Thermodynamics

Asok R
Rajadhani Institute of Engg and Technology
 Module-1
• Thermodynamics: Nature and scope of
thermodynamics; Basic concepts; Laws of
thermodynamics- Discovery, Significance &
Applications; Qualitative ideas on Entropy, Available
energy, Irreversibility , Principle of increase of
entropy & Carnot engine; Limitations of
Thermodynamics; Sources of power; history of
power production; power production in the future.
 Thermodynamics
The word is come from Greek
• Thermo – Heat
• Dynamics - power.

Science of Energy interactions

 Heat Transfer
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred
between two systems by virtue of a temperature difference.

• Note: there cannot be any heat transfer between two systems that
are at the same temperature. Heat is a form of energy in transition
and as a result can only be identified at the system boundary. Heat
has energy units kJ
• The transfer of heat into a system is frequently referred to as heat
addition and the transfer of heat out of a system as heat rejection.

• Sign convention: Heat Transfer to a system is positive, and heat

transfer from a system is negative. It means any heat transfer that
increases the energy of a system is positive, and heat transfer that
decreases the energy of a system is negative.
• Temperature : The degree of hotness is known as Temperature
 HEAT CAPACITY
• Heat capacity of a solid or liquid is defined
as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a substance by one degree.
Heat Capacity, C = Q/dT
 SPECIFIC HEAT
The specific heat is defined as the energy required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by
one degree
Specific heat, c = J/Kg K

•The specific heat at constant volume, Cv can be viewed

as the energy required to raise the temperature of the unit
mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is
maintained constant
cv =

•The specific heat at constant pressure, Cp can be viewed

as the energy required to raise the temperature of the unit
mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is
maintained constant
cp =
 Work Transfer
• Work is the energy interaction between a
system and its surroundings by virtue other
than the temperature difference. More
specifically, work is the energy transfer
associated with force acting through a
distance.
• Notation: – W (kJ) amount of work transfer –
W° (kW) power
• Sign convention: work done by a system is
positive, and the work done on a system is
negative.
Heat Engine
• A heat engine is a device that
takes in energy in the form of heat
operating in a cyclic process,
gives output in the form of work.
• No heat engine can convert the
whole amount of heat into work
• Some of the heat will lost to the
surroundings
Applications of Thermodynamics
• Simple steam powerplant
• Internal combustion engines
• Domestic refrigerator
• Room air conditioner
• Heat exchangers
System,Boundary, Surroundings
• System -A thermodynamics system is
defined a definite space or area on which
the study of Energy Transfer and Energy
conversions is made
• Boundary –The system and surrounding are
separated by boundary. It may be fixed or
movable or imaginary.It will not occupy any
volume or mass in space
 Surroundings - Anything outside the system which
affects the behaviour of the system is known as
surroundings
Control volume – A specified large number thermal
device has mass flow in and out of a system called as
control volume
Control surface – Both mass and Energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume which is called control
surface
Open,Closed,Isolated Systems
 open, closed, Isolated systems
•Open system - One in which Both Energy and mass
cross the boundaries of the system.

•Closed system - One in which mass does not cross

boundaries of the system, though energy may do so.

•Isolated system - one in which neither mass nor

energy crosses the boundaries of the system.
Thermodynamics proper
OPEN SYSTEM (CONTROL VOLUME)
• The system in which the transfer of mass
as well as energy can take place across
its boundary is called as an open system.
• The boundary of control surface may be
real or imaginary envelope.
• The Control Surface is the boundary of
control volume.
Eg :
Boiling water in an open vessel,
where transfer of heat as well as
mass in the form of steam takes
place between the vessel and
surrounding.
Compressor,
Turbine
Nozzle
CLOSED SYSTEM(CONTROL MASS)
• System in which mass does not cross
the boundaries of the system, though
energy may do so.
• Energy in the form of heat or work, can
cross the boundary; and the volume of a
closed system does not have to be fixed.
• In this system the original mass of the
system remain unchanged.
ISOLATED SYSTEM

There is no interaction between system and the

surroundings. It is of fixed mass and energy, and
hence there is no mass and energy transfer
across the system boundary
Eg. Universe
HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM
• A system which consist of single phase
like air , steam, liquids then the system
is called homogenous system.

HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEM
• A system which consist of two or more
phase is called heterogeneous system.
eg: Water and steam.
 Types of Approaches
There are two points of view in which behavior of
matter inside the system can be studied

• Microscopic approaches(Statistical Thermodynamics)

In this point of view matter is considered to be
myriads of molecules and the analysis is done at
molecular level or microscopic level

• Macroscopic approaches(Classical Thermodymanics )

A certain quantity of matter is considered without
the events occurring at the molecular level and these
effects can be perceived by the human senses
 State of a System
• The condition of Physical existence of the system
• It is defined by thermodynamics co ordinates
such as pressure, volume, temperature
 Thermodynamics property
Property - It is defined as any measurable or observable
characteristics of the substance when the system
remains in equilibrium state.(ie) pressure, temp,
density, volume, Energy, specific volume

Intensive property - One whose value does not depend

on the mass of the system, like temperature,
pressure,density, specific volume, etc. (or) These
properties are Independent on the mass of the
system, these properties remain same

Extensive property - One whose value depends on the

mass of the system, like volume, total Energy, etc
 Change of State, Process & Cycle
• If any of the property has
changed its value , then we can
say the state has changed
• A series of state change
performs a process
• After a series of processes if
the system again regains its
initial state it is known as a
cycle
Control volume, control surface, universe,Temp
Control volume - A specified large number thermal device
has mass flow in and out of a system called as Control
volume.
Eg : Boiler
Control surface - Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume which is called control
surface

Universe – A system and surrounding together comprise a

universe

Temperature - It is A property which is used to determine

the degree of hotness or coldness or the level of heat
intensity of a body
 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Thermal Equilibrium - The temperature of the system does
not change with time and has same value at all points of
the system.

