First published in 2019

Copyright © Robert Cleworth and John Suter Linton 2019

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 CONTENTS

Mapsviii
Prefacexv

  1 Germany First and ‘limited offensive’ in the Pacific 1

  2 ‘Beware—this harbor is mined!’ 19
  3 Nothing left to chance 33
  4 Mining operation suffers a severe blow 47
  5 Everyone had their jobs to do 59
  6 Keeping up the pressure 79
  7 The Manila raid 95
  8 The fighting men 117
  9 End game  141
10 Bringin’ ’em home  161
11 Correcting history 175

Epilogue197
Note from the authors 201
Acknowledgements205

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 Appendix A RAAF crews killed-in-action (KIA) and aircraft
lost or damaged in the mining campaign 1943–45 207
Appendix B Proposal for aerial mine laying 1942 213
Appendix C Memo from Bostock to Kenney supporting a
change of plans from Wewak to Kavieng 217
Appendix D Secret codenames for targets 219
Appendix E The Japanese ORANGE decrypt of 8 March 1945
(USNARA)  225
Appendix F RAAF post-war report on the effects of mine
laying in the SWPA 229
Glossary237
Notes243
Bibliography245
Index251

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 ‘[T]he slow frail RAAF Catalinas, designed for anti-submarine
patrols, assumed the mantle of Australia’s very long-range bombing
and mine laying force. They were the first to bomb Japanese instal-
lations after the downward thrust to New Guinea; they were the first
to mine Japanese occupied ports, from the Netherlands East Indies to
the China Coast; they were first in and last out in the evacuation of
our prisoners-of-war on the cessation of hostilities . . . Mention World
War II air power to the current generation and its thoughts may turn
to the heroic Spitfires and Lancasters. Mention of the word Catalina
in this context, even coupled with the details of the tragic loss of well
over 300 of their aircrew, may draw only an uncomprehending stare.’
The late Sir Richard Kingsland AO, CBE, DFC,
former RAAF Commanding Officer of 11 Squadron

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 Map 1: Japanese convoy routes KAMCHATKA
Sakhalin Paramushir
U.S.S.R.
Karafuto

Hokkaido
MANCHURIA Otaru
Rashin Muroran
Honshu
Genzan
Dairen
Niigata
Tsingtao Tokyo
3
Moji 1
1 Osaka
Shanghai 2 Kyushu 2 Kagoshima
3 Maizuru
CHINA Bonin Islands
Keelung
FORMOSA
Hong Kong Takoa
BURMA
Hainan PACIFIC OCEAN
Rangoon South China
SIAM Sea PHILIPPINES Saipan
INDO-CHINA Manila
Saigon
Ormoc
Jaluit
Davao Truk
Palau
Medan Miri
Morotai
Singapore BORNEO
SUMATRA Balikpapan CELEBES Halmahera Biak
Palembang Hollandia
Kendari Ambon Rabaul
NEW
4
GUINEA
Surabaya
JAVA PAPUA

4 Macassar
1500 km
INDIAN OCEAN

North

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Map 1

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 Map 2: Routes flown between
Cairns and Kavieng, Kavieng
April to May 1943
NEW IRELAND
Bismarck Sea

NEW BRITAIN
NEW
GUINEA

Solomon Sea

Milne Bay
g
ien

s
irn
av
Ca
oK
to
st
ng
irn
vie
Ca

Coral Sea
Ka

Cairns
400 km
AUSTRALIA
North

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Map 2

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 Wenzhou 8 JAPAN

CHINA

Amoy 114 FORMOSA

Swatow 31 Makung 10
Takao 18
Hong Kong 152

Hainan Strait 131

HAINAN
Yulinkan Bay 52

THAILAND

Manila Bay 54

PHILIPPINES

Balabac Strait 60

Sandakan 12
MALAYA Brunei Bay 20

Tarakan 30

Banka Strait 28
BORNEO
Lembeh Strait 4
Kau Bay 62
SUMATRA Samarinda 12 CELEBES
Soron
Balikpapan 118 Vesuvius
Bangka Strait 117 Bay 8
Kendari 44
Ko
Laut Strait 209 Wowoni Strait 24 B
Parepare
Cape Selatan 28 14
Tioro Strait 76
Macassar 142 Buton Strait 42
Tana Keke Strait 43 Baubau 4
JAVA Surabaya 399 Malosoro 15 Pomalaa 51
Laikang Bay 8 Kolaka 12
Pasuruan 8 Cape Bulu Bulu 12
Probolinggo 8 Bima 8
Panarukan 10
Waingapu 4

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Map 3

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 JAPAN Map 3:
RAAF mine-laying campaign,
chart of targets,
April 1943 to July 1945

Palau 23 Woleai 36

Bay 62

Sorong 29
Manokwari 17
Lorengau 35
Kavieng 104
Kokas 8 Babo 17
24 Boela 12 Kaimana 19
Geser 10
6
NEW
GUINEA

500 km
AUSTRALIA
North

24-6-19

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 Map 4: Allied offensive
mine-laying campaign,
Na
October 1943 to August 1945
Ch
Konan

