Basic Laboratory

Materials Science and Engineering

Vibrating Sample
M106
Magnetometry
Status: 18.10.2016

Aim: Magnetic characterization of ferromagnetic samples by Vibrating Sample

Magnetometry.

Contents
1. Introduction 2
1.1. Measurement principle 2

2. Basic 5
2.1 Ferromagnetic materials 5
2.1.1 Magnetic domains 5
2.1.2 Hysteresis 7
2.2 Demagnetization 8
2.3 Magnetic Anisotropy 9
2.4 Units 12

3. Experiment 13
3.1 Equipment 13
3.2 Procedure 14

4. Analysis 15

5. Report 15
6. References 16
M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

1. Introduction
Vibrating Sample Magnetometry (VSM) is a measurement technique which allows to
determine the magnetic moment of a sample with very high precision. The aim of this
lab course M106 is to enlarge upon the use of this widespread technique introduced in
the lab course B512, where different ferromagnetic samples were characterized
concerning magnetic hysteresis and demagnetization. Here, we will gain a deeper
understanding of the behavior of magnetic materials and its measurement. In order to
lay the foundations, first the measurement principle and the properties of ferromagnetic
materials will be summarized (magnetic domains, magnetic hysteresis,
demagnetization) and then we will elaborate on the magnetic anisotropy of
ferromagnetic materials.

1.1. Measurement principle

Vibrating Sample Magnetometry (VSM) is based on Faraday's law which states that an
electromagnetic force is generated in a coil when there is a change in flux through the
coil [1]. In the measurement setup, a magnetic sample is moving in the proximity of two
pickup coils as indicated in Fig. 1.

Figure1: Schematic representation of a VSM. Adapted from [1]

The oscillator provides a sinusoidal signal that is translated by the transducer assembly
into a vertical vibration. The sample which is fixed to the sample rod vibrates with a
given frequency and amplitude (60 to 80 Hz and 1 mm, respectively). It is centered
between the two pole pieces of an electromagnet that generates a magnetic field 𝐻 ⃗ 0 of
high homogeneity. Field strengths in the range of 10 A/m are commonly possible with
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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

laboratory VSM systems. Stationary pickup coils are mounted on the poles of the
electromagnet. Their symmetry center coincides with the magnetic center of the static
sample. Hence, the change in magnetic flux originating from the vertical movement of
the magnetized sample induces a voltage 𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑑 in the coils. 𝐻 ⃗ 0 , being constant, has no
effect on the voltage but is necessary only for magnetizing the sample. According to
Faraday, the voltage in a single winding of the pickup coil can be written as

∂Φ
𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑑 = − (1)
∂𝑡

where Φ is the magnetic flux. For 𝑛𝑐 pickup coils with a flat surface 𝐴 and 𝑛𝑤 windings,
Eq. 1 gives

𝜕𝐵
𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑑 = ∑𝑛𝑐 ∑𝑛𝑤 ∫𝐴 𝑑𝐴 (2)
𝜕𝑡

When we bring the sample into the homogeneous field 𝐻 ⃗ 0 along the x axis, it will be
magnetized along the direction of the field, resulting in a magnetic moment 𝑚 ⃗⃗ of the
sample. Then, the sample will be moved periodically relative to the pickup coils. Here,
we will consider a sinusoidal movement 𝛿(𝑡) of the sample perpendicular to the
⃗ 0 (along the z axis) with amplitude 𝑧̂ and frequency 𝜔
direction of 𝐻

𝑑𝑧
𝛿(𝑡) = = 𝑧̂ · 𝜔 · cos⁡(𝜔𝑡) (3)
𝑑𝑡

⃗ . For a point
A moving magnetic moment means a change in the magnetic flux density 𝐵
at a distance 𝑟⃑ from the sample, it is

⃗ = 𝜇0 · δ(t) · ∇{𝐻
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃑ (𝑟⃑)}. (4)

