Spelling Rules and Grammar Overview

Revised Edition 2017

Compiled by Kim Milliken and Helen Lewis.
 Rationale How to support and extend students’ morphemic knowledge

There are about half a million words in the English language. Even though it uses 26 Activities that explore morphemic knowledge often require knowledge of word
letters for about 44 sounds, many of its words are not spelt the way they sound. endings, e.g. various verb tenses, or irregularities that may be beyond the language
experience of some students.
English spelling is a system which integrates phonetic and morphemic patterns to
produce meaning in writing. Teachers need to take into account students’ background experiences when setting
such activities and to provide appropriate support.
The knowledge that students need if they are to become proficient spellers takes
four different forms: English spelling is influenced by many spelling generalisations.

Phonological knowledge: how words and letter combinations sound Students need to understand how to apply these generalisations and realise that
there are many words that are exceptions to all generalisations.
Visual knowledge: the way words and letter combinations look
Students should be given opportunities initially to predict rules and to make
Morphemic knowledge: the meaning of words and the way words take generalisations themselves.
different spellings when they change form
They should also discuss exceptions to these generalisations and explore ways of
Etymological knowledge: the derivations of words. learning how to spell these exceptions e.g. using mnemonics.

This document focuses on students developing an understanding of Morphemic The list is not exhaustive and is meant as a guide only.
spelling knowledge.

Morphemic spelling includes teaching students:

 How to use morphemes to assist students to spell words
 How compound words are constructed
 Knowledge of suffixes and prefixes and the generalisations that can be made
and the rules that can be generated about adding them to words.

References
Focus on Literacy: Teaching Spelling K-6 (1998)

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 2

 NSW ENGLISH CURRICULUM – SPELLING K-6

Spelling Early Stage 1 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

ENe-5A EN1-5A EN2-5A EN3-5A

Demonstrates developing skills un Uses a variety of strategies, including Uses a range of strategies, including Draws on appropriate strategies to
using letters, simple sound blends and knowledge of sight words and letter- knowledge of sound-letter accurately spell familiar and unfamiliar
some sight words to represent known sound correspondences, to spell correspondences and common letter words when composing texts.
words when spelling familiar words. patterns, to spell familiar and some
unfamiliar words
Develop and apply
 understand that initial  demonstrate growing awareness of  understand how accurate spelling  understand how accurate spelling
contextual
approximations can lead to correct how accurate spelling supports the supports the reader to read fluently supports the reader to read fluently
knowledge
formal spelling reader in understanding written and interpret written text and interpret written text with
texts to read fluently clarity
Understands and
 Spells unknown spell unknown  know that regular one-syllable  understand how to use strategies  understand how to use banks of
apply knowledge of
words phonetically with closer words are made up of letters and for spelling words, including known words, word origins, base
language forms and
approximations common letter clusters that spelling rules, knowledge of words, suffixes and prefixes,
features
correspond to the sounds heard, morphemic word families, spelling morphemes, spelling patterns and
 know how to use onset and rime to
and how to use visual memory to generalisations, and letter generalisations to learn and spell
spell words (ACELA1438)
write high-frequency words combinations including double new words, for example technical
 identify patterns in words leading to (ACELA1778) letters (ACELA1485, ACELA1779) words and words adopted from
the identification of word families other languages (ACELA1513,
 understand how to use digraphs,  recognise homophones and know
ACELA1514, ACELA1526)
 use and write beginning and ending long vowels, blends and silent how to use context to identify
sounds of spoken words letters to spell words, and correct spelling (ACELA1780)  understand that the pronunciation,
use morphemes and syllabification spelling and meanings of words
 know that letters are used to  understand how knowledge of word
to break up simple words and have histories and change over
represent sounds when writing origins supports spelling
use visual memory to write irregular time (ACELA1500)
words words (ACELA1471)
 recognise common prefixes
and suffixes and how they change a
word's meaning (ACELA1455,
ACELA1472)
 begin to understand how
knowledge of word origins supports
spelling and vocabulary

