Chapter 1
Principles of Pipeline Design
There are a number of important stages in the life cycle of an
oil or gas transmission pipeline: design, construction,
operation and maintenance and finally repair. This chapter
will look at the initial stage of pipeline design for oil and gas
pipelines. Within the planning phase, and before any work
commences on constructing a new pipeline, factors that affect
the design process include:
. the effect on the environment;
. the pipeline routing process;
. approval and legal considerations.
There are currently numerous standards available that
provide guidance on the design of pipelines. Some operators
may use their own national standard, but many others use
foreign standards that are widely used throughout the
pipeline industry. In particular, for oil and gas pipelines
worldwide, the API (American Petroleum Institute), ANSI
(American National Standards Institute) and BS (British
Standards) are widely used. Within the UK, oil and gas
pipelines are based on guidance provided by PD 8010 [1]. In
addition, the IGE/TD/1 standard [2] is a pipeline code
developed by the Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers
within the UK for the design, construction and operation of
pipelines operating at pressures exceeding 16 bar. In addition,
IGE/TD/1 takes into account extensive research into the
causes and consequences of pipeline failure. It is appropriate,
therefore, that IGE/TD/1 be referenced for developments in
international pipeline standards and current best practice
throughout the pipeline industry. A summary of the main
standards used worldwide includes those shown in Tables 1.1
and 1.2 [3].
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A Quick Guide to Pipeline Engineering
Table 1.1 Overview of standards that provide guidance on
design, construction and maintenance
Onshore
ASME B31.4 Oil pipelines
ASME B31.8 Gas pipelines
IGE/TD/1 Gas pipelines
PD 8010 Oil and gas pipelines
AS 2885 Oil and gas
Offshore
DNV Recommended Oil and gas pipelines
Practice
PD 8010 Oil and gas pipelines
API RP 1111 Oil pipelines
ASME B31.4 Oil pipelines
ASME B31.8 Gas pipelines
1.1 Effect on the environment
Consideration must be given to the likely impact a newly
constructed pipeline will have on the environment. For
onshore pipelines, these effects are highlighted in Fig. 1.1.
For offshore pipelines, these effects are highlighted in Fig.
1.2.
It is important to identify the likely environmental effects
of a planned pipeline and satisfy appropriate legislation.
Obviously there will be different requirements around the
world, but a typical example used within the UK includes the
Table 1.2 Overview of standards that provide guidance on
design, construction and maintenance
Governing regulation Design code Approval organization
UK Pipeline Safety PD 8010 HSE (Health and Safety
Regulations Executive)
US Department of DOT DOT (Department of
Transportation Transportation)
Regulations
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Principles of Pipeline Design
‘Public Gas Transporter Pipeline Works Regulations’. This
legislation requires an environmental impact assessment
(EIA) in sensitive areas. Consequently, before the operator
can construct a new pipeline, an EIA should be conducted at
the design stage.
There are numerous environmental regulations and
legislation available. Those that affect the UK pipeline
industry include:
European Union Legislation
. 97/11/EC Effects of Projects on the Environment;
. 92/43/EEC Conservation of Natural Habitats of Wild
Fauna and Flora.
UK Regulations
. The Gas Act and ‘Public Gas Transporter Pipeline Works
Regulations’;
. Pipeline Works Environmental Impact Assessment
Regulations 200, No. 1928.
UK Acts
. Environmental Act 1995;
. Environmental Protection Act 1990;
Figure 1.1 Environmental considerations for onshore
pipelines
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A Quick Guide to Pipeline Engineering
Figure 1.2 Environmental considerations for offshore
pipelines
. Pipelines Act, for onshore oil pipelines.
For offshore pipelines, consideration should also be given to
sensitive areas associated with new pipeline construction.
This is controlled by:
. Petroleum and Submarine Pipelines Act [4], which governs
the commercial extraction of oil and the protection of the
environment.
