Principles of General Chemistry, 2nd ed. By M.
Silberberg
Chemistry, 8th ed. by W. Whitten, R. Davis, R., M. L. Peck, and G. Stanley.
Lecture Goals
Reaction and Solution 1. Calculations Based on Chemical
Equations
Stoichiometry 2. The Limiting Reactant Concept
3. Percent Yields from Chemical
Reactions
3. Concentrations of Solutions
5. Dilution of solutions
6. Using Solutions in Chemical Reactions
Calculations Calculations
Based on Chemical Equations Based on Chemical Equations
• Can work in moles, formula units, etc.
Stoichiometry • Frequently, in mass or weight (grams
- description of quantitative or kg or pounds or tons).
relationships among elements in
∆
compounds (composition Fe2O3 + 3 CO
→ 2 Fe + 3 CO2
stoichiometry) and among substances
1 formula unit 3 molecules 2 atoms 3 molecules
as they undergo chemical changes 1 mole 3 moles 2 moles 3 moles
(reaction stoichiometry). 159.7 g 84.0 g 111.7 g 132g
Calculations Calculations
Based on Chemical Equations Based on Chemical Equations
Fe 2 O 3(s) + 3CO (g)
→ 2 Fe (s) + 3 CO 2(g)
– Relating reactants to each other:
1 mole Fe 2 O 3
3 moles CO
– Relating reactants to products:
1 mole Fe 2 O 3 3 moles CO 1 mole CO
, ,
2 moles Fe 2 moles Fe 1 mole CO 2
Calculations Calculations
Based on Chemical Equations Based on Chemical Equations
Example: In a lifetime, the average American uses 1750 lb (794 g)
of copper in coins, plumbing, and wiring. Copper is obtained from
sulfide ores, such as chalcocite, or copper(I) sulfide, by a multistep
process. After an initial grinding, the first step is to “roast” the ore
(heat it strongly with oxygen gas) to form powdered copper(I)
oxide and gaseous sulfur dioxide.
(a) How many moles of oxygen are required to roast 10.0 mol of
copper(I) sulfide?
(b) How many grams of sulfur dioxide are formed when 10.0 mol
of copper(I) sulfide is roasted?
(c) How many kilograms of oxygen are required to form 2.86 kg of
copper(I) oxide?
Calculations Calculations
Based on Chemical Equations Based on Chemical Equations
SOLUTION: 2Cu2S(s) + 3O2(g) 2Cu2O(s) + 2SO2(g)
• 1st: Write the BALANCED chemical equation (a) How many moles of oxygen are required to roast 10.0 mol of copper(I) sulfide?
3 mol O2
(a) 10.0 mol Cu2S x = 15.0 mol O2
•2nd:Determine the relationship. 2 mol Cu2S
(b) How many grams of sulfur dioxide are formed when 10.0 mol of copper(I) sulfide is
roasted?
(b) 10.0 mol Cu2S x 2 mol SO2 64.07 g SO2
•3rd: Set-up the necessary equation then solve = 641 g SO2
2 mol Cu2S mol SO2
Calculations Calculations
Based on Chemical Equations Based on Chemical Equations
• Example. The reaction of 20.04 g calcium metal
(c) How many kilograms of oxygen are required to form 2.86 kg of copper(I) oxide?
with excess water leads to the evolution of
3
hydrogen gas and the formation of calcium
(c) 2.86 kg Cu2O x 10 g Cu2O x mol Cu2O
kg Cu2O 143.10 g Cu2O
= 20.0 mol Cu2O hydroxide. How many grams of hydrogen gas are
produced in this reaction?
3 mol O2 32.00 g O2 kg O2
20.0 mol Cu2O x x x = 0.960 kg O2
2 mol Cu2O mol O2 103 g O2
Suggestion: Solve systematically.
Calculations Calculations
Based on Chemical Equations Based on Chemical Equations
• Equation:
• 1st: Write the BALANCED chemical equation
Ca(s) + 2 H2O(l) → H2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq)
•2nd:Determine the relationship.
1mol Ca(s) : 2 mol H2O(l)
: 1 mol H2(g) : 1 mol Ca(OH)2(aq)
Answer = 1.008 g H2(g)
•3rd: Set-up the necessary equation
Limiting Reactant Concept Limiting Reactant Concept
• Reactant whose amount limits the reaction CASES OF THE SANDWICH
• Reactant that will be consumed first • We define the preparation of a HAM
sandwich (or any other sandwich) as
• Coupled with an excess reactant follows:
2 slices bread + 1 ham 1 sandwich
2B + H B2H (BHB)
Limiting Reactant Concept Limiting Reactant Concept
Problem: 7 pieces of Ham and 10 pieces of • Example. What is the maximum mass of sulfur
bread. How many pieces of sandwiches dioxide that can be produced by the reaction of
could be prepared? 95.6 g of carbon disulfide with 110. g of
Consuming all sliced bread: oxygen?