Wonsan

Pusan
Ha
CHINA
Sasebo
Nanking
Hankow Shanghai

Kunming

Okinaw
Amoy Kirin
Swatow (Keelung)
Calcutta Canton
Takao
Hong Kong
Haiphong
INDIA

Martaban
Rangoon
Moulmein

Manila
Port Blair Mergui
Cam Ranh Bay
Saigon
Victoria Point

Cape Cambodia
CEYLON Songkhla

Aroe Bay Penang

Sandakan
Brunei Bay
Belawan

Singapore
Kau Ba
Padang
Balikpapan
Kok

Macassar
Surabaya

RAAF Catalina laid mines

Submarine or surface laid mine field
Aircraft laid mine field
PBY Catalina
B-29 Superfortress A
B-17 Flying Fortress/B-24 Liberator

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Map 4

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 Najin
Chongjin
Konan Funakawaminato
Wonsan Sakata
JAPAN
Choshi
Pusan Nagoya Yokohama
Hamada

Sasebo

anghai

Chichijima
Okinawa Hahajima
in
eelung)

Guam

Wotje
Maloelap

Jaluit Mili
Truk
Palau Woleai

Kau Bay

Manokwari Manus
Kavieng
Kokas Hollandia
Geser
Kieta

Darwin/East Arm

Cairns

AUSTRALIA
800 km

North

24-6-19

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 PREFACE

On a warm day in December 1944, a young Royal Australian Air Force
(RAAF) warrant officer (WOFF) named James Reginald Cleworth—
known as Reg—was en route to collect a new aircraft. He happened to
be enjoying some free time in Melbourne when a street photographer
snapped his picture outside the General Post Office. Reg stared into the
camera, giving nothing away. No smile, no frown, no hint of his thoughts,
his experience, his hopes or fears. It was common for people to take
photos of servicemen and women at the time to supplement their income,
hoping their families would buy a copy. Reg’s mother, Janet, obliged.
A navigator with 20 Squadron, flying PBYs—more commonly refer­
red to as Catalina flying boats—Reg had been assigned to collect a new
Catalina, A24-203, from the RAAF Flying Boat Repair Depot at Lake
Boga, near Swan Hill, just over 300 kilometres north-west of Melbourne.
The aircraft, however, was not ready, and this gave Reg some time to
visit his family, who lived in Black Rock, an outer southern suburb of
Melbourne. Being stationed in Darwin, almost 4000 kilometres away,
it wasn’t easy for Reg to get home when given leave. His stay this time
would be brief, unfortunately, as he needed to journey back to base before
Christmas Day.

xv

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 xvi R A AF BL ACK CATS

Born in 1922, Reg was the second-eldest of four children to James

Raymond and Janet Cleworth. His siblings were Dorothy (born in 1919),
Nancy (1928) and younger brother Joseph Robert (1934), known as
Bob to his family. As Bob remembered, ‘Reg was the apple of our mum’s
eye . . . he could do no wrong.’
When war broke out in 1939, James knew that his son would want to
join the fight. He didn’t stop him, but James did warn Reg not to enlist
in the army. The horrors of World War I were still fresh in James’s mind,
and he didn’t want his son going through what he had suffered.
James had served in the 29th Australian Infantry Battalion, 5th Division,
Australian Imperial Force (AIF), from 1916 to 1918, and he had vivid
memories of the shock of trench warfare and gas attacks. He was seriously
wounded in March 1918, near Messines Ridge, during a raid to gather
intelligence on the enemy’s strength. The only thing James remembered
of the incident was that he ‘went into Belgium and woke up in France . . .
in excruciating pain’.
James screamed as he regained consciousness, and a matron stuck a
piece of leather into his mouth, telling him, ‘Bite down on that and stop
your complaining . . . there are worse off than you.’ Even so, shrapnel had
lodged in his leg, creating a wound as big as a fist. Mud and debris had
been forced into the wound by the shards of metal, causing an infection.
The wound was irrigated, but James was still weak. The doctors thought
he would die.
The AIF notified Janet, whom James had married while stationed in
England in 1916, and paid for her travel expenses to be at James’s side.
James credited seeing his wife walk into the ward as the reason he decided
that he wasn’t going to die. He didn’t want to leave her. He eventually
recovered enough to be shipped to England, where he recuperated. That
was the end of the war for James.
When Reg came of enlistment age in 1940, he decided to heed his
father’s advice. Initially, Reg wanted to join the Royal Australian Navy (RAN),

