CE 6303 FLUID MECHANICS

III SEMESTER
UNIT 1
FLUID
 Matter exist either in solid state or fluid state
 A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing.
 The fluid consists of both liquids and gases.
 Water is the substance can exists in all three states
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLID AND FLUID
Solid Fluid

 More compact structure  Less compact structure

 Attractive forces between the  Attractive forces between the
molecules are larger molecules are smaller.
 Solids can resist tangential  Fluids cannot resist
stresses tangential stresses.
 Whenever the solid is subjected  Whenever the fluid is
to shear stress there is a subjected to shear stress no
definite deformation fixed deformation
 Solid may regain partly or fully  A fluid can never regain its
its original shape when the original shape once it has
shear stress are removed been distorted by the shear
stress.
FLUID MECHANICS
 It is branch of science that deals with the
behavior of the fluids in rest as well as in motion
 The study of fluids when it is in rest condition is
called Statics (hydrostatics).
 Kinematics is study of fluids when it is in motion
and the pressure forces that causes the flow are
not considered. (velocity and acceleration)
 Dynamics is study of fluids when it is in motion
and the pressure forces that causes the flow are
considered.
CONTINUUM THEORY
 Generally it is assumed that the molecules of
fluid are continuous and there is no voids
between the liquid particles. This is called
continuum theory developed by Mr.Knudsen

 The liquid does not have constant shape and it

have constant volume
 Basic Principles Applied in fluid mechanics

S.No Principle Application

1. Law of conservation of Derivation of continuity

mass equation

2. Law of conservation of Derivation of energy equation

energy (Bernoulli equation)

3. Law of conservation of To derive equation for forces

momentum (Newton’s on pipe bends, free jet etc
second law of motion)
4. Law of conservation of To derive equation of Torque
moment of momentum developed using sprinkling
system
TYPES OF FLUIDS
 Ideal fluid
 Fluid which does not contain viscosity, surface tension
and they are incompressible
 Also called as invisid fluid
 Viscosity and compressibility plays an important role in
fluid mechanics
 Ideal fluids does not exist in nature (imaginary fluids)
 For mathematical purposes, air and water are
considered as ideal fluid
 Real fluid
 fluid which possess viscosity, surface tension and
compressibility.
 Practically all fluids are real fluids
 PROPERTIES OF FLUID
1. Specific Mass or Mass density(ρ-symbol called as Rho)
2. Specific weight(  -symbol called as Gamma)
3. Specific volume
4. Specific gravity (S)
5. Viscosity (µ- symbol called as mu)
6. Kinematic viscosity (ν-symbol called as nu)
7. Bulk modulus (κ)
8. Compressibility (1/ κ)
9. Surface tension (σ- symbol called as sigma)
10. Capillarity (hc)
MASS DENSITY
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
SPECIFIC VOLUME
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
9. VISCOSITY
TYPES OF FLUID
PROBLEMS RELATED TO VISCOSITY

dy

L Sleeve

oil D
Shaft
N
 Given Data:
 Diameter of shaft D = 400mm = 0.4m
 Rotational Speed N=200 r.p.m
 Bearing Length L = 120mm =0.12 m
 Thickness of oil film dy = 1.5mm = 1.5x10-3 m
 Viscosity μ = 0.7 Ns/m2
 To Find:
 Torque = force x radius= F x (D/2)
 Power Lost = Force x velocity = F x u
 Shear Force F = τ x A = τ x πDL
 Shear Stress τ = μ(du/dy)
 Tangential Velocity u = (πDN/60)
SOLUTION
 Step 1 – To determine tangential velocity u
 DN 3.14 0.4  200
u 
60 60
u  4.187m / s
 Step 2 – To determine shear stress
du 0.7  (4.187  0)
   3
dy 1.5 10
2
  1954N / m
 Step 3 – To determine shear force F
F = stress x area = τ x πDL
= 1954 x 3.14 x .4
F= 294.5 N
 Step 4 – To determine the torque T
 Torque = Force x Radius (or dia /2)
= 294.5 x (0.4/2)
T = 58.9 N-m

 Step 5 – To determine Power lost P

 Power Lost P = Force x Velocity = F x u
= 294.5 x 4.187
=1233 W
P= 1.233 kW
Answer:
Torque required to overcome friction = 58.9 N-m
Power utilized in overcoming viscous resistance = 1.233 kW
PROBLEMS RELATED TO VISCOSITY
 An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication
between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of shaft
is 0.5m and it rotates at 200 r.p.m. Calculate the
power lost in the oil for a sleeve of length 100mm.
The thickness of the oil film is 1 mm.
1 mm

Sleeve
100 mm

Oil 0.5 m
Shaft
PROBLEMS RELATED TO VISCOSITY
 Calculate the velocity gradient and shear stress
at distances of 0, 10 and 20 m from the boundary
if velocity profile is a parabola with vertex 30 m
from the boundary where the velocity is 100 m/s.
take viscosity of fluid as 0.85 Ns/m2.