# of sandwich = 10 B x (1 B2H/ 2 B) = 5 B2H • 1st: Write the balanced chemical reaction.
Consuming all ham: • 2nd: Determine the relationship of EACH amount
# of sandwich = 7 H x (1 B2H/ 1 H) = 7 B2H of REACTANT to ONE of the PRODUCTS.
• 3rd: The reactant that yields the SMALLER
Limiting Ingredient: BREAD amount of the product is the LIMITING
Excess Ingredient : HAM REACTANT.
Limiting Reactant Concept Limiting Reactant Concept
CS 2 + 3 O 2 → CO 2 + 2 SO 2 • Example. The reaction of 20.04 g calcium
2 2 2 2
1 mol CS2 2 molSO2 64.1 g SO2 metal with 15.80 g of water leads to the
? g SO2 = 95.6 g CS2 × × × = 161g SO2
76.2 g 1 mol CS2 1 molSO2 evolution of hydrogen gas and the formation
1 mol O2 2 molSO2 64.1 g SO2 of calcium hydroxide. How many grams of
? g SO2 = 110 g O2 × × × = 147 g SO2
32.0 g O2 3 mol O2 1 molSO2 hydrogen gas are produced in this reaction?
• Which is limiting reactant?
Reaction:
– Limiting reactant is O2.
Ca(s) + 2 H2O(l) → H2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq)
• What is maximum mass of sulfur dioxide?
– Maximum mass is 147 g.
Limiting Reactant Concept Excess Reactant
• How much Ca (in g) is in excess?
To proceed: Calculate the amount of the ER
that was used up from the amount of the LR.
Excess Reactant Percent Yields from Reactions
• Theoretical yield is calculated by assuming that
the reaction goes to completion.
Computing how much is in excess – Determined from the limiting reactant calculation.
• 17.58 g Ca(s) was used up in the reaction • Actual yield is the amount of a specified pure
• 20.04 g Ca(s) was present before the product made in a given reaction.
chemical reaction – In the laboratory, this is the amount of product that
is formed purification & drying.
• Percent yield indicates how much of the
Amount of Ca in excess = 20.04 g – 17.58 g product is obtained from a reaction.
Amount of Ca in excess = 2.46 g of Ca actual yield
% yield = × 100%
theoretical yield
Percent Yields from Reactions Percent Yields from Reactions
CH3COOH + C 2H5OH → CH3COOC 2H5 + H2O
• Example. A 10.0 g sample of ethanol,
C2H5OH, was boiled with excess acetic acid,
Theoretica l Yield
CH3COOH, to produce 14.8 g of ethyl acetate,
CH3COOC2H5. What is the percent yield? 88.0 g CH3COOC 2H5
? g CH3COOC 2H5 = 10.0 g C 2H5OH ×
46.0 g C2H5OH
= 19.1 g CH3COOC 2H5
• 1st: Write the balanced chemical equation.
• 2nd: Calculate the theoretical yield. Percent Yield
• 3rd: Calculate the percent yield. % yield =
14.8 g CH3COOC 2H5
× 100 % = 77.5%
19.1 g CH3COOC 2H5
Percent Yields from Reactions Percent Yields from Reactions
• Example. 50.0 grams of propene (C3H6) • Balanced Chemical Reaction
burns in air to form carbon dioxide and
water. If 150.0 grams of CO2 is • Theoretical Yield
produced from the reaction, compute
the % yield of CO2 in this reaction?
Percent Yields from Reactions Concentration of Solutions
• Solution is a mixture of two or more substances
dissolved in another.
– Solute is the substance present in the smaller
amount.
– Solvent is the substance present in the larger
amount.
– In aqueous solutions, the solvent is water.
• The concentration of a solution defines the amount of
solute dissolved in the solvent.
– The amount of sugar in sweet tea can be defined
by its concentration.
Concentration of Solutions Concentration of Solutions
• One common unit of concentration is:
• Example. What mass of NaOH is required to
mass of solute prepare 250.0 g of solution that is 8.00% w/w
% by mass of solute = × 100 %
mass of solution NaOH?
mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent 8.00 g NaOH
% by mass of solute has the symbol % w/w
250 . 0 g solution = 20 . 0 g NaOH
100.0 g solution
Concentration of Solutions Concentration of Solutions
• Example. Calculate the mass of NaOH in • Second common unit of concentration:
300.0 mL of an 8.00% w/w NaOH solution.