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 PREFACE xvii

but then chose the RAAF. He trained as an observer, passing his exams and
earning a wing with an embossed ‘O’. Later in the war, the RAAF redesig-
nated ‘observer’ to ‘navigator’, changing the ‘O’ to an ‘N’. Like many who
had earned the original designation, Reg would continue wearing his ‘O’
wing proudly. It signified his experience in the RAAF and was, quite liter-
ally, a badge of honour.
Signing up to the RAAF proved just as dangerous as James’s time
in the army. Reg was sent on missions that took him far behind enemy
lines. It might not have been a soggy trench, but the risk to his life was
just as real. This was something that Reg kept from his family.
During training and when given his postings, Reg regularly wrote
home. Nearly all the letters were addressed to his mother, but they
were for the whole family to let them know he was okay. He wrote of
mundane activities such as washing, darning socks, watching tropical
thunderstorms and spending money on milkshakes. Movies provided
the main source of entertainment. More often than not they were
American, and usually came with a cartoon, which interested and
amused Reg more than some of the features. With the exception of
one letter he addressed to his father, Reg never wrote about his oper-
ations, close encounters with the enemy, or anything considered top
secret. The closest he came to this was a reference to having ‘had a
long flight’, and explaining that he had slept for most of the day after
returning.
When Reg visited his family in December 1944, he and Bob had a
quiet moment together. The curious ten-year-old asked Reg what he
planned to do after the war. Bob was surprised when Reg dropped
his stoic facade and said, ‘I don’t think I’m coming back.’ There was
silence as each reflected on what had been said. Bob kept Reg’s confi-
dence, never telling anyone of their short conversation, especially his
mother. Reg’s words, however, would remain with Bob for the rest of
his life.

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 xviii R A AF BL ACK CATS

On 11 March 1945, an urgent telegram arrived, addressed to Mr J.R.

Cleworth. It read:

419459 WARRANT OFFICER J R CLEWORTH MISSING STOP

REGRET TO INFORM YOU THAT YOUR SON WARRANT
OFFICER JAMES REGINALD CLEWORTH IS MISSING AS
RESULT AIR OPERATIONS ON 7TH MARCH 1945 STOP KNOWN
DETAILS ARE HE WAS MEMBER OF CREW CATALINA AIR-
CRAFT DETAILED FOR OPERATIONAL FLIGHT IN NORTHERN
OPERATIONAL AREA WHICH FAILED TO RETURN TO BASE . . .
WHEN ANY FURTHER INFORMATION IS RECEIVED IT WILL BE
CONVEYED TO YOU IMMEDIATELY.

Bob, resting in his bedroom, heard his mother let out a loud cry of
anguish. While the telegram didn’t say that Reg had been killed, his father,
knowing war all too well, quietly told Bob that he didn’t think his brother
would return. He also warned Bob, ‘but don’t tell your mother I said that’.
During this time, many families feared for the loss of their son, brother
or husband, but hoped for their return. Any hope Janet had of Reg being
found hiding among the forests of a tropical island or being repatriated
from a prisoner-of-war (POW) camp was dashed when, in 1947, Reg was
officially classified as deceased. More precisely, in a letter that arrived at
the Cleworth home dated 3 April:

MISSING PRESUMED DEAD.

Naturally, the family was devastated. Reg’s mother carried her grief for
the remainder of her life. His father, a superintendent at the local Meth-
odist Sunday school, lost his faith. Bob vividly recalled his father telling
him, ‘I had my doubts in World War I . . . now your brother’s gone, there
is no God . . . it’s all a lot of load of hooey [rubbish].’

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 PREFACE xix

The Black Rock Cricket Club, where Reg had played, named its
building The J R Cleworth Pavilion in honour of Reg’s popularity,
contribution and sportsmanship. It remained so for some years until
the grounds were taken over by a baseball club. As Bob noted, ‘that’s
how history goes’.

No details were ever given about Reg’s incident. Where and why he
was flying, and the reason his aircraft went down, were not forthcom-
ing. Bob was always curious about what his brother did during the war,
though he respected his mother’s grief and didn’t delve too much into
the subject. He was busy himself, starting his apprenticeship to become
a marine engineer at the age of fourteen and, five years later, earning his
qualifications and going to sea. Unbeknown to Bob at the time, he sailed
around the south-west Pacific, visiting and working in the same areas in
which his brother had flown operations. Bob married and shifted careers,
gaining a law degree and a master’s in modern history while teaching law
at Macquarie University. His interest in World War I led Bob to become
one of the first tour guides to take people to Gallipoli and Western Front
locations in Belgium and France. He also led tours as a historian for
Returned and Services League (RSL) Travel.
It wasn’t until after his mother, Janet, passed away in 1986 that Bob
felt he could investigate Reg’s service career. In her final days, Janet had
a fall and was admitted to the Royal North Shore Hospital. After her
passing, Bob and his family went to collect his mother’s belongings.
A nurse asked Bob if he had a brother who was killed in the war. She
revealed that she and other staff would hear Janet speaking with Reg,
right up until her last day. Reg’s death had affected Janet more deeply
than anyone had realised.
Janet had kept all the letters Reg had sent, from his early training days
in 1943 to his last on 28 February 1945. In that final letter, Reg wrote:

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 xx R A AF BL ACK CATS

Dear Mother,
Haven’t much news for you this time, but thought I’d drop you a
line + let you known [sic] I was OK. Don’t be surprised if you don’t
get any letters for a while. There will be a delay in them for a while
I think.

