Food Conlrol, Vol. 8, No. 2, PP.

77-82, 1997
0 1997 Elsevier ScienceLtd
All rights reserved.Printed in Great Britain
ELSEVIER PII: SO956-7135(96)000754-I 0956-71X/97 $17.00+0.00

PAPER

A survey of bread defects in

Ghana
W. 0. Ellis,*+ A. K. Obubuafo,+ A. Ofosu-Okyere,+
E. K. Marfo,’ K. Osei-Agyemang” and
J. K. Odame-Darkwah*

In Ghana bread forms part of the daily diet. However little attention has been
given to bread processing and any defects associated with bread production. This
study was cam’ed out to assess the extent of bread defects, especially ropiness, in
the bread-making industry in Ghana. The results of the study showed that bread
defects do exist, with mold contamination being the most prevalent due to the
tropical environmental conditions. There is also a lack of effective quality control
measures, which is coupled with the unhygienic environments associated with
some bakeries. Ropiness is, however; not prevalent due to the bread eating habits
of the populace. The results also indicated that bread type preference, reasons for
purchase, frequency of bread consumption, weekly budget and knowledge of food
safety were all independent of the age of the individual in the Accra-Tema
metropolis. Knowledge of food safety and bread type preference were dependent
on the educational status of the individual in the Kumasi metropolis. The result
of the study also showed that bread type, sample treatment and mode of storage
had a significant efSect (~~0.01) on microbial load. 0 1997 Elsevier Science
Ltd.

Keywords: bread consumption; shelf life; ropiness; bread safety

INTRODUCTION important food imports into Ghana between 1984

and 1988, wheat and flour (mainly used for bread
Cereal products, especially bread, have been a major production) formed on average 33% (Oti-Boateng,
source of food for the human race since the 1993).
commencement of civilization (Kent-Jones and There are different varieties of bread, grouped into
Amos, 1967). In Ghana, bread consumption has been two main categories: wheaten bread comprising white
on the increase with the passage of time such that it bread, brown bread and whole wheat bread; and
has become an integral part of the diet of the composite bread comprising bread made from a
populace. It is worth noting that even though Ghana mixture of flours such as corn flour and soya flour or
does not produce wheat, bread is eaten almost daily cassava flour and wheat flour (Agricultural Services
as a cultural practice. This is reflected in the Division, 1969). In Ghana, there are different bread
country’s food imports. Of the eight selected types, the names of which are based upon the comp-
osition of the flour and the ingredients used. These
types include tea bread which is made from wheat
+Department of Biochemistry, University of Science and flour, salt, sugar, fat, eggs and water; butter bread, as
Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. ‘+Department of Agricultural
Economics, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, white bread which is made from the same ingredients
Ghana. *Ghana Standards Board, Accra, Ghana. *To whom as tea bread, but the main difference being the
correspondence should be addressed. addition of more fat and less salt than tea bread.

Food Control 1997 Volume 8 Number 2 77

A survey of bread defects in Ghana: W. 0. Ellis et al.