With the field strength at distance 𝑟⃑ from the sample being

⃗⃗⃗⃑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑𝑟⃑)𝑟⃑
⃗⃑ (𝑟⃑) = 1 · ( 𝑚
𝐻
3·(𝑚∙
− 𝑟5 ) (5)
4·𝜋 𝑟3

and the magnetic moment being oriented along the x axis

𝑚
⃗⃗⃑ = ( 0 )
𝑚
0

we get

𝑥 · (3 · 𝑟 2 − 5 · 𝑥 2 ) 𝑦 · (𝑟 2 − 5 · 𝑥 2 ) 𝑧 · (𝑟 2 − 5 · 𝑥 2 )
⃗⃑ (𝑟⃑) = − 3·𝑚7 ( 𝑦 · (𝑟 2 − 5 · 𝑥 2 )
∇𝐻 𝑥 · (𝑟 2 − 5𝑦 2 )
3·𝑚
−5 · 𝑥 · 𝑦 · 𝑧 ) = − 4·𝜋·𝑟 7 · 𝑮 (6)
4·𝜋·𝑟
𝑧 · (𝑟 2 − 5 · 𝑥 2 ) −5 · 𝑥 · 𝑦 · 𝑧 𝑥 · (𝑟 2 − 5 · 𝑧 2 )

where G contains information concerning the position and orientation of the pickup
coils, summarized as the so called geometric factors 𝑔𝑖 .
.

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

Combining (2), (4) and (6) gives the induction voltage

3𝑧̂ 1
𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑑 (𝑡) = − 4∗𝜋 · 𝑚 · 𝜇0 · cos(𝜔𝑡) · ∑𝑛𝑐 ∑𝑛𝑤 ∫𝐴 𝑑𝐴⃑ ∙ (𝑟 7 ) · 𝑮. (7)

It is obvious that a change in time of magnetic flux originates from the vertical sample
movement relative to the coils. The flux change detected by the coils is therefore
proportional to a number of quantities: the frequency 𝜔 of the vibration and its
amplitude 𝑧̂ , the magnetic moment of the sample 𝑚 ⃗⃗ and the distance to the pickup coils
𝑦0 . Furthermore, 𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑑 can be increased by increasing the number of windings 𝑛𝑤 and the
number of pickup coils 𝑛𝑐 used in the setup. Also, the geometry of the pickup coils
influences the induction. [2]

The measurement setup is sensitive even to very low magnetic moments. Today's
vibrating sample magnetometers are able to detect magnetic moments of down to the
µemu range, which corresponds to approx. 10-9 g of iron [3].

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

2. Basic
2.1 Ferromagnetic materials

2.1.1 Magnetic domains

Magnetic materials are distinguished by their behavior in external magnetic fields. For
ferromagnets, the 𝑀(𝐻) dependence is characterized by domain wall movement and
magnetization rotation.
According to the theory of Weiss a non-saturated ferromagnet contains a number of
small regions called domains, in which the local magnetization is homogeneous and
reaches the saturation value. The direction of magnetization in different domains is not
necessarily parallel. Two domains are separated by domain walls which are regions of
approx. 100 nm where the magnetization rotates continuously (Fig. 2). They are
classified by the angle of rotation (90° or 180°) and the mode of rotation (Bloch or Neel,
see detail Fig. 2).

Figure 2: Magnetic domain pattern of a Fe whisker, detail: Bloch and Néel wall. (Adapted
from [4], [5])

When applying an external magnetic field, domains with magnetization parallel to the
field will grow at the cost of domains with energetically more unfavorable magnetization
alignment. As a consequence domain walls move through the sample and the overall
magnetization increases in field direction. In magnetically soft materials, domain walls
are broad and the movement of the walls requires small fields only whereas larger fields
are necessary in magnetically hard materials.
A second mechanism that increases the magnetization is magnetization rotation within
the domains. Due to magnetic anisotropies, certain directions are easier to magnetize
than others. The spontaneous magnetization lies preferably along one of these easy
directions. If the applied external field is not parallel to such an easy direction, the

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

magnetization rotates and aligns along the magnetic flux lines.