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 3

 Responds to and
 use approximations and some  spell high-frequency and common  use a variety of spelling strategies  recognise most misspelt words in
composes texts
conventional spelling sight words accurately when to spell high-frequency words their own writing and use a variety
composing texts correctly when composing of resources for correction
 attempt to spell unknown words
imaginative and other texts
using simple strategies e.g.  spell known words using letter  integrate a range of spelling
segmenting names  use morphemic, visual, syntactic, strategies and conventions to
semantic and phonological accurately spell most words,
 spell some common words  isolate and write the initial, medial
knowledge when attempting to including words of many syllables,
accurately in their own writing and final sound of a word
spell unknown words when composing imaginative and
 vocalise or subvocalise words when  exchange one letter in a written other texts
 discuss and use strategies for
trying to write them word with a different letter to make
spelling difficult words  use morphemic, visual, syntactic,
a new word
 use plural form when spelling some semantic and phonological
 experiment with spell check
words  use double consonants where strategies, e.g. recognition of letter
applications and develop an
appropriate, e.g. 'hopping' patterns of words, when composing
awareness of the limitations of their
texts
 begin to use a dictionary for features in digital technology
spelling activities and word  demonstrate an awareness of the
 use knowledge of alphabetical order
meaning limitations of spell check features in
to locate information in texts, e.g.
digital communication
 recognise when a word is spelt dictionaries, glossaries
incorrectly
 identify spelling errors in own
 use morphemic and phonological writing and unknown texts and
knowledge when spelling provide correct spelling

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 4

 Overview of Spelling Rules – Contents
Rule Grammar Focus Spelling Rule Page
1 Nouns Plurals Plural means more than one. Most words form the plural by adding -s. 10
2 Nouns Verbs Plurals Words that end in s or ss form the plural by adding -es. 10
3 Nouns Verbs Plurals Words that end in sh form the plural by adding -es. 10
4 Nouns Verbs Plurals Words that end in ch or tch form the plural by adding -es. 11
5 Nouns Verbs Plurals Words that end in x, z or zz form the plural by adding -es. 11
Review Nouns Verbs Plurals Words that end in s, ss, ch, tch, sh, x, z or zz, form the plural by adding -es. 11
6 Nouns Verbs Plurals Words that end in ay, ey and oy form the plural by adding -s. 12
7 Nouns Verbs Plurals Words that have a consonant followed by y form the plural by changing the y to i before adding -es. 12
Review Nouns Verbs Plurals Words that have a consonant followed by y form the plural by changing the y to i before adding -es. 12
8 Present Tense Verbs Present time, past time or future time - We call this verb tense. For most verbs, just add -s. 13
9 Present Tense Verbs Present time, past time or future time - We call this verb tense. For most verbs, just add -ing. 13
10 Present Tense Verbs When adding -ing to words that end in y, leave the y and add -ing. 13
11 Present Tense Verbs When adding -es to words that end in y, change the y to i before adding -es. 13
12 Past Tense Verbs Regular Past Tense - We add -ed to the base verb to show past tense. If the word already ends in e, just add -d. 14
13 Past Tense Verbs Some verbs have a single vowel sound followed by a single consonant. Double the last letter before adding -ed. 14
14 Past Tense Verbs When a word ends in a consonant and y, change the y to i and add -ed. 14
15 Past Tense Verbs When a word ends in a vowel and y, just add -ed. 14
Review Tenses Verbs When a word ends in a vowel and y (ay, ey, oy) just add the ending (-s, -ing, -ed). 15
16 Past Tense Irregular Verbs Grammar focus on irregular verbs 15
17 Nouns Adjectives The final (silent) e is dropped when adding -y 15
18 Comparative Adjectives Words that have a consonant followed by y, change the -y to -i before adding -er. 16
19 Superlative Adjectives Words that have a consonant followed by y, change the y to i before adding -est. 16
Most base words remain unchanged when adding the suffixes -er or -est.
20 Positive Comparative and Superlative Adjectives 16
If a word ends in e, just add -r or -st.
21 Comparative and Superlative Adjectives If an adjective ends in a short vowel followed by a consonant, double the last letter before adding -er or -est. 17
22 Comparative and Superlative Adjectives When using some adjectives to make comparisons, the words more and most are used. 17
23 Comparative and Superlative Adjectives Some common adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms. 17
Review Present Tense Verbs To make most verbs end with -ing, just add -ing. 17