Bob began piecing together titbits of information to uncover the

truth about what his brother and other RAAF Catalina servicemen did
during the war. His research led him to meet a number of veterans, pilots,
crewmen and service personnel who were members of the Catalina Asso-
ciation. Most spoke generally of their time during the war, but a few
opened up about being involved in ‘secret mine-laying operations’ in
partnership with the US Navy—specifically the US Navy Seventh Fleet,
also known as MacArthur’s Navy. Bob learned that the RAAF had imposed
restrictions on what the veterans could reveal about their wartime oper-
ations. Should they mention anything about the mine-laying operations,
they would face legal repercussions. In 1945, the RAAF and the Australian
Government decided to keep secret the development of the mines and
how they were used operationally. Although the war was over, there was
no knowing when or if the weapons and strategy would be needed again.
Thus, all returning crews and support personnel were sworn to strict
silence. More importantly, Bob discovered that Reg’s 20 Squadron was
one of four involved in laying mines throughout the south-west Pacific.
Now he knew what his brother was doing during the war.
The more Bob met and spoke with the former Catalina crews, the
better his appreciation and understanding became of the tasks and risks
they undertook. He decided that he would chronicle their experiences,
as much as they were willing to tell. As Bob remembered, ‘interviewing
Catalina veterans when they are together is a most enjoyable experience.
I found it useful to have a tape recorder at the ready to catch the unex-
pected recollection.’

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 PREFACE xxi

By the late 1980s, it wasn’t unusual for former crew members to

have written about their experiences, though most only mentioned the
mine-laying operations in passing, if at all. One book, however, stood out
for Bob. The Cat Has Nine Lives was written by former Catalina pilot Fred
Robins, and featured a photo of Robins with Reg. As it happened, Reg
had been Robins’ navigator when they crewed a twin-engine Avro Anson,
performing convoy escort in Bass Strait during 1943. The photo had been
taken by the RAAF to be used for publicity purposes.
Bob was quick to make contact with Robins, who was generous in his
praise for his former navigator and explained that Reg was also a good
friend. They had flown together in 67 Squadron before volunteering for
the Catalinas. Once they’d completed their training at Rathmines in New
South Wales, Robins and Reg had been assigned to different squadrons,
43 and 20, respectively. Talking with Bob, Robins candidly admitted ‘it
would be a gross misstatement to say that I enjoyed mine laying, because
there was always the possibility of being shot up by ships in the harbours,
and flying in low at 100 or 200 feet in complete darkness was, to say the
least, very dangerous’.
Bob found that there was very little in any contemporary history texts
about the RAAF/US Navy mine-laying operations, let alone any refer-
ence to its success. The National Archives of Australia and relevant RAAF
squadron archives also fell short on providing details and answers. Then
Bob came across a 1978 book by author and historian David Vincent.
Catalina Chronicle related anecdotes of former crew members, includ-
ing some mentions of mine laying. Bob contacted Vincent and, from this
meeting, Vincent introduced Bob to Ivor Collins, formerly a lieutenant
in the US Navy Reserve. A mine expert who was stationed in Australia
during the war, Collins worked with the RAAF for 22 months as part
of the aerial mine-laying team. Vincent had, some years earlier, corre-
sponded with Collins to record his experiences and gather information
on the technical data of the mines and the work of mine officers, so he

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 xxii R A AF BL ACK CATS

allowed Bob to view the various letters Collins had written about his time
working with the RAAF.
Over time, the veterans became more relaxed with Bob and, because
of Reg, accepted him as one of their own. They now began relating more
details of their mine-laying experiences. Realising there was a ‘huge
omission’ in the history books, Bob wanted to know more about the
RAAF/US Navy mine-laying coalition: how it started and why, what the
objectives were and how successful the strategy was. Bob soon discovered
the evidence he sought was located in the National Archives and Records
Administration (NARA) in Maryland, not far from Washington, DC.
Between late 1945 and early 1946, all documentation about mine laying
was shipped to the United States, as it was the property of the US Navy
Seventh Fleet.
In February 2003, Bob took a sabbatical from Macquarie University to
visit Ivor Collins at his home in North Carolina, and NARA in Maryland.
Bob fondly recalled meeting Collins for the first time: ‘He was an unas-
suming person and very proud of his association with the RAAF/US
Navy mine-laying campaign. In fact, [because of] the stint he did with
the RAAF, Ivor told me he didn’t know if he was an Aussie or a Yank at
times . . . Like many who served in World War II, he was a citizen soldier
with a father who served in the Great War . . . It was a delight to know
Ivor and [his wife] Shirley.’
Collins shared a lot of technical information about the program, and
anecdotes from his time in Brisbane and Cairns. In later years, Bob would
return to visit Collins, and Collins would visit Australia. They would take
time out to travel to locations in Australia and the south-west Pacific
region where the RAAF operated. Collins wanted to see and talk about
how much the landscape had changed, while Bob listened and learned
what it was like all those years before. They shared many conversations
over the phone and via email but, as Bob remembered, ‘the best exchanges
were over Ivor’s favourite Scotch’.