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

2.1.2 Hysteresis
With a VSM, the magnetic moment of a sample as a function of the external magnetic
field strength can be measured. Fig. 3 shows (schematically) a typical result of such a
measurement. The demagnetized sample (𝑀 ⃗⃗⃑ = ⃗⃑
0) is firstly magnetized to saturation in
an applied field (virgin curve, see Fig. 3a)).

a) b)

Figure 3: a) Virgin curve, b) Hysteresis loop of a ferromagnetic material. [6]

Indicated are the two commonly used parameters initial permeability 𝜇𝑖 and maximum
𝐵
permeability 𝜇𝑚𝑎𝑥 , defined in terms of a ratio of magnetic flux to field strength .
𝐻
Permeability is not the slope of the virgin curve itself, but the slope of a line between the
origin and a particular point on the curve (e.g. the upper inflection point before
saturation for 𝜇𝑚𝑎𝑥 ).
Increasing and decreasing the external field from the demagnetized state to positive
saturation to negative saturation and back gives a ferromagnetic hysteresis loop, which
is shown in Fig. 3b). Here, the predominant, underlying mechanisms for each region are
indicated. The region of highest permeability is governed by domain wall motion
whereas magnetization rotation occurs rather at higher magnetic fields. When the
applied field is reduced to zero the remanent magnetization 𝑀𝑟 remains. A magnetic
field of opposite direction called coercivity field 𝐻𝑐 is needed to macroscopically
demagnetize the sample.

Thus, the hysteresis loop contains important information about the magnetic properties
of the sample. Characteristic quantities include the saturation magnetization 𝑀𝑠 , the
remanent magnetization 𝑀𝑟 , the coercivity field 𝐻𝑐 , permeability 𝜇 and the dissipated
energy that is necessary to magnetize the sample in the opposite direction. The
dissipated energy can be calculated from the area that is included by the hysteresis loop.

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

2.2 Demagnetization

In an external magnetic field, the presence of a magnetic material alters the magnetic
induction 𝐵⃗ (Fig. 4a)). If the sample has a finite length, magnetic poles are generated
near the ends of the sample. These poles give rise to a magnetic field that opposes the
external field and is therefore called demagnetizing field (Fig. 4b)). The strength of the
demagnetizing field depends on the magnetization 𝑀 ⃗⃗ and the geometry of the sample.
The field inside the magnetic material is now different from the external field and
requires correction. The inner field can be calculated by

⃗ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐻
𝐻 ⃗ 𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝑁𝑑 𝑀
⃗⃗ (7)

where 𝑀⃗⃗ is the magnetization and 𝑁𝑑 the demagnetizing factor which is only determined
by the sample shape. For thin films, spheres and ellipsoids it is possible to calculate 𝑁𝑑 ,
whereas for other shapes one needs to approximate.

Figure 4: a) Distortion of homogenous magnetic field by magnetic sample (bar magnet); b)

Demagnetization of a bar magnet. [8]

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

2.3 Magnetic Anisotropy

If the magnetic properties of a sample are dependent on directions, it is magnetically

anisotropic. Magnetic anisotropy arises from dipole-dipole interactions and spin-orbit
coupling.
Macroscopic shape anisotropy has its origin in long range dipole interactions arising
from free poles at surfaces. It can be represented in terms of the stray fields created
external to the sample. In thin films stray field energy is minimized if the magnetization
is in-plane and maximized if the magnetization is out-of-plane.
Another form of magnetic anisotropy is the magnetocrystalline anisotropy. When
investigating single crystalline Fe, Ni, or Co samples, one notices that the magnetization
curves along certain crystallographic directions differ from each other. In iron, the
magnetization curve along the 〈100〉 direction is steeper and reaches saturation at lower
external fields than along 〈110〉 or 〈111〉 and is therefore the easy axis of magnetization
(see Fig. 5). In case of nickel, 〈111〉 is the easy axis and 〈100〉 the hard axis of
magnetization. In absence of an external field, the spontaneous magnetization lies
preferably along one of the easy axes. The origin of the magnetocrystalline anisotropy
lies both in the coupling of the spin part of the magnetic moment to the electronic orbital
shape and orientation (spin-orbit coupling) and the chemical bonding of the orbitals on
a given atom with their local environment [8].

