

Pin oak 87 10, 26, 66, 129, 134, 141, 144, 145
Pinckneya 135, 143 occidentalis 20, 47, 51, 100
Pine 74, 127
racemosa 100
- wrightii 100
Pink oak 88
Polygonaceae 135, 139, 143
Pifion pine 75
Poplar 106, 109, 129
Pinus 2, 10, 23, 25, 27, 28, 31, 33, 67,
Popple 108
68, 69, 79, 127
Populus 2, 7, 15, 25, 45, 47, 64, 67,
albicaulia 52, 74
129, 135, 141, 144, 145
aristata 51, 75
deltoides 20, 108
australis 77
grandidentata 20, 52, 108
balfouriana 51, 75
heterophylla 20, 52, 108
caribaea 77
tremuloides 52, 108
cembroides 75
trichocarpa 20, 52, 108
contorta . 76
Pores 15
cubensis 77
Porous woods 85
densiflora 76
Port Orf ord cedar 86
echinata 17, 51, 77
Post oak 88
edulis 17, 51, 26, 75
Primary tissues 11, 137
flexilis 52, 74
rays 23
heterophylla 45, 51, 77
Procambium 11
lambertiana 17, 52, 75
Procumbent ray cells 24
laricio 76
Prosenchyma 131
mitis 77
Prosopis 15, 51, 64, 65, 91, 129, 135,
monophylla 51,75
141, 142, 143, 144, 145
monticola 17, 52, 65, 75
Protoderm 11
murrayana 17, 38, 52, 76
Protoxylem 11, 137
palustris
Prunus 30, 47, 51, 102, 128, 129, 135
7, 17, 44, 48, 51, 53, 55, 69, 77
138, 141, 144, 145
ponderosa 17, 30, 31, 51, 76
Pseudotsuga 7, 16, 17, 23, 25, 27, 29
quadrifolia 75
31, 36, 48, 51, 77, 78, 127
resinosa 17, 27, 34, 51, 76
Ptelea. .135, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145
strobiformis 74
"Punk" ash 93
strobus 17, 25, 45, 52, 65, 75
Pumpkin ash 94
sylvestris 76
Pyrus 51, 104, 138, 141, 144, 145
tseda 17, 45, 48, 51, 55, 77
virginiana 17
Quercus 2, 7, 10, 14, 15, 21, 25, 40,
Pith 5, 7-8, 127
47, 48, 50, 67, 68, 129, 135, 139,
flecks 36-37 141, 142, 143, 144, 145
rays 21-27, 145 acuminata 88
Pits 15,31-35, 131 agrifolia 50, 98
Planera 135, 138, 141, 144, 145 alba 20, 45, 47, 51, 88
Plant food 130 bicolor 8S
Platanaceae 129, 139, 143 calif ornica 87
154 INDEX

Quercus chrysolepis 50, 98 Red-wood 81

coccinea 20, 51, 87 Resin cells 22-23
densiflora 98 cysts 29
digitata 87 ducts 9, 23, 29-31
falcata 87 Resinous tracheids 17, 74
garryana 88 Resonance 62-63
hypoleuca 95 Reynosia 135
imbricaria 51, 87 Rhamnacese 135, 138, 139, 143
laurifolia 51, 87 Rhamnus 138, 141, 143, 144, 145
lyrata 88 Rhizophora 135, 141, 144, 145
macrocarpa 42, 51, 88 Rhizophoraceae 135, 139, 143
marilandica 36, 87 Rhododendron 125, 138, 141, 144, 145
michauxii 20, 51, 88 Rhus
minor 88 7, 66, 135, 138, 141, 143, 144, 145
muhlenbergii 88 Ribes 135
nigra 51, 87 Ring, growth 40-43
palustris 51, 87 -porous woods 16, 40, 42, 86
phellos 51, 87 "Ripple marks" 39, 146
platanoides 88 River birch 103
primis 6, 88
51, Robinia 10, 19, 35, 40, 44, 45, 51, 64,
rubra 20, 51, 87 66, 91, 129, 131, 135, 138, 139,
stellata 88 141, 143, 144, 145
suber 10 Rock elm 89
texana 50, 87 maple 102
velutina 51, 87 oak 88
virginiana 20, 98 Rosa 133, 134, 138
wislizeiii 98 Rosacea; 36, 128, 129, 133, 134, 135,
Quillaja 134 137, 138, 139, 143
Rotholz 77
Ray parenchyma 13, 27, 132 Rubiaceee 135, 139
tracheids 13, 27, 76, 80, 132 Rutacea? 135, 139
Rays 21, 26-28, 145
Red alder 97 Salicacete 36, 134, 135, 139, 143
ash 94 Salix 7, 15, 20, 25, 45, 47, 52, 64, 108,
birch 103 129, 135, 141, 144, 145
cedar 83, 84 Sambucus 7, 135, 141, 144, 145
elm 89 Sanio's beams 38
fir 80
78, Santalum 6S
gum 105, 129 Sapindacea? 135, 139
hickory 95 Sapindus 135, 141, 143, 144, 145
maple 103 Sapotaceae 135, 139
mulberry 90 Sapwood 6, 44, 64
oak 87, 141 Sassafras 24, 26, 27, 44, 51, 64, 68, 69,
pine 27, 34, 76 92, 129, 135, 141, 143, 144, 145
spruce 79 Saxifragaceae 136
 INDEX 155