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 PREFACE xxiii

After visiting Collins in 2003, Bob set off for NARA, hoping to find
flight logs and action reports giving the dates, locations and details of
each mission. The staff members were helpful, but a lot of the material
he requested was unavailable. He was shown some documents from the
period that had been catalogued; however, they weren’t what he was after.
Frustrated, Bob boarded the last bus back to his accommodation in
Washington, DC, before a predicted big snow dump. With the first snow-
flakes falling, Bob took his seat, wondering if he would ever find what
he was seeking. Just as the bus was about to set off, a man ran from the
archives building and jumped on board. The slightly dishevelled man sat
next to Bob, who commented, ‘You just made that.’ Bob’s accent caught
the man’s ear, and they began talking. The conversation turned to Bob’s
reason for being at NARA. The man appreciated Bob’s frustration and
told him, ‘Ask for me when you come back tomorrow . . . I think I can
help you.’
It turned out the man was NARA’s Chief Archivist, Steven Schafer.
He explained that not all the archive boxes from the Seventh Fleet had
been sorted. Some hadn’t even been opened since their arrival in late
1945 or early 1946. Schafer was more than happy for Bob to go through
them; however, there was a condition. Half-jokingly, Schafer told Bob he
could do so, provided ‘you catalogue the contents as you go’. It was a
mammoth task.
Over two weeks, while staying with a friend of Bob’s sister, Brenda Rosa,
at Twinbrook, close to NARA, Bob sorted through the pile of archival
boxes, going through document after document. Some of the boxes had
cigarette butts, food wrappings and empty beer bottles among the ‘top
secret’ communications. At least the sailors who packed the boxes had also
decided to send their rubbish home. Bob wasn’t alone in going through
the material. Schafer had ‘loaned’ Bob a staff member to help, Barry Zerby.
The two men cross-referenced the documents to match dates, information
and code names to specific locations. Unfortunately, some documents

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 xxiv R A AF BL ACK CATS

were incomplete, while it appeared some were missing. Even so, the
infor­mation they unearthed revealed the sacrifice and achievements of
the RAAF Catalina crews, as well as the vital role they played in General
Douglas MacArthur’s strategic plan for the south-west Pacific campaign.
Between 22 April 1943 and 1 July 1945, the crews of the RAAF’s
Catalina 11, 20, 42 and 43 Squadrons conducted covert mine-laying
operations in the south and south-west Pacific to disrupt Japanese
naval movements, supplies and military operations, and to help block
merchant vessels from delivering raw materials to Japan. Commander-
in-Chief of the US Pacific Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz and General
Douglas MacArthur understood mine laying would be an effective strat­
egic weapon to stop the Japanese from supplying their forces and feeding
their war machine; it would, therefore, soften up the enemy for eventual
US Army and Marine landings. They were proved right.
Bob also discovered that during MacArthur’s campaign to regain the
Philippines, he had employed the Catalina squadrons to thwart Imperial
Japanese Navy attempts to supply their troops and attack the Seventh
Fleet’s amphibious forces. The operations were successful in protecting
the Seventh Fleet at Leyte Gulf and paving the way for MacArthur to
liberate the Philippine capital, Manila. Admiral Nimitz used the RAAF
Catalinas to lay mines as a tactical manoeuvre, bottling up Japanese Navy
and merchant ships in harbours, or preventing their access to safe waters,
ensuring that the vessels were sitting ducks for Allied submarine and
air attacks.
Bob would also learn neither the Australians nor the Americans led
the secret operations; rather, they were a true coalition between the
two countries, between the RAAF and the US Navy Seventh Fleet. Each
brought its own expertise, and they worked together on strategies to
hamper Japanese supply routes.
Despite the 30-year rule for the release of classified information,
operations remained secret for over 60 years. In addition to former crews

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 PREFACE xxv

being restricted in what they could say—and the fact the documents were
held by the US Navy—earlier historians tended to concentrate on the
more spectacular RAAF contributions in Europe during World War II.
Therefore, the work of the RAAF Catalinas in coalition with the US Navy
became absorbed into the US records as ‘Allied’ actions. Similar treatment
had been given to Australian, New Zealand and Canadian achievements
in World War I.
There is no doubt Bob’s research in 2003 revealed a little known yet
crucial and courageous chapter in Australia’s air-war history. And, in
memory of Warrant Officer Reg Cleworth and all those who were part
of the RAAF/US Navy mine-laying coalition, this story needs to be told.

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 1

GERMANY FIRST AND ‘LIMITED

OFFENSIVE’ IN THE PACIFIC
1941 TO 1942


The Pacific War started when Japan attacked the US naval base at Pearl
Harbor on 7 December 1941. Well before then, Japan’s entry into World
War II appeared inevitable. It had already signed a pact with the Axis
powers, Germany and Italy, and, after invading China in 1937, it had
moved against French Indochina (today’s Vietnam) in 1940 to close the
route by which the United States was supplying China. The United States
and Britain protested, seizing Japan’s assets, depriving the country of
copper, iron and other essential raw materials, and laying an oil embargo
upon it. Without access to oil, Japan relied on its reserves for civilian and
military consumption. It was estimated these reserves would only last
around two years. Japan had already planned, beyond China, to execute
its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere as part of its ‘divine right’ to
unify Asia under Emperor Hirohito’s rule. Given the situation, one of
its main targets was to secure the rich oil fields in the South West Pacific
Area (SWPA).