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 24 Tenses Verbs Verbs that have a short vowel followed by a single consonant, double the last letter before adding -ed or -ing. 18
Review Tenses Verbs Verbs that have a short vowel followed by a single consonant, double the last letter before adding -ed or -ing. 18
25 Nouns Verbs Verbs that have a short vowel followed by a single consonant, double the last letter before adding -er. 18
26 Past Tense Verbs When a verb ends in e, just add -d to the end. 18
27 Tenses Verbs No consonant is doubled after a long vowel or a double vowel when adding the suffixes:-ed, -er, -ing. 19
28 Present Tense Verbs When a verb ends in (silent) e, drop the e before adding -ing. 19
Review Present Tense Verbs When a verb ends in (silent) e, drop the e before adding -ing. 19
29 Present Tense Verbs Exceptions: For some verbs ending in (silent) e, you keep the e and add -ing. 20
30 Contractions Tenses Pronouns An apostrophe takes the place of the missing letter or letters. 20
31 Pronouns When with another person, it is polite to speak of them first and yourself last. 20
32 Nouns Plurals Some words change their form when they become plural. 20
33 Nouns Plurals Some words stay the same when they become plural. 20
34 Nouns Plurals Some nouns have no singular form. 21
35 Nouns Plurals If a word ends in f or fe, change the f or fe to v and add -es for plurals. 21
36 Nouns Plurals If a word ends in f, ff, or fe, just add -s. 21
37 Hyphens Remember to include the hyphen when writing numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine that are not multiples of ten. 21
38 Adjectives When a word contains a short vowel followed by n, the n is doubled. 21
39 Adjectives Adverbs When -ly is added to most words, the words remain unchanged. 22
40 Adjectives Adverbs y is changed to i before adding -ly to the end of these words: See Rule 40. 22
41 Nouns Plurals Add -s to most words that end in o to make them plural. 22
42 Nouns Plurals Some words ending in o can be made plural by adding -es. 23
43 Nouns Plurals Some words ending in o can be made plural by adding either -s or -es. 23
44 Compound nouns Plurals Most compound nouns form the plural by making the principal (first) word of the compound noun plural. 23
45 Prefixes When all is used as a prefix, one l is dropped. 23
46 Write i before e… 23
Words with ei and ie
47 ...except after c 23
48 Words with ei and ie Write ei when the vowel sounds like a as in ‘weigh’. 24
49 Words with ei and ie Exceptions Here are many words that break the rule. Memorise these exceptions. 24
50 Words with ei and ie Harder exceptions Here are many words that break the rule. 24

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 6

 51 Silent Letters In some words, certain consonants are not pronounced. 24
52 Suffixes When a word of one syllable contains two vowels, just add the suffix. 24
53 g sounds like ‘j’ When a word starts with g and is followed by e, i or y, it is pronounced as j. Otherwise, it says g as in gold. 25
54 g sounds like ‘j’ Exceptions 25
55 g sounds like ‘j’ When g used in the middle or end of a word and is followed by e, it makes a j sound. 25
56 g sounds like ‘j’ After a short vowel sound we put d before ge to keep the short vowel sound. 25
When a word starts with c and is followed by e, i or y, it is pronounced as s. Otherwise, it says c as in cat.
57 c sounds like ‘s’ 25
When a c is followed by e, i, or y it is pronounced as s.
58 The letter q In the spelling of English words, the letter q is always followed by the letter u. 26
59 Words ending in ac or ic Suffixes If a verb ends in ac or ic, always add a -k before adding the suffixes -ed, -ing, -y, or -er. 26
60 Singular Possessive Nouns Apostrophes To make a singular noun possessive, add ’s. This rule also applies to words ending in ss. 26
61 Singular Possessive Nouns Apostrophes To make singular proper nouns possessive, add ’s. 26
Regular Plural Possessive Nouns
62 If a plural noun ends in s, add an apostrophe. 27
Apostrophes
Irregular Plural Possessive Nouns
63 To show possession of irregular plural nouns, add ’s. 27
Apostrophes
Compound
64 Nouns Apostrophes In compound words, add the apostrophe to the last word. 27
Words
65 Apostrophes of Possession Measurement of size, weight, time and space take an ’s when used possessively. 27
66 Adjectives Nouns The sound of ee at the end of a word is usually spelled with a -y. 27
67 Adjectives Suffixes When a compound word is formed by adding a suffix ending in ll only one l is kept. 28
Review Adjectives Suffixes When a compound word is formed by adding a suffix ending in ll only one l is kept. 28
68 Plurals Suffixes Words ending in -ful form the plural by adding -s. 28
69 Adjectives Suffixes Words that have a consonant followed by y, change the y to i before adding -ful. 28
70 Adverbs Suffixes The related ending -fully forms adverbs. This suffix is always spelled with double l. 28
71 Verbs Suffixes When words that have a vowel are followed by y, just add the suffix. 29
72 Verbs Suffixes When words have a consonant followed by y, change the y to i before adding a suffix. 29
73 Verbs Suffixes Verbs that end in -ie change the -ie to -y before adding -ing. 29
74 Verbs Suffixes Some words ending in y remain unchanged when adding -ing. 29
75 Verbs Suffixes When a word ends in l, double the l before adding the suffix. 29
76 Adverbs Suffixes The basic rule is that -ly is added to the end of the adjective. 29
77 Adverbs Suffixes If the word ends with a consonant followed by le, replace the final e with -y. 30