Sugar bread also contains basically the same ingred- knowledge of food safety and mode of handling and
ients as butter bread with the major difference being storage of bread. These factors were chosen because
reduced fat and a high concentration of sugar (about they best reflect the eating habits of consumers and
14%) and brown bread which is made from a mixture the mode of production by bakers. In the case of
of patent flour and whole wheat flour with or without flour producers, factors considered included the
additives like caramel (Fox and Cameron, 1989). mode of production, the use of preservatives and the
Breadmaking, like most food processes has its own method of wheat and flour storage (Casley and Lury,
problems which include both physical and microbial 1981).
defects. Physical defects may be due to the quality of
the flour or the baking techniques used which may Sample design
result in one of the following: decreased loaf volume, A multi-stage sampling design involving a total of five
hardening of the loaf, an undesirable odour, stale- hundred consumers from both cities, distributed on a
ness, etc. (Martin, 1966). Microbial defects are mainly ratio of 1:3 based on the 1984 population census of
due to molds such as Rhizopus nigricans, Aspergilus Kumasi and Accra-Tema respectively (Oti-Boateng,
niger and Penicillium expansum (Frazier and 1993) was used. This concept, recommended for
Westhoff, 1978). Therefore, preservatives are widely distributed populations involves stages of
commonly added in some countries to reduce the sampling arranged in hierarchy with a primary stage
potential for mold spoilage (Jackel, 1980). Bread and comprising of a number of secondary stages. Within
other baked goods are also subject to spoilage by the each secondary stage are sample units in clusters
‘rope bacteria’, mucoid variants of Bacillus subtilis (Casley and Lury, 1981). The ratio of male to female
such as Bacillus pumilus. These bacteria cause a was taken as 1: 1 based on the population figures of
condition known as ‘rope’ in these products. This males (7557 188) and females (7771793) projected
defect results in yellowish brown discoloration of the for 1992 (Oti-Boateng, 1992). The bakeries were
interior of the bread which can be drawn out into similarly sampled using the same concept with an
strings (Barrett, 1970; Odame-Darkwah, 1992; overall sample size of 85 bakeries (50 bakeries in
Frazier, 1978). Even though bread forms an integral Accra-Tema and 35 bakeries in Kumasi). There are
part of Ghanaaian diet, there is little data on bread only four flour mills in the country with three situated
and its defects. However, with the present annual in Accra-Tema and these were chosen to represent
increase in the Ghanaaian population of about 3-5%, the flour producers.
it has become imperative and compelling to study
bread defects scientifically and socio-economically
since it serves as the commonest ready-to-eat food Microbial load and moisture determination
and forms part of the daily diet of many.
The objective of this study was to carry out a Sample collection
survey to assess the extent of bread defects especially Freshly baked bread samples were taken from two
‘ropiness’, in the bakery industry in Ghana using two bakeries and with the exception of the tea bread
major cities, Accra-Tema and Kumasi as focal points. samples, all the bread types were packaged in low
density polyethylene bags. Samples were stored under
two different ambient conditions for a period of three
MATERIALS AND METHODS days, one under retailing conditions with a vendor in
a kiosk and the other at ambient room conditions in
Survey a laboratory. Samples were randomly selected from
each lot and analysed for moisture content and
To assess effectively the extent of bread defects in microbial load (total aerobic plate count (TPC) and
Ghana, four bread types: sugar bread, tea bread, total yeasts and moulds). Analysis was also carried
brown bread and butter bread from two major cities, out on freshly baked bread samples. Three samples
Accra-Tema and Kumasi, were selected for the study. (loaves) per bread type were used for each analysis.
The two cities selected were based on the population
size, diversity of tribes and class of citizenry, popula-
Moisture determination
tion of bakers, consumers and flour milling industries.
The moisture content of each sample was determined
The four bread types were selected because they are using the official methods of analysis of the AOAC
the most common. (1984). Bread samples were converted into crumbs
and placed in sample bottles. Two-gram portions
Questionnaire design were weighed into pre-dried and weighed metal
The bakery industry comprises three main groups, dishes. The dishes with their contents were placed in
namely: the consumer, the baker and the flour miller. a hot air oven (Gallenkamp OV 440) at 105°C for
In view of this, three questionnaires were designed to 5 h. Moisture content was determined by difference
cover these three sectors. The parameters considered in weights between the fresh and dried samples and
in the design of the questionnaires included: sex, age expressed as a percentage of the fresh weight.
and educational background of the consumer, Analyses were carried out in triplicate.

78 Food Control 1997 Volume 8 Number 2

 A survey of bread defects in Ghana: W. 0. Ellis et al.