Mechanical Equilibrium - There are no unbalanced forces

within the system or between the surroundings. The
pressure in the system is same at all points and does not
change with respect to time.

Chemical Equilibrium - No chemical reaction takes place in

the system and the chemical composition which is same
throughout the system does not vary with time.
The following three types of equilibrium states must be
achieved is called thermodynamics equilibrium.
 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

When a body 'A' is in thermal equilibrium with a

body 'B' and also separately with a body 'C' , then B and

C will be in thermal equilibrium with each other. This is

known as the Zeroth law of thermodynamics.

• It is the basis of Temperature measurement.

• It led to the invention of Thermometer

 TEMPERATURE

• Degree of hotness or coldness of a body or

environment

• The equality of temperature is the only

requirement for thermal equilibrium

• Driving potential causing the flow of

energy as heat
 Heat Transfer
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is
transferred between two systems by virtue of a
temperature difference.

• Note: there cannot be any heat transfer between two systems

that are at the same temperature. Heat is a form of energy in
transition and as a result can only be identified at the system
boundary. Heat has energy units kJ

• Sign convention: Heat Transfer to a system is positive, and

heat transfer from a system is negative. It means any heat
transfer that increases the energy of a system is positive, and
heat transfer that decreases the energy of a system is
negative.
 Work Transfer
• Work is the energy interaction between a
system and its surroundings. More specifically,
work is the energy transfer associated with
force acting through a distance.
• Notation: – W (kJ) amount of work transfer –
W° (kW) power
• Sign convention: work done by a system is
positive, and the work done on a system is
negative.
Sign Conventions
 PdV work

For a closed system, Work, δW or W1-2= ∫1PdV,area under the curve 1-2
 Similarities between work and heat transfer
• Both are recognized at the boundaries of the system as they
cross them (boundary phenomena).
• Systems posses energy, but not heat or work (transfer
phenomena).
• Both are associated with a process, not a state.
• Heat or work has no meaning at a state.
• Both are path functions, their magnitudes depend on the
path followed during a process as well as the end states.
• Path functions: have inexact differentials designated by
symbol δ.
• Properties, on the other hand, are point functions which
depend on the state only (not on how a system reaches that
state), and they have exact differentials.
POINT FUNCTIONS AND PATH FUNCTIONS

Point Functions
❖ If the value of the thermodynamic variable does
not depends upon the path followed in going
from one state to another, then the properties are
called point functions.
❖ Point functions are properties of the system

❖ Point functions have exact differentials

❖ Eg. Pressure, Volume, Temperature, Density,
Enthalpy, Entropy
POINT FUNCTIONS AND PATH FUNCTIONS

Path Functions
❖ If the value of the thermodynamic variable
depends upon the path followed in going from
one state to another, then the properties are called
path functions.
❖ Eg. Heat and work
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
First law, or the conservation of energy principle, states that energy
can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only change forms.

The first law cannot be proved mathematically, it is based on

experimental observations, i.e., there are no process in the nature
that violates the first law.

The First Law of Thermodynamics

For a closed system cyclic process net heat transfer is equal to net
work Transfer
∮dQ =∮dW
The first law for a closed system or a fixed mass can also be
expressed as:
net energy transfer to (or from) the system as heat and work is equal
to net increase (or decrease) in the total energy of the system
Q – W = ΔE (kJ)
 Total Energy of the system
Q–W=∆E

Where ∆ E is the total energy of the system

It is the algebraic sum of total kinetic

energy, potential energy and internal energy
of the System
Perpetual Motion machine of the first Kind
PMM I
• There can be no machine which continuously
supply mechanical work without consuming
some other forms of energy. Such an
impossible machine is called PMM I

Figure
In a cyclic process, the heat transfers are 147 kJ,
-25.2kJ, -3.56kJ, 31.5kJ. What is the net work done in
the cyclic process?
 st
Limitation of the 1 law
• First law provides a necessary but not a
sufficient condition for a process to occur
e.g. heat transfer take place from hot
body to cold body only. But heat can not be
flow naturally from cold body to hot body.
• First law does not place any restriction to
the direction of the process.
• First law does not ensure the process will
actually occurs or not.
 Reversible Process
• A process is said to be reversible if , when the
process is carried out in the reverse direction
using the same amount of work and heat transfer
during the forward process, the system passes
through the same state as it does in the forward
direction.
• It means both system and surroundings are
returned to their initial states at the end of the
reverse process.
 Irreversible process
• A process which cannot be completely reversed
with out leaving a change in the system or the
surrounding is called irreversible process.
• Some factors that cause a process to become
irreversible:
• Friction
• Mixing
• Chemical reactions
 In reversible process, two states can Irreversible process is usually
be shown by a continuous line represented by a dotted line joining
the end states
Reversible process is an ideal
process In a real process, the intermediate
state points cannot be located
•