100 m/s
y in m

30 m

u in m/s
PROBLEMS RELATED TO VISCOSITY

A square plate of 50cm x 50cm dimension

weighing 500 N slides down an inclined plane
making an angle 30o with the horizontal at a
velocity of 1.75 m/s. If the 2mm gap between
the plate and the inclined surface is filled with
the lubricating oil. Find the viscosity of oil in
poise and pascal-sec.
 Given Data:
Area of plate =50 x 50 m2
Self Weight of block W =500N
Angle of inclination of surface θ =30o
Velocity of plate sliding u = 1.75 m/s
Thickness of oil film dy = 2mm=2x10-3 m
 Required

Viscosity of oil μ
du
 
 Formula used dy
Force W sin
 
Area Area
Solution:
Step 1- To calculate shear stress
Force W sin
 
Area Area
500 sin 30

0.50 0.50
= 1000 N/m2
Step 2 – To calculate viscosity
du
 
dy
1.75
1000  
2 103
μ= 1.143 Ns/m2 = 1.143 Pa-s (1N/m2 = Pa)
= 11.43 Poise (1 Ns/m2 = 10 Poise)
PROBLEMS RELATED TO VISCOSITY
 Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 cm apart. The space
between the surface is filled with glycerin. What force
is required to drag a very thin plate of surface area 0.5
square metre between the two large plane surfaces at
a speed of 0.6 m/s, if
 Case (i) thin plate is in middle of two plane surfaces
 Case (ii) thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the
plane surface.
Take dynamic viscosity of glycerin = 8.1 x 10-1 Ns/m2
BULK MODULUS & COMPRESSIBILITY

Bulk modulus is ratio of increase in pressure to

volumetric strain
It is mainly used to describe the strength of the
materials like liquids, soil etc.

Compressibility is defined as the inverse of bulk

modulus.
It is mainly for gases.
PROBLEMS RELATED TO BULK MODULUS
 What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid
which is compressed in a cylinder from a volume
of 0.0125 m3 at 80 N/cm2 pressure to a volume of
0.0124 m3 at 150 N/cm2
Given Data:

Initial Volume = 0.0125 m3

Final Volume = 0.0124 m3
Initial pressure = 80 N/cm2
Final pressure = 150 N/cm2
Answer:
Bulk modulus K = - dp
(dv)/V

Change in pressure dp = 150-80 = 70 N/cm2

Change in volume dv = 0.0124-0.0125 = -0.0001 m3
Initial Volume V = 0.0125 m3

Bulk Modulus K = - 70 =8750 N/cm2

(-0.0001/0.0125)
SURFACE TENSION
1. It is defined as the tensile force acting on the
surface of the liquid in contact with gas or two
immiscible liquids such that the contact surface
behaves as a membrane under tension .
2. The surface tension takes place due to the cohesion
between fluid particles.
3. If the temperature rises, the surface tension
decreases due to loss in cohesion.
APPLICATION OF SURFACE TENSION
APPLICATION OF SURFACE TENSION
APPLICATION OF SURFACE TENSION
PROBLEMS RELATED TO SURFACE TENSION

If the pressure in a water droplet is 196.2 N/m2 in

excess of the external pressure, what is the diameter
of the droplet? Given the value of surface tension of
water in contact with air at 20oC as 0.073 N/m.
Given Data
 p = 196.2 N/m2
 σ = 0.073 N/m

p=4σ
d
d= 4 x 0.073 = 1.488 x 10-3 m = 1.5 mm
196.2
8. CAPILLARITY
DERIVATION TO FIND CAPILLARY RISE
PROBLEMS RELATED TO CAPILLARY RISE

 Calculatethe capillary rise h in a glass tube of

2.5 mm diameter when vertically immersed in
(i)water and (ii) mercury at 20oC. Take
surface tension for water at 20oC as 0.0725
N/m and for mercury as 0.5 N/m in contact
with air.