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 2 R A AF BL ACK CATS

The attack on Pearl Harbor was an integral part of the Imperial

Japanese Navy’s (IJN) thrust into the south and south-west Pacific, and
its aim was to emasculate the US Navy fleet. Japan hoped that, after the
attack, the United States would spend the coming months, if not the year,
rebuilding its fleet. This would then allow Japan to exploit its gains after
rapidly advancing through the Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Netherlands
(Dutch) East Indies (now Indonesia) and major parts of Dutch and
Australian New Guinea. Japan wanted to establish and defend a strong
position in areas rich in natural resources, particularly oil from the East
Indies, to feed its war machine.
The surprise attack resulted in US Navy cruisers, destroyers, auxiliary
vessels and eight battleships being damaged or sunk. Of the battleships,
all but the USS Arizona would be raised. The USS Oklahoma was beyond
repair, but the remaining six battleships would eventually be returned to
service. Fortunately, none of the US aircraft carriers, including the USS
Enterprise and USS Lexington, were in harbour. The Japanese launched
two waves of air attacks from their six carriers, focused on the warships
and airfields. A third wave had been planned, but was cancelled. Because
of the improved US air defences during the second wave, the IJN didn’t
want to risk losing too many aircraft. The third wave would have targeted
the submarine base, weapons depot, fuel storage facilities and naval
yard. Had these areas of infrastructure been hit, according to Admiral
Chester W. Nimitz, Commander-in-Chief of the US Pacific Fleet, ‘it
would have prolonged the war another two years’.
After Pearl Harbor, British prime minister Winston Churchill and US
president Franklin D. Roosevelt met; they agreed to follow the Germany
First strategy, which had been devised by the US Joint Chiefs of Staff
(JCS) prior to December 1941, when they feared Japan would eventually
enter the war and cause the United States to fight on two fronts. This
strategy ensured the American war effort, men and materials, would be
prioritised for Europe, and the Pacific campaign would be allocated only

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 GERM A NY FIRST A ND ‘LIMITED OFFENSIVE’ IN THE PACIFIC 3

enough resources to keep Japan’s advance at bay. It would be fought as a

limited offensive campaign. The plan, recommended by Chief of Naval
Operations Harold Rainsford Stark, was to wait until Germany, Italy and
the other European Axis powers were defeated, and then concentrate all
Allied forces on the fight against Japan.
Fleet Admiral Ernest King, the US Navy Commander-in-Chief, vehe-
mently challenged the Germany First strategy. After all, Japan was an
immediate threat, while it would be years before the Allies would be ready
to launch an attack against Germany. Because of this, King held firm to
an earlier view he had expressed to the JCS of the need to reinforce the
bases on the Hawaiian–Australian line of communications. He said that
they were essential in the preparation for an eventual American assault
into the Solomon Islands, New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago,
leading to an eventual northern push to Japan.
King also knew that not taking the fight to the Japanese would leave
Australia and New Zealand vulnerable. Soon after Japan had launched
its attacks, King told Roosevelt it seemed impossible to halt the Japanese
thrust southwards. He argued: ‘We cannot in honour let Australia and
New Zealand down . . . they are our brothers, and we must not let them
be overrun by Japan.’ Roosevelt agreed.
King explained his strategy thus:

[T]he best defence is offence . . . offence in those war areas where the
enemy actually is, remote even though they are far from Continental
US . . . it is offence which will keep the enemy engaged and occupied
to such an extent that he cannot gather the means to make any serious
threat to Continental US.

King hoped to keep the Japanese busy in the central and western Pacific
areas—too busy to establish a solid foothold or to launch any incursions
into the United States or against its Pacific allies.

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In the book Global Logistics and Strategy: 1940–1943, US Army in

World War II, authors Richard M. Leighton and Robert W. Coakley point
out that, despite the Germany First policy,

as a consequence of the immediate threat and the need to contain

Japan’s advance across the Pacific, American resources allocated to the
defeat of Japan initially exceeded those allocated to Europe. In the first
six months the US was in the war, the US Army deployed more than
300,000 soldiers overseas to the Pacific while less than 100,000 were
sent to Europe.