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 78 Adverbs Adjectives When a word ends in e after a long vowel, add -ly. 30
79 Adverbs Suffixes If an adjective has 2 syllables and ends in y, change the y to i before adding -ly. 30
80 Adjectives Adverbs Suffixes If the word ends in ful or al, add -ly 30
81 Verbs Adverbs Suffixes When a word ends in ic, add -ally. 30
82 r and rr before endings Normally when adding an ending to a word with a final r, just add the ending. 31
83 r and rr before endings Double the r before adding -ing to words that have a single vowel followed by a consonant at the end. 31
84 Suffixes With words that end in a single l, when adding an ending beginning with a vowel, double the l. 31
Adjectives that end in ly, such as friendly or lively, cannot be made into adverbs by adding -ly. You have to use a
85 Forming Adverbs 31
different form of the words.
When adding suffixes to a noun that ends in -our, drop the u before adding the following endings: -ous, -ious, -ary,
86 Nouns Adjectives Suffixes 31
-ation, -ific or -ise.
87 Nouns Adjectives Suffixes When adding other endings, such as -ful, -ite, -able or -less, the -our spelling stays the same. 32
You drop the final l from words that end in ll before adding endings that begin with a consonant, e.g. -ment, -ful and
88 Verbs Suffixes 32
-ly.
89 Suffix y to i When adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to a word ending in y, change the y to i before 32
When adding a suffix beginning with a consonant to a word ending in y, change the y to i before adding the suffix
90 Suffix y to i 32
-ness, -less, -ful, -ly, -ment, -cation.
91 Nouns Verbs Suffix -ion For words that end in ct, ss or t, add -ion. 33
92 Nouns Verbs Suffix -ion If the word ends in te, ce or se drop the e before adding -ion. 33
93 Verbs Suffix -ion If a word ends in -lve, change the ve to ut before adding -ion. 33
94 Nouns Verbs Suffix -ion If a word ends in de, change the de to s before adding -ion. 33
95 Verbs Suffix -ion If a word ends in nd, change the d to s before adding -ion. 33
If a word ends in ibe, drop the e and change the b to pt before adding -ion.
96 Verbs Suffix -ion 34
If a verb ends in eive, drop the silent e and change the ve to pt before adding -ion.
97 Nouns Verbs Suffix -ation The suffix -ation can be added to words to form nouns. If the word ends in te drop the e before adding -ation. 34
Review Present Tense Verbs Suffix -ing When a word ends in two consonants and you want to add the suffix -ing, no letters are doubled. 34
Review Present Tense Verbs Suffix –ing If the word ends in a consonant with one short vowel before it, double the last consonant before adding -ing. 34
Review Present Tense Verbs Suffix -ing When a word ends in a silent e, drop the e when adding -ing. 34
98 Nouns Verbs When changing nouns to verbs, change f to v before adding -e. 34
99 Nouns Verbs Adjectives Suffixes Drop the e before adding an ending beginning with a vowel [aeiou] or a y. 35
100 Suffixes -ous, -ity If a word ends in our or ous leave out the u before adding the suffixes-ous and -ity. 35
101 Adjectives Suffix -ous When adding -ous to words that end in ce or y, change the e or y to i before adding -ous. 35
102 Adjectives Suffixes When adding -able or -ous to words ending in ge or ce, keep the e. 35