Scalariform markings 33 Sour gum 105

perforations 15, 133, 135-6 Southern cypress 82
pits 33, 139, 140 pine 77
Scarlet oak 87 red cedar 84
Scent 67-68 oak 87
Scrophulariacese 138 swamp white oak 88
Seasoning 53 Spanish oak 87
"Second-growth" 42, 95 Specific gravity 49-52
Secondary rays 23 Spirals 17, 76, 77, 132
rings 41 Spotted oak 87
wall 31 Spruce 63, 78, 79, 127
wood 12-13 Staphylea 136
Sectioning wood 2-3 Staphylaceae 136
Segments, vessel 14, 131, 132-3 Stereuliaeese 139
Semi-bordered pits 32 Stinking cedar 85
Septate fibers 18, 132 stone cells 8, 9
Sequoia 10, 22, 23, 29, 47, 64, 66, 80, Striations 77
81, 127 Structural properties 1,5, 130
gigantea 81 Styracea; 136, 139, 143
sempervirens 17, 23, 52, 82 Substitute fibres 25, 132
washingtoniana 17, 52, 81 Sugar maple 102
Shagbark hickory 95 pine 75
Shellbark hickory 95 -berry 89
Shingle cedar 84 Swamp white oak 88
oak 87 Sweet bay 106
Shortleaf pine 80 birch 103
Shrinkage 56-59 gum 105
Sideroxylon 135, 140, 144, 145 locust 92
Sidonia 134 Swietenia 18, 30, 39, 51, 64, 97, 129,
Sieve tubes 8, 129 135, 141, 144, 145, 146
maple
Silver 103 Sycamore 100, 129
Simaruba 135, 146 Symplocaceae 136, 139, 143
Simarubacese 135, 138, 139 Symplocos 136, 141, 144, 145
Simple perforations 14, 133-5
pits 28, 31, 131 Tamarack 79
Sitka cypress 83 Tanbark oak 95
spruce 79 Tannin 7, 8, 10
Slash pine 77 Taste of wood 69
Slippery elm 89 Taxaceee 6, 7, 13, 22, 85, 127
Soft ash 93 Taxodium 10, 22, 34, 47, 52, 64, 66,
maple 103 68, 80, 82, 127
pine 27, 74 Taxus 7, 10, 16, 44, 77, 80, 127
-woods 7,73 brevifolia 51, 85
Sophora 135, 143, 146 floridana 51, 85
Sorbus 134, 135, 138 Terminal parenchyma 22
156 INDEX
r
Tetracentron 14 Y ascular bundles 11
Texture 46-48 elements 13, 131
Theaceae 136, 139, 143 Vauquelinia 135
Theophrastacea 143 Verbeniaceee 139
Thorn tree 92 Vessels.. .13, 14-16, 75, 131, 132-143
Thuya 22, 68,80, 127 Viburnum 68, 136, 141, 144, 145
gigantea 84 Violet wood 68
ocoidentalis 17, 52, 84
plicata 17, 23, 52, 84 Walnut 96,129
Tier-like structure 39, 165 Warping 56-59
Tilia 7, 10, 15, 22, 27, 64, 129, 135, Water content 52-55
137, 138, 141, 144, 145 beech 99
americana 20, 39, 45, 52, 106, 146 hickory 95
heterophylla 39, 52, 106, 146 oak 87
pubescens 39, 52, 106, 146 Weight of wood 49-52
Tiliacea; 129, 134, 135, 138, 139, 143 Western chinquapin 86
Toxylon 34, 51, 138, 141, 143, 144, 145 dogwood 107
Trabeoulae 38 hemlock 80
Traoheids 13, 15, 16-18, 132 larch 79
Traumatic resin ducts 30, 32, 80 pine 75, 76
Trochodendraceae 14 red cedar 84
Trochodendron 14 soft pine 76
Tsuga.10, 22, 27, 29, 34, 45, 64, 127 white pine 75
canadensis 17, 32, 52, 68, 81 yellow pine 30, 31, 76
heterophylla, 17, 66, 80, 81 White ash 94
Torreya 106, 129 bay 106
Tumion 16, 51, 77, 80, 85, 127 birch 103, 104
Tupelo 105, 129 cedar 84, 85
Turkey oak 88 elm 89
Tyloses 15, 35, 36, 60, 140-1 fir 80
hickory 95
Ulmace*; 135, 138, 139 mulberry 90
Ulraus 7, 25, 27, 48, 68, 129, 135, 137, oak 16, 88
138, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145 pine 74, 75
alata 51, 90 spruce 82
americana 89
20, 51, walnut 96
crassif olia 51, 90 -wood 106
f ulva 89 Willow 108, 128, 129
pubescens 51, 89 oak 87
racemosa 51, 89 Winged elm 90
Umbellaria 135, 141, 144, 145 Wood cells 130
19,
Ungnaria . 135 fibres 13, 18-20
parenchyma 19, 21-23, 86, 130, 132
Vaccinidm 134, 136, 138, 141, 144, structure 130
145 tracheids 13, 16-18
 INDEX 157