Density is 1.09 g/mL.
number of moles of solute
molarity =
number of liters of solution
1.09 g sol' n
? g NaOH = 300.0 mL sol' n × × M =
moles
1 mL sol' n L
8.00 g NaOH mmol
= 26.2 g NaOH M =
100 g sol' n mL
Concentration of Solutions Concentration of Solutions
• Example. Calculate the molarity of a solution • Example. Determine the mass of calcium
that contains 12.5 g of sulfuric acid in 1.75 L nitrate required to prepare 3.50 L of 0.800 M
of solution. Ca(NO3)2 .
? mol H 2SO4 12.5 g H 2SO4 1 mol H 2SO4
= × 0.800 mol Ca(NO 3 ) 2
L sol' n 1.75 L sol' n 98.1 g H 2SO4 ? g Ca(NO 3 ) 2 = 3.50 L × ×
L
0.0728 mol H 2SO4 164 g Ca(NO 3 ) 2
= = 459 g Ca(NO 3 ) 2
L 1 mol Ca(NO 3 ) 2
= 0.0728 M H 2SO4
Concentration of Solutions
Dilution of Solutions
• Example. The specific gravity of concentrated • To dilute a solution, add solvent to a
HCl is 1.185 and it is 36.31% w/w HCl. What concentrated solution.
is its molarity? – One method to make tea “less sweet.”
specific gravity = 1.185 tells us – How fountain drinks are made from syrup.
density =1.185 g/mL or 1185g/L • The number of moles of solute in the two
1185 g solution 36.31 g HCl solutions remains constant.
? mol HCl/L = × × • The relationship M1V1 = M2V2 is appropriate
L solution 100 g sol' n
for dilutions, but not for chemical reactions.
1 mol HCl
= 11.80 M HCl
36.46 g HCl
Dilution of Solutions Dilution of Solutions
• Example. If 10.0 mL of 12.0 M HCl is added
• Common method to dilute
a solution involves the use to enough water to give 100. mL of solution,
of volumetric flask, pipet, what is the concentration of the solution?
and suction bulb/aspirator.
M 1 V1 = M 2 V 2
12 . 0 M × 10 . 0 mL = M 2 × 100.0 mL
12 . 0 M × 10 . 0 mL
M 2 =
100.0 mL
= 1 . 20 M
Dilution of Solutions Using Solutions in Chemical Reactions
• Example. What volume of 18.0 M sulfuric
acid is required to make 2.50 L of a 2.40 M • Combine the concepts of molarity and
sulfuric acid solution? stoichiometry to determine the amounts of
M 1 V1 = M 2 V 2 reactants and products involved in reactions
in solution.
M 2 × V2
V1 =
M1
2.50 L × 2.40 M
V1 =
18.0 M
= 0.333 L or 333 mL
Using Solutions in Chemical Reactions Using Solutions in Chemical Reactions
• Example. What volume of 0.500 M BaCl2 is • Solution:
required to completely react with 4.32 g of
Na2SO4? Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + 2 NaCl
• To proceed: 1 mol Na2SO4
? L BaCl2 = 4.32 gNa2SO 4 × ×
• 1st: Balanced chemical equation 142 g Na2SO4
• 2nd: Identify the relationship & necessary 1 mol BaCl2 1 L BaCl2
quantities × = 0.0608 L
1 mol Na2SO4 0.500 mol BaCl2
• 3rd: Set up the mathematical equation
Using Solutions in Chemical Reactions Using Solutions in Chemical Reactions
• Example. (a)What volume of 0.200 M NaOH will react • (b) What mass of Al(OH)3 precipitates in (a)?
with 50.0 mL 0f 0.200 M aluminum nitrate?
1L
Al (NO 3 )3 + 3 NaOH → Al(OH) 3 + 3 NaNO 3
? g Al(OH)3 = 50.0 mL Al(NO 3 )3 sol' n ×
1000 mL
0.200 mol Al(NO 3 )3 1 mol Al(OH)3 78 .0 g Al(OH)3
1L × ×
? mL NaOH = 50.0 mL Al(NO 3 )3 sol' n × 1 L Al(NO 3 )3 sol' n 1 mol Al(NO 3 )3 1 mol Al(OH)3
1000 mL
= 0.780 g Al(OH)3
0.200 mol Al(NO 3 )3 sol' n 3 mol NaOH
× ×
1 L Al(NO 3 )3 sol' n 1 mol Al(NO 3 )3
1 L NaOH
= 0.150 L or 150 mL NaOH sol' n
0.200 mol NaOH
Using Solutions in Chemical Reactions Using Solutions in Chemical Reactions
• Example. What is the molarity of a KOH solution if
• Titrations are a method of determining the
38.7 mL of the KOH solution is required to react
concentration of an unknown solutions from with 43.2 mL of 0.223 M HCl?