The specific gravity for mercury is given as

13.6 and angle of contact as 130o
Case (i)
For Water θ= 0o
Specific Weight of water γw = ρw x g
= 1000 x 9.81 N/m3
Formula used:

4 cos
h
 d
4  0.0725 cos 0
h
9.811000 2.5 103
h = 0.0118 m
Case (ii)
For Mercury θ= 130o
Density of mercury ρm =S x ρw
= 13.6 x 1000 kg/m3
Specific Weight of mercury γm = ρm x g
= 13.6 x1000x 9.81 N/m3
Formula used:
4 cos
h
 d
4  0.52 cos130
h
9.8113.6 1000 2.5 103
h = -0.004 m
The negative sign indicates the capillary depression
VAPOUR PRESSURE
When vapourization takes place, the molecules escapes
from the free surface of the liquid. These vapour
molecules get accumulated in the space between free
liquid surface and top of the vessel . these accumulated
vapours exert a pressure on the liquid surface . this
pressure is known as vapour pressure.
CAVITATION
The cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of vapour
bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the
pressure of the liquid falls below the vapour pressure and
sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of
higher pressure
 HYDROSTATICS

Topics

1. Fluid (Static) Pressures(Pascal law & Hydrostatic law)

2. Absolute and Gauge Pressures
3. Pressure measurements
• Manometers
 Simple Manometers
 Differential Manometers
• Mechanical gauges
4. Forces on Plane surfaces
5. Centre of Pressure
6. Buoyancy and floatation
Types of Forces exist in fluid element
1. Body Force –
• Force distributed over entire mass or volume of the
element eg- Gravitational Force
2. Surface Force
Force exerted on fluid through direct contact on the
surface. It has two components
• Normal Force
(Force Acting Normal to surface)

• Shear Force
(Force Acting along the surface)

At rest, there is no movement along the fluid hence shear force is

zero
 Flow in Fluids

Pressure Flow Open Channel Flow

Hydrostatics Steady and

Unsteady Flows
Fluid Kinematics
Uniform and Non-
Fluid Dynamics Uniform Flows
 Hydrostatic Force acting on dam

Hydraulic machines IV
Sem

Pressure Flow
Open Channel Flow

Hydrostatic Force acting on Gates

Design of Gates and selection of gate materials are based on hydrostatic force
The pressure or intensity of pressure is
defined as the force exerted on an unit area
The Pressure Force is represented by F
So Pressure = (Force / area )

Or Pascal Pa
Pascal’s Law:

To prove: px=py=pz
 Step -1 Statement

Step -2: To prove px=py=pz

Step 3: Diagram

Step 4: Forces acting on all faces

Pressure Force
Body Force

Step 5: Equating Forces along x directions

Step 6: Equating Forces along y directions

Problems – 1
A hydraulic press has a ram 30cm diameter and a plunger of 5 cm
diameter. Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the
force applied at the plunger is 400 N.

Given Data:
Diameter of the ram D = 30 cm
Diameter of plunger d = 5 cm
Force applied at the plunger = 400 N

To Find:
Weight lifted by the hydraulic press

Solution:
Area of the ram = πD2 = 3.14 x 0.32 = 0.071 m2
4 4

Area of the plunger = πd2 = 3.14 x 0.052 = 1.963x10-3 m2

4 4
Pressure intensity due to plunger = force on plunger
area of the plunger

= 400 …………(1)
1.963x10-3
Let W be the weight lifted by the hydraulic press.
Pressure intensity at the ram = Weight lifted by hydraulic press
Area of the ram
= W …………..(2)
0.071
According to Pascal's law, pressure intensity is equally transmitted in all
directions. Equating equations (1) and (2)

W = 400
0.071 1.963x10-3
W = 400 x 0.071
1.963 x 10-3
= 14467.65 N = 14.467 kN

Answer:
Weight lifted by the hydraulic press = 14.467 kN
Problems – 2

A hydraulic press has a ram 20cm diameter and a plunger of 4 cm

diameter. It is used for lifting a weight of 20kN. Find the force
required at the plunger.