Figure 5: Magnetization curves along the crystallographic axes of body centered cubic
iron; inset: Crystal structure of bcc iron, indicated are easy, medium, and hard axis of
magnetization. [8]

In polycrystalline materials, the contribution of magnetocrystalline anisotropy depends

on whether there is a preferred grain orientation (texture) or if the grain orientation is
randomly distributed such that the local anisotropies average out to zero across the
sample volume.

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

Additionally to the sources mentioned above, stress induced magnetic anisotropy

may figure into the anisotropic magnetization behavior. The magnetization direction
and mechanical strain in a material are closely connected due to spin-orbit coupling,
resulting in a contribution to the magnetic anisotropy energy. This can be observed as a
change of a sample’s dimensions when it is exposed to a magnetic field, which is
Δ𝑙
described by the magnetically induced or anisotropic strain 𝜆 = 𝑙 (in analogy to the
mechanical strain 𝜖). The process is depicted schematically in Fig. 6, showing the
rotation of magnetic dipoles of a row of atoms with the externally applied field and the
resulting strain as the atoms’ nucleii are forced apart.

Figure 6: Schematic mechanism of magnetostriction. [8]

𝜆 is either positive or negative or changes its sign with increasing field strength,
depending on the material and, for single crystals (Fig. 7a)), on the crystallographic
direction or, for polycrystalline materials (Fig 7b)), on the texture. Materials are usually
𝑙 −𝑙
described by their saturation magnetostriction 𝜆(𝑀 = 𝑀𝑠 ) = 𝜆𝑠 = 𝑠𝑙 0 ⁡. Here, 𝑙𝑠 is the
0
sample length in the saturated state and 𝑙0 is the length of the demagnetized sample. For
positive magnetostriction (𝜆𝑠 > 0), the application of a magnetic field leads to an
expansion (tensile stress, 𝜎 > 0) along the field direction, while negative
magnetostriction (𝜆𝑠 < 0) results in a contraction (compressive stress, 𝜎 < 0) of the
sample.
a) b)

Figure 7: Magnetostriction of a) a Ni single crystall in different crystallographic

directions and of b) polycrystalline Fe, Co and Ni as a function of the external field H. [8]

Inversely, if a magnetic sample is exposed to mechanical stress, the domain structure is

influenced and thus, the preferred direction of magnetization (easy axis) is changed.

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

This relation between mechanical strain and the low field magnetic sample properties is
called Villari effect or magnetomechanical effect and can be observed by comparing the
magnetic hysteresis with and without applied stress. As a sample with 𝜆𝑠 > 0 exposed to
a magnetic field will experience tensile stress along the field direction, the same sample
will, when exposed to tensile stress, be easier to magnetize in this direction (Fig. 8a).
Accordingly, the opposite is true for materials with 𝜆𝑠 < 0, application of tensile stress
will decrease the permeabilty, while compressive stress will increase it (Fig. 8b). This
can be summarized by distinguishing between the cases of 𝜆𝑠 𝜎 > 0 and 𝜆𝑠 𝜎 < 0, as
depicted in fig. 8c).
a) b)

c)

Figure 8: Magnetization behavior of a) a positive magnetostriction material (poly-

Ni68Fe32), of b) a negative magnetostriction material (poly-Ni) under tensile and
compressive stress. c) Case differentiation 𝜆𝑠 𝜎 for an isotropic material. [8,9]

Magnetostriction can also be observed in nanocrystalline and amorph ferromagnetic

materials. In these cases, the magnetic anisotropy can be induced by a temperature
treatment in a magnetic field.

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

2.4 Units

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

3. Experiment

3.1 Equipment

a) b)

c)

Figure 6: LakeShore VSM 7400 system: a) overview of the setup, b) pick up coils in between
pole pieces and c) VSM head with integrated transducer assembly.