Nine hours after Pearl Harbor, in yet another surprise attack, the IJN
Air Service began a raid on the Philippines, destroying the majority
of the US aircraft on the ground. Commanding the US Army Forces
in the Far East was General Douglas MacArthur. By the end of December,
the Japanese had taken Guam and Wake Island. One of the few places
in the South Pacific where the Japanese were met with resistance was in
the Philippines. In spite of efforts by the US Army, its infantry and
tank corps, and Filipino militia, the Japanese landing forces advanced.
President Roosevelt ordered MacArthur to evacuate. On the night of
12 March 1942, MacArthur fled Corregidor, a small island in Manila
Bay, and was flown to Australia, to become Supreme Commander of
the SWPA of Operations. At Terowie railway station in South Australia,
on 20 March, MacArthur addressed the waiting media and proclaimed,
‘I came through and I shall return.’
The Philippines held out until 6 May, when US Army Lieutenant
General Jonathan Wainwright, who’d taken overall command after
MacArthur’s departure, officially surrendered to the Japanese. Under
Japanese occupation the Filipinos would suffer greatly. Throughout
the war, however, guerrilla tactics would be employed by the homeland

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 GERM A NY FIRST A ND ‘LIMITED OFFENSIVE’ IN THE PACIFIC 5

militias to harass and prevent the Japanese from taking full control of the
Philippines. Militias would also support Allied Special Forces—including
Australia’s Z Special Unit—that were sent in to gather intelligence and
perform sabotage operations.
The British colonies of Hong Kong and Malaya, as well as the Nether-
lands (Dutch) East Indies, were under Japanese control by 25 December
1941, 31 January and 8 March 1942, respectively. Also, by the end of
January, Rabaul on the island of New Britain had been taken, with over
1000 Australian soldiers captured. Rabaul was significant because of its
proximity to the Caroline Islands, where the main IJN base had been set
up on Truk Lagoon. The Japanese would use Rabaul as their headquarters,
directing operations in the SWPA.
Singapore surrendered on 15 February. Winston Churchill called the
Singapore defeat ‘the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British
history’. British losses during the fighting for Singapore were heavy, with
60,000 troops and nearly 25,000 support personnel captured. About
5000 people were killed or wounded, of which Australians made up the
majority.
Five months into the Pacific War, the United States struck back in
retribution for Pearl Harbor. Sixteen US Army Air Force B-25B Mitchell
medium bombers were modified so they could be launched from the
aircraft carrier USS Hornet. The Doolittle Raid, named after its lead pilot,
Lieutenant Colonel James ‘Jimmy’ Doolittle, called for the B-25Bs to
bomb military targets in Japan, and to continue westward to land in
China. In the raid, around 50 Japanese military personnel and civil-
ians were killed, and a further 400 were injured. Militarily, the bombing
had little effect, but it would have psychological consequences for
both the Allies and the Japanese. While the raid was a morale booster
for the Americans, it only served as a propaganda tool for the Japanese.
It angered the Japanese people and made them even more resolved to
defeat the Americans. After the raid, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA)

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 6 R A AF BL ACK CATS

swept the eastern coastal provinces of China, searching for the surviving
American airmen. The IJA inflicted severe punishments on any Chinese
people who were found to have aided the airmen.
By this time, Australia had been at war against the European Axis
powers for over two years. The closest the war had come to ­Australian
shores, before any Japanese threat, was when the German raider HSK
Kormoran sank HMAS Sydney off the coast of Western Australia in
November 1941. All crew members on the Sydney were lost, but the pride
of the Royal ­Australian Navy (RAN) had inflicted severe damage on the
Kormoran, and it was scuttled. Just over 300 German sailors were then
captured and interned in a POW camp in Australia.
Meanwhile, four divisions of the AIF had been sent to North Africa,
fighting with British and other Commonwealth forces against Italy and
Germany. RAN vessels were sent to support Royal Navy (RN) opera-
tions in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Australian airmen, having been
trained under the Empire Air Training Scheme, were posted to England,
where they served under the Royal Air Force (RAF) either in Fighter, Coastal
or Bomber Commands. Likewise, some RAAF-only fighter and bomber
squadrons were formed and operated in North Africa, and then went on
to serve during the Allied invasion of Italy.
Like the United States, Australia had known it would only be a matter
of time before Japan entered the war; Australian politicians and military
officials believed that when Japan struck, it would pose an immedi-
ate threat to Australia. Therefore, in 1942, the Australian Government
requested the return of the AIF. All divisions returned except for the
9th Division, which would remain in North Africa until the end of
the conflict there in January 1943.
In 1940, Australia had taken delivery of 18 Consolidated PBY
seaplanes—later more commonly known as Catalinas—under the US
Lend Lease Agreement. Initially these planes were destined to be patrol
aircraft, keeping watch over Australia’s surrounding seas and oceans.