Microbial load determination (modified AA CC method, whilst in Kumasi 57% of consumers eat bread in
1960) between working hours. Apart from bread type,
A 10 g portion of each sample was weighed into 90 average weekly budget of consumers and the avail-
ml sterile nutrient broth (BDH) in sterile stomacher ability of storage facilities affected bread
bags and homogenized at high speed for a minute consumption.
using a stomacher (400 Lab. blender, Seward Bread storage is commonly carried out under
Medical, London SE1 lPP, UK). Contents were refrigeration or ambient temperature conditions.
aseptically transferred into sterile sample bottles. However, about 3% of consumers prefer the use of
Appropriate dilutions were then prepared using freezers for bread storage. Studies have shown that
sterile nutrient broth as the diluent. the storage of bread in the frozen state is the best
TPC was determined by aseptically transferring 1 method for extending its shelf life. About 89% of
ml of the appropriate dilution onto a petri dish and consumers keep bread for a maximum period of
mixing with tempered nutrient agar (BDH) using the three days while 17% abstain from bread storage.
pour plating technique. The plates were incubated at The non-storage of bread by some consumers may be
34°C in a Precision Gravity Convection incubator for due to the availability of bread within the cities.
24-48 h after which the Colony Forming Units The bakery industry is not devoid of problems and
(CFU) were counted using an Anderman colony this is reflected in the results of this study. Twelve per
counter (Anderman, 145 London Rd., Kingston- cent of consumers in both Accra-Tema and Kumasi
Upon-Thames, Surrey KT2 6NH). Counts were indicated they had observed ropiness in their bread
expressed as log cfu/g of bread sample. while 61% had observed some form of bread defects
For yeast and mold contamination, a 1 ml portion other than rope. These defects ranged from mold
of each of the appropriate dilutions was inoculated growth, roughness, odour, hardness and stickiness to
on to malt extract agar (BDH) using the pour plating changes in taste. Of these, mold growth was the most
technique. The plates were incubated at 25°C in a prevalent. This is due to the tropical environmental
Precision Gravity Convection incubator for 72 h and
colony forming units counted using an Anderman
Table 1 Trends in consumer response (%)
colony counter. Counts were expressed as log cfu/g of
bread sample. All analyses were carried out in Kumasi Accra-Tema
triplicate.
Bread type preferred
Composite 1.1 0.9
Statistical analysis Brown 19.6 21.2
Sugar 31.8 34.4
Statistical analyses (Chi-square test of independence Tea 31.8 26.4
and ANOVA) were carried out on the results of the Butter 15.9 17.1
Reason for buying bread
survey and the moisture and microbial load determi- Convenience 31.6 33.3
nations (Casley and Lury, 1981; Foreman, 1991). cost 7.1 1.7
Storage 4.4 3.5
Any other 56.9 61.5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Weekly budget (e)
50-550 48.0 39.7
600-2000 48.7 47.7
A summary of the results obtained for the survey are > 2000 3.3 12.6
shown in Tables 1 and 2. The survey indicated that Frequency of consumption
Daily 52.7 62.3
bread consumption in both cities was quite high with 2-5 times a week 31.3 31.1
58% of consumers taking bread on a daily basis, 31% Weekly 16.0 6.6
taking bread 2-5 times per week and a few consu- Duration of bread storage (days)
o-3 88.7 89.7
mers at intervals of one week or more. With respect 4 and above 11.3 10.3
to bread consumption patterns, the Accra-Tema area Storage condition
had a higher percentage of bread consumers on a Fridge 37.3 44.9
Ambient 34.8 31.4
daily basis (62%) than Kumasi (53%). This may be Frozen 4.0 3.1
due to the population difference between the two Not stored 20.0 16.3
cities and the dietary practices predominant in the Combination 4.0 4.3
Defects observed
two cities. Others 61.1 61.4
The study revealed that, sugar bread is the most Rope 11.5 12.3
preferred (32% for Kumasi and 34% for Accra- No defect 27.4 26.3
Defect reported
Tema) followed by tea bread (32% for Kumasi and Yes 26.5 19.6
26% for Accra-Tema) with composite bread being No 73.6 80.4
the least desired. Bread is consumed for various Defective bread consumed
Yes 14.6 16.8
reasons largely for convenience as well as being used No 85.4 83.2
as a breakfast meal or part of a snack. This is evident Knowledge about food safety
in the survey which indicates that in Accra-Tema Yes 35.3 59.1
No 64.7 40.9
about 61% of consumers used bread for breakfast

Food Control 1997 Volume 8 Number 2 79

A survey of bread defects in Ghana: W. 0. Ellis et al.