Given Data:
Diameter of the ram D = 20 cm
Diameter of plunger d = 4 cm
Weight lifted by the hydraulic press=20kN

To Find:
Force applied on the plunger

Solution:
Area of the ram=πD2 = 3.14 x 0.22 = 0.0314 m2
4 4

Area of the plunger =πD2 = 3.14 x 0.042 = 1.256x10-3 m2

4 4
Let F be the force applied on the plunger.
Pressure intensity due to plunger = force on plunger
area of the plunger

= F …………(1)
1.256x10-3
Pressure intensity at the ram = Weight lifted by hydraulic press
Area of the ram
= 20x103 …………..(2)
0.0314
According to Pascal's law, pressure intensity is equally transmitted in all
directions. Equating equations (1) and (2)

20x103 = F
0.0314 1.256x10-3
F = 20x103x 1.256x10-3
0.0314
= 800 N

Answer:
Force applied on the plunger = 800 N
Step -1 Statement

Step -2: To prove Step -3 Diagram

Step 4: Forces acting on all faces

Pressure Force
Body Force
Problems 1- Hydrostatic law
 HYDROSTATICS

Topics

1. Fluid (Static) Pressures(Pascal law & Hydrostatic law)

2. Absolute and Gauge Pressures
3. Pressure measurements
• Manometers
 Simple Manometers (Piezometer, U tube, Single column)
 Differential Manometers ( U tube and Inverted U tube)
• Mechanical gauges
4. Forces on Plane surfaces
5. Centre of Pressure
6. Buoyancy and floatation
 TYPES OF PRESSURE

Gauge Pressure
patm Atmospheric Pressure
101.3
kPa Vacuum Pressure
Pressure

Absolute Pressure

Absolute Zero Pressure

Types of Pressure:

1. Absolute Pressure
When the pressure is measured above absolute zero
it is called as absolute pressure
2. Atmospheric Pressure
The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure on all
surfaces with which it is in contact it is called as
atmospheric pressure patm
3. Gauge Pressure
When the pressure is measured above atmospheric
pressure it is called as gauge pressure
4. Vacuum Pressure
When the pressure is measured below atmospheric
pressure it is called as vacuum pressure.
The atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15oC is 101.3 kN/m2

Problem: Determine the height of (i) water and (ii) mercury column
for the atmospheric pressure.

Solution:
Case (i) Water
Atmospheric Pressure = 101.3 kN/m2
ρwghw = 101.3 x 103 N/m2
1000 x 9.81 x hw = 101.3 x 103
hw = 10.326 m of water

Case (ii) Mercury

Atmospheric Pressure = 101.3 kN/m2
ρmghm = 101.3 x 103 N/m2
13.6 x1000 x 9.81 x hm = 101.3 x 103
hm = 0.760m of mercury
(a) For Gauge Pressure: For measuring gauge pressure,
the pressure above the horizontal datum line A-A in the
left column and in the right column of U-tube manometer
should be same.

Pressure above A-A in the left column =pb+ρ1 gh1

Pressure head in the right column above A-A= ρ2 gh2
Equating LHS and RHS, pb+ρ1 gh1 = ρ2 gh2
pb =(ρ2 gh2 -ρ1 gh1 )

(b) For Vacuum Pressure:

For measuring vacuum pressure the level of the
heavy liquid in the manometer will be as shown in figure

Pressure above A-A in the left column =pb+ρ1 gh1 +ρ2 gh2
Pressure head in the right column above A-A=0
Equating LHS and RHS, pb+ρ1 gh1 +ρ2 gh2 = 0
pb =-(ρ1 gh1 +ρ2 gh2)
 Problem-1 : U tube manometer – gauge pressure
The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is open to the
atmosphere while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of specific
gravity 0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of mercury
in the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference of
mercury level in the two limbs is 20 cm
Given Data:
Specific Gravity of fluid S1 = 0.9
Density of fluid ρ1 = 0.9 x 1000 kg/m3 = 900 kg/m3
Specific gravity of mercury S2 = 13.6
Density of mercury ρ2 = 13.6 x 1000 = 13,600 kg/m3
Difference in mercury level h2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Height of fluid column in left limb h1 = 20 cm-12 cm
= 8 cm = 0.08 m
Let pa be pressure at point A (centre of pipe)
To find:
Pressure of fluid in the pipe
Solution: Fix datum X-X such that below datum line containing same fluid
Pressure in left limb = pressure in right limb
Pa + ρ1 g h1 = ρ2 g h2
Pa + 900 x 9.81 x 0.08 = 13,600 x 9.81 x 0.2
Pa = 25976.88 N/m2
Pa =25.977 kN/m2
 Problem-2 : U tube manometer – vacuum pressure
A simple u – tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in
which the fluid of specific gravity 0.8. and having vacuum pressure is flowing.
The other end of pipe is open to the atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in
pipe if the difference of the mercury readings in the two limbs is 40 cm and the
height of fluid in the left limb is 15 cm below the centre of pipe
Given Data:
Specific Gravity of fluid S1 = 0.8
Density of fluid ρ1 = 0.8 x 1000 kg/m3 = 800 kg/m3
Specific gravity of mercury S2 = 13.6
Density of mercury ρ2 = 13.6 x 1000 = 13,600 kg/m3
Difference in mercury level h2 = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Height of fluid column in left limb h1 = 15 cm = 0.15m
Let pa be pressure at point A (centre of pipe)