Xanthoxyldm. . . .65, 141, 144, 145 Yellow oak 87

Xylem 5, 11 popular 106
-wood 96
Yellow birch 103 Yew 85, 127
buckeye 107 Yucca 128
cedar 82, 83
chestnut oak 88 Zygia 135
cypress S3 Zygogynum 14
fir 78 Zygophyllace® 135, 139, 143
locust 91
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES
All photomicrographs (except frontispiece) show magnification of 50 diameters-
PLATE I.
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.

Map of the United States showing Natural Forest Regions.

PLATE II.
 —

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II.

Fig. 1. Taxodium distichum (bald cypress): cross section through portions

of two growth rings. Several resin cells are visible near the lower edge.

Fig. 2.—Tsuga canadensis (eastern hemlock): cross section. Note decided

-contrast between early and late wood.
Fig. 3. Juniperus virgin inna (red cedar): cross section through median
portion of growth ring showing zonate arrangement of resin cells.-

Fig. 4. — The same: cross section showing very thin late wood; also doubling
of the late wood, producing "false ring." Xote small size of tracheids.

Fig. Quercus alba (white oak) cross section showing small pores with
5. :

thin walls and angular outlines and in broad band; large pores with tyloses.

Fig. 6. Quercus rubra (red oak) :cross section showing small pores with thick
walls and circular outlines, and in narrow band; large pores without tyloses.
 PLATE II.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Fig. 5 Fig. 6
PLATE III.
 —

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III.

Fig. 1. Quercus alba (white oak) : tangential section showing end of large ray
and numerous small uniseriate rays, separated by wood fibres, and occasional
wood-parenchyma strands.
Fig. 2. Ulmus americana (American elm) cross section showing the largest
:

pores in a single row, the small pores in wavy tangential bands.

Fig. Robinia pseudacacia (black locust)

3. cross section showing arrange-
:

ment and parenchyma, and very dense wood fibres in late wood; pores in
of pores
early plugged with tyloses and separated by abundant wood parenchyma and
tracheids.

Fig. 4. Toxylon pomiferum (Osage orange) : radial section showing tyloses

in vessels; wood-parenchyma strands, tracheids and dense wood fibres; and hetero-
geneous ray.

Fig. 5. Gymnocladus dioicus (Kentucky coffee tree) : cross section showing

comparatively large, thin-walled pores in late wood.

Fig. 6. Gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust): cross section showing minute,

thick-walled pores in late wood. Growth ring limited by rather wide zone of wood
parenchyma.
Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Fig. 3 Fig. 4

Fig. 6
PLATE IV.
 ——

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV.

Fig. 1. Hicoria ovata (shagbark hickory): cross section showing very thick-
walled wood fibres and distinct tangential lines of wood parenchyma; large pores
with tyloses.

Fig. 2. Diospyros Virginia nn (persimmon): crns-s section showing rather in-

distinct tangential lines of wood parenchyma; pores without tyloses.
Fig. o. — Hicoria pi can (pecan hickory): tangential section showing very
irregular rays, three large calcium-oxalate crystals, and numerous wood-paren-
chyma strands.

Fig. 4. Diospy/os virginiana : tangential section showing fairly uniform

rays in storied arrangement. Crystals visible, but very small.

Fig. 5. — The same; radial section showing vessel segments, heterogeneous

rays, wood-parenchyma strands, and wood fibres in storied arrangement.

Fig. 6. Juglans nigra (black walnut): showing rays, large

radial section
vessel with tyloses, wood-parenchyma strands, chambered-parenchyma cells with
crystals, and wood fibres.
 Fig. 1 Fig. 2

illli
IIP
Hll

III'"
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Fig. 6
Fig. 5
PLATE V.
 —

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Murux rubra (reel mulberry): cross section showing arrangement of

pores in late wood, width of rays, and presence of tyloses in lar>."' pores.