conditions of high temperature and relative humidity Baking is a good economic venture practised in
which favour the growth and proliferation of molds. most parts of Ghana. In Ghana, bakeries range from
However, about 27% of consumers had never the small or medium scale to the large scale with the
observed any form of bread defects because they eat medium scale bakeries forming a greater proportion
freshly baked bread. of this industry. Most of these bakeries use locally
Most consumers are disillusioned about reporting produced flour for baking (Table 2). Distribution of
bread defects thus, between 74 and 80% of consu- bread occurs mainly through retailers, who form an
mers do not report bread defects to the authorities. important part of the distribution network of the
This may be attributed to the absence of consumer bakery industry. About 40-50% of the bakeries bake
pressure groups in the country, the feeling that sugar bread in preference to the other bread types
nothing would be done to rectify the situation when a due to the high demand and longer shelf life.
report is made and ignorance. Fifteen to seventeen Wooden trays, metallic trays, sieves and
per cent of consumers within both cities indicated polyethylene bags are used mainly for the packaging
consuming spoilt bread while about 83-85% refused of bread with paper forming a small percentage. The
to eat such bread. This observation is encouraging mode of packaging strongly affects the mode of
since it indicates a high level of avoidance of spoiled distribution and retailing and this is influenced by
food in both cities. Knowledge of general food safety area. For example, Accra is the capital city as well as
was high among consumers in Accra-Tema (59%) the administrative centre of Ghana and Tema is an
compared to Kumasi (35%) and this may be attri- industrial and port centre, therefore, the societal
buted to differences in the educational status of status of Accra-Tema is higher than Kumasi which is
consumers in both cities. a trading centre. In view of this, polyethylene bags
are mostly used for packaging in Accra-Tema while
lhble 2 Trends in bakers’ response (%) wooden or metallic trays and sieves are mainly used
Kumasi Accra-Tema for packaging in Kumasi.
Almost all bakers encountered during the survey
Bread type preferred had observed some form of bread defect especially
Composite 0.0 0.0
Brown 1.6 13.3 those associated with the external quality of the flour
Sugar 50.0 42.9 and mold contamination. Only 12% of the bakers
Tea 37.5 14.3 indicated observing ropiness in their bread.
Butter 10.9 28.6
Source of flour Reporting of these defects to the authorities differed
Irani Bros fGMG1 30.8 34.6 from one city to the other. The inability of most of
Golden Spoon ’ 29.0 23.5 these bakers to report defects may be attributed to
Takoradi Flour Mills 30.9 18.1
T.F.C.C. 9.4 20.6 the purchase of flour from the open market and also
Foreign 0.0 3.3 the collapse of the bakers’ unions. Basic hygiene was
Production capacity (scale) poorly practised by most of the bakers even though
Small 22.9 60.0
Medium 54.3 28.0 they had some knowledge about food safety. The
Large 22.9 12.0 hygienic conditions of the working environments of
Mode of distribution most bakeries were poor especially in areas where
Retailer 91.4 78.0
Vehicle 4.0 bakeries are sited next to open sewage gutters and
Both ::: 18.0 waste dumps. Data obtained from the three flour
Packaging producers showed that preservatives are not added to
Wooden/metal trays 35.1 24.6
Sieves 33.8 0.0 the flour for economic reasons and there is no legisla-
Polythene bags 24.3 72.3 tion in Ghana requiring them to add preservatives.
Paper 6.8 3.1 Statistical analysis (X=test of independence) of the
Defects observed
Rope 12.5 12.3 data obtained showed that bread type preference,
Others 87.5 87.7 reasons for purchase of bread, frequency of bread
Frequency of observed defects consumption, weekly budget, consumption of defec-
Often 20.0 20.0
Occasional 80.0 80.0 tive bread, knowledge of food safety and reporting of
Defect reported bread defects were all independent of the age of
Yes 94.3 52.0 consumers in the Accra-Tema metropolis. However,
No 5.7 48.0
Shelf-life of bread (days)
in Kumasi, knowledge of food safety and bread type
2-3 17.2 preference were dependent on the educational status
4-5 3:; 50.0 of the individual whilst all other parameters were
>5 51:4 32.8
Not known 11.4 0.0 independent. This observation may be due to the fact
Knowledge on food safety that the socio-economic status of certain consumers
Yes 65.7 70.0 influences their preference for certain food products.
No 34.3 30.0
Flour storage
Based on the results obtained from the survey,
Dough mixing room 80.0 28.0 further studies were carried out to determine the
Storeroom 14.8 56.0 microbial load and moisture content of the various
Not stored 5.7 16.0
bread types after a 3 day storage period. The results

80 Food Control 1997 Volume 8 Number 2

 A survey of bread defects in Ghana: W. 0. Ellis et a/.