To find:
Pressure of fluid in the pipe
Solution: Fix datum X-X such that below datum line containing same fluid
Pressure in left limb = pressure in right limb
Pa + ρ1 g h1 + ρ2 g h2 = 0
Pa =-( 800 x 9.81 x 0.15 + 13,600 x 9.81 x 0.4)
Pa = -54543.5 N/m2
Pa = -54.54 kN/m2 The negative sign indicates vacuum pressure
Problems for Practice:
1.The left limb of U-tube manometer is connected to a pipe conveying
water. The level of the mercury in the limb connected to the pipe is 0.7m
below the centre line of the pipe. The other limb is open to the
atmosphere and the level of mercury in the right limb is 0.2m below the
centre line of the pipe.The space above mercury in the right limb is filled
with oil of height 0.3m. Find the pressure in the pipe.

(Ans pa = 62.5 kN/m2)

2. A simple U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil

(S=0.8) flowing in the pipe line. Its right limb is open to the atmosphere
and the left limb is connected to the pipe. The centre of the pipe is 9 cm
below the level of mercury in the right limb. If the difference in mercury
level in the two limbs is 15cm, determine the absolute pressure of the oil
in the pipe.

(Ans po=120.58 kN/m2)

 HYDROSTATICS

Topics

1. Fluid (Static) Pressures(Pascal law & Hydrostatic law)

2. Absolute and Gauge Pressures
3. Pressure measurements
• Manometers
 Simple Manometers (Piezometer, U tube, Single column)
 Differential Manometers ( U tube and Inverted U tube)
• Mechanical gauges
4. Forces on Plane surfaces
5. Centre of Pressure
6. Buoyancy and floatation
U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS
INVERTED U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS
Problem 1:
Find out the differential reading ‘h’ of an inverted U-tube manometer containing oil
of specific gravity 0.7 as the manometric fluid when connected across pipes A and
B as shown in fig below. The conveying liquids of specific gravities 1.2 and 1.0.
Pipes A and B are located at the same level and assume the pressures at A and B
are equal.
INVERTED U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS

Problem-2 :
Water is flowing through two different pipes to which an inverted differential
manometer having oil of specific gravity 0.8 is connected. The pressure head in
the pipe A is 2 m of water. Find the pressure in the pipe B for manometer
readings as shown in Fig below.
INVERTED U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS
Problem -3
 FORCES ON PLANES

Vertically Immersed Surface:

a) Total pressure (R):

Pressure at any point along the strip p  gx

Total pressure on the strip  p.dA  p.b.dx
The Total pressure on the body R   p.b.dx

R  g  bx.dx  g( Ah )  gh A

EXAMPLE 1
Find the volume of the water displaced and position of centre of
buoyancy for a wooden block of width 2.5 m and of depth 1.5 m,
when it floats horizontally in water. The density of wooden block is
650 kg/m3 and its length 6.0 m.
Given :
width = 2.5m
depth = 1.5m
length = 6m
volume of the block = 2.5 x 1.5 x 6 = 22.5 m3
density of wooden block = 650 kg/m3
Required: volume of the water displaced and position of centre of
buoyancy
 EXAMPLE 1
Solution :

Answer: volume of the water displaced = 14.625 m3

position of centre of buoyancy = 0.4875 m
EXAMPLE 1
A block of wood of specific gravity 0.7 floats in water. Determine the
meta-center height of the block if its size is 2 m x 1 m x 0.8 m.

Given : Dimension of block = 2m x 1m x 0.8m

let Depth of immersion = h m
specific gravity of wood = 0.7

Required : meta-centric height

Solution :
EXAMPLE 1
EXAMPLE 1

Answer: meta-centric height :GM = 0.0288 m

 References

1. Bansal, R.K., “Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Machines”,

5th edition, Laxmi Publications Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2008

2. Modi P.N and Seth "Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics

including Hydraulic Machines", Standard Book House New
Delhi. 2015.