1.2 Routing
Routing is an important factor in any pipeline design process
as this determines areas through which the pipeline can and
cannot be routed. If designing a pipeline from A to B, ideally
it would be convenient to use the shortest route as a straight
line between the two points (see Fig. 1.3). This is not always
possible as, when routing onshore pipelines, the route must
take into consideration:
. sensitive areas (national parks, forest regenerative areas);
. environment (wildlife, archaeological sites);
. geography (rocky areas, fault lines, areas of erosion);
. crossings (road, rail, rivers);
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Principles of Pipeline Design
Figure 1.3 Routing of transmission pipelines
. areas of population;
. location of compressor stations;
. location of above-ground installations.
In addition, the route of the pipeline should avoid running
parallel with high-density traffic routes, electricity power
lines and other oil or gas pipelines. If a crossing is required,
the pipeline should cross perpendicular to the road/railway
(see Fig. 1.4). In addition, a feasibility study taking into
account the above factors is required when defining the route
between the start and end points of the pipeline. Usually, a
1 km wide strip is used to identify any deviations required in
the pipeline route, as shown in Figs 1.4 and 1.5.
Figure 1.4 Pipeline routing corridor
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A Quick Guide to Pipeline Engineering
Figure 1.5 Transmission pipeline routing
When routing offshore pipelines, again the straightest route
is not always possible. Obstacles have to be avoided, such as:
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Principles of Pipeline Design
. other offshore platforms;
. shipwrecks;
. subsea wellheads;
. underwater surface features (cliffs, volcanoes, erosion).
Care must be taken with routing pipelines that cross areas of
high shipping activity, since there is the risk of damage to the
pipe from anchors, or even the sinking of small boats if these
become hooked on the pipe. The general principle is that the
pipeline should be constructed so that it crosses perpendi-
cular to the shipping lane, i.e. to ensure vessels travel the least
amount of time within the region of the pipeline. Other
considerations that may affect the pipeline route include
those shown previously in Fig. 1.2. A seismic sonar survey is
usually conducted to determine the overall terrain below the
surface.
When looking at detailed design of offshore pipelines,
there are a number of considerations, in particular:
. On bottom stability of the pipeline, hydrodynamic loads
should be assessed to check whether the pipeline will be
stable on the seabed under its own weight and will not
move as a result of current and wave movement. These
loads include lift, drag and inertia forces.
. Subsea pipelines that are not trenched are also susceptible
to spans forming owing to surface erosion and movement.
A consequence of this is that, as the current flows around
the pipeline circumference, vortices are shed. As the
frequency of these vortices approach the natural frequency
of the pipeline, in-line vibration and vortex-induced
vibration can occur. This results in fatigue of the pipeline
and can ultimately cause failure. Analysis of free spans
along the pipeline route should be conducted to check for
vibration.
. Finally, subsea pipelines are also at risk from lateral and
upheavel buckling. Usually this is complex and requires
detailed modelling using finite element analysis software.
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A Quick Guide to Pipeline Engineering
Table 1.3 Detailed design parameters
Pipeline diameter
Calculating wall thickness
Material grade
Maximum operating pressure and flow conditions
Operating temperature
Pressure drop
Corrosion protection
All these points must be taken into consideration when
determining the route of a pipeline.
1.3 Approval and legal considerations
Having considered the environmental impact and routing
selection, the next important stage is to notify the relevant
authorities of the intention to construct a new pipeline. In the
UK, authorization would be provided by the Department of
Trade and Industry (DTI), who must be notified of any new
construction projects and updated on the likely environ-
mental effects. For cross-country pipelines, farmers should
be consulted, since compensation payments are likely, in
order to allow a pipeline to cross private land. In addition,
permission will be required in areas where the proposed
pipeline route will cross roads, railways or river crossings.
Finally, to prevent any disruption to the project at the
construction stage, appropriate measures should be taken to
ensure that the proposed route does not affect protected
wildlife species, preventing costly delays later in the project.
Once all these considerations have been addressed and the
route options for the pipeline have been selected, detailed
design of the pipeline system can be done. What does the
detailed design involve? This includes looking at the detailed
design parameters shown in Table 1.3, and is covered in
detail in the following chapter.