Components of the LakeShore VSM 7400 system are shown in Fig. 6: the electromagnet
(a) with the pole pieces on which the pickup coils are mounted (b) and the
vibrating/rotating head with positioning screws to center the vibrating rod (c). The VSM
system also comprises a bipolar DC power supply (± 50V, ± 100A), a cooling system for
both the electromagnet and the power supply, the VSM controller and a PC with
LakeShore "IDEAS VSM" software to control the components and to collect the measured
data.

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

3.2 Procedure

Before using the VSM, you must carry out a series of configuration steps.

• Insert the Ni standard into the VSM. The standard is ball-shaped, therefore
magnetically isotropic, and has a magnetic moment of 6.92 emu at 5000 Oe.

• Find the exact position of the standard in respect to the center of the pickup coils. The
vibrating rod can be adjusted by three screws on top of the VSM for x, y and z
direction. The pickup coils are connected in a way that, the sample being in the center
of the coils, there will be a signal minimum along x-, a maximum along y- and a
maximum again along z-direction.

• Run Calibrations → Moment gain to calibrate the instrument, i.e. to convert the
measured voltage signal into the correct value of the magnetic moment.

After calibration of the VSM, the following measurements aim to address two topics. The
first part covers basic magnetic characterization and the information that can be
deduced from magnetization curves. The second part cope with demagnetization.

1. Magnetocrystaline anisotropy energy:

Fix the Fe single crystal to the sample holder. Set H0 to 3500 G and record the
magnetic moment of the crystal during a 360° rotation of the sample.
Find the angles corresponding to the different crystallographhic / magnetic axes and
record the magnetization curves of the easy axis and the hard axis.
2. Stress induced magnetic anisotropy
Mount a sheet sample clamped in a sample holder provided by the supervisor into the
VSM. Record the magnetization curves of the sample with and without applied stress
along and perpendicular to the stress direction.

Determine the volume of each sample that you have measured.

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

4. Analysis
LakeShore software saves all data as ASCII text files (.txt). Copy these files to a USB flash
drive of yours. The file format is as follows (in case of a magnetization curve):

[Header lines: time stamp etc.]

Field(G) Moment(emu)
1234.56 7.89012

etc.

5. Report
Please answer to the following assignments:

1. Create a diagram showing the magnetic moment of the Fe single crystal in

dependence of the rotation angle and indicate the angles which correspond to
crystallographic directions.
Create a diagram showing the magnetization curves for both the easy and the hard
axis and calculate the magnetic anisotropy energy from the magnetization values.

2. Compare the magnetization curves of the sheet sample with and without applied
stress for both measured directions. Please report on the observed effect and draw
conclusions about the materials magnetomechanical properties based on these
observations (qualitatively).

3. Give 3 common measurement errors of the VSM measurement principle and explain
how they affect the measured magnetization curve.

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M106: Vibrating Sample Magnetometry

6. References
[1] Lake Shore Cryotronics, Inc. User’s Manual 7300 Series VSM System.
http://www.lakeshore.com/ObsoleteAndResearchDocs/7300_Manual.pdf, 2001.

[2] G. J. Bowden Detection Coil System for Vibrating Sample Magnetometers 1972:
CSIRO Division of Applied Physics, National Standards Laboratory, University
Grounds, Chippendale, NSW, 2008, Australia.

[3] L. Michalowsky. Magnettechnik. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig, 1993.

[4] A. Hubert and R. Schäfer. Magnetic Domains. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg,

1998.

[5] Lee, D.; Behera, R.K.; Wu, P.; Xu, H.; Sinnott, S.B.; Phillpot, S.R.; Chen, L.Q.; Gopalan, V.
Mixed Bloch-Néel-Ising character of 180° ferroelectric domain walls. Phys. Rev. B
2009, 80.

[6] D. R. Askeland. The Science and Engineering of Materials.

International Thomson Publishing, 3rd ed., 1994.

[7] D. Jiles. Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials. Chapman & Hall, 1998.

[8] Cullity, B. D., Graham, C. D. Introduction to Magnetic Materials. John Wiley & Sons,
New Jersey, 2009

[9] O'Handley, R. C. Modern magnetic materials : principles and applications.

John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2000.

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