the known concentration of a solution and
solution reaction stoichiometry. KOH + HCl → KCl + H2 O
– Requires special glassware
43.2 mL × 0.223 M HCl = 9.63 mmol HCl
• Buret, pipet, and flasks
1 mmol KOH
– Must have an indicator also 9.63 mmol HCl × = 9 .63 mmol KOH
1 mmol HCl
9.63 mmol KOH
= 0 .249 M KOH
38.7 mL KOH
Using Solutions in Chemical Reactions Exercise
• Example. What is the molarity of a barium hydroxide A fuel mixture used in the early days of
solution if 44.1 mL of 0.103 M HCl is required to react rocketry is composed of two liquids,
with 38.3 mL of the Ba(OH)2 solution? hydrazine (N2H4) and dinitrogen
tetraoxide (N2O4), which ignite on
Ba(OH) 2 + 2 HCl → BaCl 2 + 2 H2O
contact to form nitrogen gas and water
vapor. How many grams of nitrogen
(44.1 mL HCl)(0.103 M HCl) = 4.54 mmol HCl gas form when 1.00 x 102 g of N2H4 and
1 mmol Ba(OH) 2
4 .54 mmol HCl × 2.00 x 102 g of N2O4 are mixed?
2 mmol HCl
= 2.27 mmol Ba(OH) 2
2 .27 mmol Ba(OH) 2
= 0 .0593 M Ba(OH) 2
38 .3 mL Ba(OH) 2
Solution
2 N2H4(l) + N2O4(l) 3 N2(g) + 4 H2O(l)
Exercise
mol N2H4
Specialized cells in the stomach release HCl to aid
1.00 x 102 g N2H4 x = 3.12 mol N2H4 digestion. If they release too much, the excess
32.05 g N2H4
can be neutralized with antacids. A common
3 mol N2
3.12 mol N2H4 x = 4.68 mol N2 antacid contains magnesium hydroxide, which
2 mol N2H4 reacts with the acid to form water and
mol N2O4 magnesium chloride solution. As a government
2.00 x 102 g N2O4 x = 2.17 mol N2O4
92.02 g N2O4
chemist testing commercial antacids, you use
0.10 M HCl to simulate the acid concentration in
3 mol N2
2.17 mol N2O4 x = 6.51 mol N2 the stomach. How many liters of “stomach acid”
mol N2O4 react with a tablet containing 0.10 g of
28.02 g N2
= 131 g N2
magnesium hydroxide?
4.68 mol N2
mol N2
Solution
Exercise
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) Mercury and its compounds have many uses, from
fillings for teeth (as an alloy with silver, copper, and
tin) to the industrial production of chlorine. Because
mol Mg(OH)2 of their toxicity, however, soluble mercury
0.10 g Mg(OH)2 x = 1.7 x 10-3 mol Mg(OH)2
58.33 g Mg(OH)2 compounds, such as mercury(II) nitrate, must be
removed from industrial wastewater. One removal
2 mol HCl
1.7 x 10-3 mol Mg(OH)2 x = 3.4 x 10-3 mol HCl method reacts the wastewater with sodium sulfide
1 mol Mg(OH)2 solution to produce solid mercury(II) sulfide and
1L
sodium nitrate solution. In a laboratory simulation,
3.4 x 10-3 mol HCl x = 3.4 x 10-2 L 0.050 L of 0.010 M mercury(II) nitrate reacts with
0.10 mol HCl
0.020 L of 0.10 M sodium sulfide. How many grams
of mercury(II) sulfide form?
Solution
Hg(NO3)2(aq) + Na2S(aq) HgS(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) “Reputation is how men look
at us. Character is how God
0.050 L Hg(NO3)2 x 0.10 mol x
1 mol HgS
= 5.0 x 10-4 mol HgS
L 1 mol Hg(NO3)2 knows us.”
us.”
0.10 mol 1 mol HgS
0.020 L Na2S x x = 2.0 x 10-3 mol HgS
L 1 mol Na2S
questions?
Hg(NO3)2 is the limiting reagent.
232.7 g HgS
5.0 x 10-4 mol HgS x = 0.12 g HgS
1 mol HgS