Fig. 2. Frnxnni.i nigra (black ash): cro.-.s section showing isolated pores in
late wood not joined tangentially by wood parenchyma. Outer margin of growth
ring composed of thin layer of wood parenchyma.
Fig. 3, — Alnus oregona (red alder) : cross section showing aggregate ray and
distribution of poro.

Fig. 4. — The same: tangential section showing aggregate ray, intermediate

uniseriate rays, vessels, wood fibres, and wood-parenchyma strands.

Fig. .j.
— Betula Irnta (sweet or black birch) : cross section showing size and
distribution of pores and width of rays. Note wood-parenchyma cells, isolated
or in short tangential lines.

Fig. 6. Ostrya virginiana (hornbeam): cross section showing size and

arrangement of pores and distribution of wood-parenchyma cells in inconspicuous
tangential lines.
Fro. 5
PLATE VI.
 —

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI.

Fig. 1. Liquidamhar styraciflua (red or sweet gum): cross section showing

size and distribution of pores, width of rays, and arrangement of wood fibres in
radial rows.

Fig. 2. Liriodendron tulipifera (yellow poplar or tulip-tree) : cross section

showing size and distribution of pores, and thin layer of wood-parenchyma cells
marking outer limit of growth ring.
Fig. 3. AIagni>ha acuminata (cucumber tree): tangential section showing
vessels with scalariform bordered pits, and the small biseriate rays.
Fig. 4. Liriodendron tulipifera : tangential section showing vessels with
ordinary bordered pits, and the comparatively large 3-5-seriate rays.

Fig. 5. sEscutus glabra (Ohio buckeye): cross section showing uniform dis-
tribution of pores and rays.

Fig. 6. — The same: tangential section showing very fine uniseriate rays,
irregularly disposed.
PLATE VI

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Fig. 5 Fig. 6
Subjects Related to this Volume
For convenience a list of the Wiley Special Subject Catalogues,
envelope size, has been printed. These are arranged in groups each —
catalogue having a key symbol. (See Special Subject List Below.)
To obtain any of these catalogues, send a postal using the key sym-
bols of the Catalogues desired.

List of Wiley Special Subject Catalogues

1 — Agriculture. Animal Husbandry. Dairying. Industrial Canning
and Preserving.
2 — Architecture. Building. Masonry.
3 — Business Administration and Management. Law.
Industrial Processes Canning and Preserving;
: Oil and Gas
Production; Paint; Printing; Sugar Manufacture ; Textile.

CHEMISTRY
4a General; Analytical, Qualitative and Quantitative ; Inorganic;
Organic.
4b Electro- and Physical; Food and Water ; Industrial; Medical
and Pharmaceutical; Sugar.

CIVIL ENGINEERING
5a Unclassified and Structural Engineering.
5b Materials and Mechanics of Construction, including; Cement
and Concrete Excavation and Earthwork
; Foundations
;
;

Masonry.
5c Railroads; Surveying.
5d Dams ;
Hydraulic Engineering; Pumping and Hydraulics;
Irrigation Engineering; River and Harbor Engineering;
Water Supply.
(Over)
 ;

CIVIL ENGINEERING— Continued

5e Highways; Municipal Engineering; Sanitary Engineering;
Water Supply. Forestry. Horticulture, Botany and Landscape
Gardening.
6— Design. Decoration. Drawing: General; Descriptive
Geometry
Kinematics; Mechanical.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING— PHYSICS

7—General and Unclassified; Batteries; Central Station Practice;
Distribution and Transmission ; Dynamo-Electro Machinery ;

Electro-Chemistry and Metallurgy; Measuring Instruments

and Miscellaneous Apparatus.

8 —Astronomy. Meteorology. Explosives. Marine and Naval

Engineering. Military. Miscellaneous Books.

MATHEMATICS
9 — General;Algebra; Analytic and Plane Geometry; Calculus;
Trigonometry; Vector Analysis.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
10a General and Unclassified; Foundry Practice; Shop Practice.
10b Gas Power and Internal Combustion Engines; Heating and
Ventilation; Refrigeration.
10c Machine Design and Mechanism; Power Transmission; Steam
Power and Power Plants; Thermodynamics and Heat Power.

11- — Mechanics.
12 — Medicine. Pharmacy. Medical and Pharmaceutical Chemistry.
Sanitary Science and Engineering. Bacteriology and Biology.

MINING ENGINEERING
13 — General; Assaying; Excavation, Earthwork, Tunneling, Etc.;
Explosives; Geology; Metallurgy; Mineralogy; Prospecting;
Ventilation.
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