‘able 3 Laboratory analysis of various bread types

Total plate count Yeast/mould count Moisture content

Bread type Treatment (log cfu/g) log cfu/g (“ro)
Brown bread F 2.65 +0.87 2.97 + 0.84 31.24+7.40
L 5.09 f 0.73 4.53 f 0.81 32.37 + 6.82
V 5.62+0.07 4.76 + 0.20 32.07 If:5.63
Sugar bread F 3.05 + 0.09 2.00 + 0.00 28.46f 1.96
L 4.18 + 1.20 2.24 ) 0.82 26.65 f 1.66
V 3.96rf:1.11 3.16* 1.67 26.44 + 1.27
Tea bread F 4.86 f 0.04 3.23 f0.68 32.81kO.87
L 6.05 kO.05 3.95 f 0.07 29.84+0.55
V 5.97kO.08 4.06 + 0.07 25.5OkO.78
Butter bread F 4.19kO.32 2.13kO.12 30.42* 1.31
L 5.33 +0.82 2.88 + 0.77 31.64k1.15
V 5.39 + 0.81 3.21+0.44 33.47 + 1.43

“F - Fresh bread; L - laboratory storage; V - retailing condition (vendor).

(Table 3) showed a general increase in both the yeast- increased slightly after the storage period (Table 3).
molds and total aerobic plate counts of all bread The increase in moisture content of brown bread may
types after 3 days of storage. However, in both cases be due to the high content of water absorbing fibre
the increase in microbial load was lowest in the sugar (Martin, 1966) whilst that for butter bread may be
bread. Regarding the moisture content of bread attributed to the reabsorption of water by the crust
samples, with the exception of tea and sugar bread, during storage. There was a slight decrease in the
the moisture content of brown and butter bread moisture contents of both tea and sugar bread. This
may be attributed to the effect of staling reactions
lsble 4 ANOVA for yeast and mould counts and drying. During staling, there is a breakdown of
amylopectin in the gelatinized starch resulting in a
Sum of Mean
Source df squares square F change from the haphazard cellular arrangement to a
more regular arrangement. This affects the redistri-
Bread type (B) : 16.32 5.44 10.86” bution of moisture in the product, mainly the
Mode of storage (s) 9.27 4.63 9.07’
B*S (interaction 6 1.78 0.29 0.5w movement of moisture from the crumb to the crust.
Within 24 12.25 0.51 Therefore, on drying there is a loss of moisture
Total 35 39.62 (Weiser et al., 1971; Pomeranz and Shellenberger,
“Significant at p < 0.01. 1971). Since tea bread is not packaged in poly-
“‘Not significant. ethylene bags but exposed to the atmosphere, this
water is lost through diffusion to the atmosphere thus
resulting in a decrease in moisture content. The low
moisture content of sugar bread may be due to the
‘Igble 5 ANOVA for total plate count high amount of sugar (14%) used in the making of
bread. This is also reflected in the low microbial load
Sum of Mean
Source df squares square F of sugar bread compared to the other bread types
since the osmotic property of sugar binds water
Bread type (B) 3 19.76 6.59 7.9w making it less available for the growth and prolifera-
Mode of storage (s) 2 22.09 11.05 13.26
B*S (interaction 6 5.10 0.85 1.02”‘ tion of microbes, thus limiting their numbers and
Within 24 20.00 0.83 extending the shelf life of sugar bread beyond that of
Total 35 66.96 other bread types (Fox and Cameron, 1989; Frazier
Significant at p CO.01. and Westhoff, 1978). The high microbial load of tea
““Not significant. bread may be attributed to the exposure of the
product to the atmosphere since tea bread is usually
not packaged in polyethylene bags, while that of
brown and butter bread may be due to the relatively
lsble 6 ANOVA for moisture count high moisture content of the products coupled to the
poor quality control practices during baking and
Sum of Mean
Source df squares square F packaging.
It was observed from the ANOVA results (Tables
Bread type (B) 3 148.30 49.43 4.01” 4-6) that bread type, sample treatment and mode of
Mode of storage (s) 2 11.16 5.58 0.w
B’S (interaction 6 96.05 16.01 1.30”” storage had a significant (p < 0.01) effect on microbial
Within 295.68 12.32 load. This effect was more pronounced with bread
Total 551.19
samples stored for 3 days with a vendor and under
“Significant at p < 0.01. laboratory room conditions than the fresh bread
-Not significant. samples. With respect to moisture content, bread

Food Control 1997 Volume 8 Number 2 81

A survey of bread defects in Ghana: W. 0. Ellis et al.

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82 Food Control 1997 Volume 8 Number 2