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 GERM A NY FIRST A ND ‘LIMITED OFFENSIVE’ IN THE PACIFIC 7

Once the Japanese thrust south began, however, the PBYs were quickly
utilised as heavy bombers against enemy shipping and land-based targets.
Two Catalina squadrons, 11 and 20, were established and stationed
initially in Port Moresby, New Guinea, to act as a forward-warning base.
In 1941, both army and RAAF personnel were sent to man and protect
the area. Keith Pinson was an airframe engineer and, later, air gunner
with 20 Squadron. Stationed in Port Moresby from November 1941,
he recollected, ‘It was obvious that Port Moresby was Australia’s most
important northern base. Along the wharves and in the harbour, small
and large cargo vessels of various types were gently swinging at their
moorings. They seemed to move similar to horses tied to a hitching rail
and presented an idyllic and peaceful scene.’
That idyllic scene would abruptly end with the Japanese advance.
While New Guinea offered the Japanese some precious metals and
food supplies, they mostly viewed Port Moresby as a strategic defensive
location. Taking Port Moresby, and Milne Bay to its east, would mean
the Japanese would have a protective barrier, should the Allies launch
an offensive towards the Philippines or the East Indies. It would also, as
Admiral King had feared, cut communications between Australia and
Hawaii. Of course, some in Australia saw Japan’s attempt to take New
Guinea as a step towards an invasion of Australia. The issue of whether
Japan ever seriously considered invading Australia continues to be
debated.
In January 1942, Japanese aircraft began bombing Port Moresby. ‘Our
peaceful resting place was not for long,’ Keith Pinson lamented. ‘The
sporadic but constant raids by silvery Japanese bombers saw to that.
Their aircraft were not camouflaged as ours were, they could be seen
quite clearly in perfect formation against a lovely blue sky. They realised
that the weight of two or three coats of paint would make a difference to
an aircraft’s performance, especially on their lightly constructed Zeros.’
Pinson continued:

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 8 R A AF BL ACK CATS

It was a sad day for Moresby when Jap fighters swooped around the
north-eastern headland and lined up five Cats, destroying two and
badly damaging a third. They were in a row at anchor on the far side
of the harbour. During the raid, a fitter Armourer working on the guns
of one of the Catalinas was able to fire off a few rounds but without
result. Barney Ross, a Marine fitter, was lucky that a bullet hitting him
lower down wasn’t a little higher, and sadly, George Nancarrow, an
Electrician working on another aircraft, was killed.

It wasn’t only the Japanese with whom the RAAF had to contend.
From the outset, in early 1942, the American airmen had a reputation for
shooting first and asking questions later. There isn’t a better example of
this than when a pilot of a US Navy Grumman F4F Wildcat shot down
a Catalina. As Flying Officer Ivan Clempson recalled, ‘Our one-time
Commanding Officer, Mike Seymour, was coming in to alight at a US base
when an eager-beaver US pilot shot at him . . . Mike was badly injured at
the time, but he did recover.’
There was a simple, somewhat excusable but near deadly reason for
the friendly fire. All aircraft in service with the RAAF, prior to and at the
start of the war, were marked with the British insignia, called the roun-
del—a red inner circle, inside a white circle, which was surrounded by
an outer blue ring. In 1942, the US pilot, obviously not familiar with
the British roundel, mistook the red centre for the Japanese ‘sun-mark’,
officially known as Nisshōki but commonly referred to as Hinomaru. The
Japanese used a full red circle as their insignia or roundel.
A similar incident happened in March when the first RAAF fighter
unit, 75 Squadron, attempted to land their Lend Lease Curtiss P-40E
Kittyhawks at Port Moresby. The Kittyhawks had been promised for so
long that their arrival had become a running joke among the crews at
Port Moresby, and the planes were nicknamed ‘Never-hawks’. As Keith
Pinson remembered:

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 GERM A NY FIRST A ND ‘LIMITED OFFENSIVE’ IN THE PACIFIC 9

The Kittyhawks arrived in Moresby just after lunch on 21 March

1942, four in number, the nucleus of RAAF 75 Squadron, but not to
welcoming smiles. The Army gunners who were protecting the Seven
Mile Strip were tired of being strafed persistently by the Japanese
Zeros who harried them daily. So, when those four aircraft came in
to land, the Army reception was hostile, damaging three, one beyond
repair. Fortunately, no pilot was killed.

No one had ever seen a Kittyhawk before then, and the ground crews
mistook the strange planes for Japanese aircraft because they had noticed
the red centre of the roundel. Because of these two incidents, the RAAF
quickly painted over the red centre, and the Australian roundel officially
became a large white full circle within a blue ring.


The first major setback Japanese forces experienced in their move
south was the Battle of the Coral Sea, 4–8 May 1942, to the east of the
Great Barrier Reef, off North Queensland. Catalinas from 11 and 20
Squadron played a pivotal role in identifying the Japanese fleet as
it steamed towards New Guinea. US code breakers had cracked enemy
communica-tions early in the war; intercepted communiqués
confirmed the Japanese had sent a task force to take Port Moresby.
Its whereabouts, however, weren’t clear. RAAF Catalinas were then
scrambled to search for the IJN Task Force.
The Japanese had sent a number of naval forces: one to take and
hold the island of Tulagi, part of the British Solomon Islands
Protectorate; the Port Moresby invasion force; and a carrier strike force
to give aerial cover for the invasion. All groups set off from different
locations, and the latter two planned to rendezvous off the east coast
of New Guinea, then sail together to Port Moresby.
As recorded by the RAAF Pathfinders history magazine in 2008:

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