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 103 Suffixes -ment, -ness, -ty Keep the e before adding an ending beginning with a consonant. 36
104 Suffixes -les, -ful, -ly Keep the e before adding an ending beginning with a consonant. 36
Double the final consonant when adding a suffix that begins with a vowel [-ed, -ing, -est, -en or -y] to a word
105 Suffixes -ed, -ing, -est, -en or -y 36
that ends with a vowel and a consonant.
Double the final consonant when adding a suffix that begins with a vowel [-age, -able, -er, -ion] to a word that
106 Suffixes -age, -able, -er, -ion, -ance 36
ends with a vowel and a consonant.
107 Verbs Suffix -ing Always keep the y when adding the suffix -ing or any other suffix beginning with an -i. 37
108 Plurals Some words we use come from foreign languages. We use both their singular and plural form. 37
Review Adjectives Suffix -able For many words, no spelling changes are necessary. 37
Review Adjectives Suffix -able Words that end in e following the consonants c or g, usually retain the e. 37
Review Adjectives Suffix -able For most words that end in e, drop the e before adding -able. 37
109 Adjectives Suffix -ible Drop the e before adding -ible to a base word. 38
110 Nouns Adjectives Suffix -ity Drop the e before adding -ity to a base word. 38
111 Nouns Adjectives Words ending in -ant change to -ance in the noun form. 38
112 Nouns Adjectives Words ending in -ent we change to -ence in the noun form. 38
113 Nouns Suffixes -er, -or The most common everyday words end in -er. Words which end in ct, it, ate, or ess, take the ending -or. 39
The suffixes -ment, -dom, -ship, and -hood all form noun forms. The base word does not usually change when
114 Noun Verbs Suffixes 39
these suffixes are added.
If a word ends in -ary, it is usually an adjective.
115 Nouns Suffixes -ery, -ary 39
If a word ends in -ery, it is probably a noun.
These words change meaning depending on (a) which syllable is stressed. These are called homographs.
116 Homonyms 39
(b) how the words are spelled. These are called homophones.
117 Prefixes Blake’s Spelling Guide for Primary Students – Del Merrick (Pascal Press) p 63 & 82-85 has an excellent list of prefixes. 40
Numbers, Prefixes and Suffixes –word root, origin, meaning and examples [NSW Dept. of Education – Teaching
118 Reference list for etymological knowledge 40
Spelling 1998]
Reference Material for Spelling Rules and Grammar
Glossary of Terms – Refer to NSW English Syllabus K-10 p184-218 41-43
Overview Document
Australian Curriculum Overview Australian Curriculum Overview 44-45

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 9

 Grammar
Rule Spelling Rule Sample Words Notes/Web Links/References
Focus
adult adults nephew nephews more than one Redmore = Redmores, Kennedy = Kennedys (family name)
aunt aunts painting paintings more than one Jones = Joneses (family name)
boat boats parent parents
Plural means brother brothers parrot parrots
Nouns more than one. castle castles pencil pencils
1 door doors picture pictures
Plurals Most words form the drawing drawings sister sisters
plural by adding -s. garden gardens statue statues
house houses sword swords
journey journeys twin twins
key keys utensil utensils
address addresses goddess goddesses Some words can be both a noun and a verb. The plural is used in the noun
atlas atlases grass grasses form.
ass asses guess guesses
bus buses hostess hostesses Some English speakers use platypi as the plural for platypus, but it is far
business businesses kiss kisses less common than platypuses.
buttress buttresses lass lasses
Nouns carcass carcasses loss losses Exception:
Words that end in
circus circuses lens lenses For words that end in –is, change the -is to -es to make the plural e.g.
2 s or ss
Verbs gas gases mattress mattresses oasis/oases, crisis/crises, thesis/theses, analysis/analyses.
form the plural
class classes pass passes
by adding -es.
Plurals compass compasses platypus platypuses
cross crosses princess princesses
dress dresses success successes
fortress fortresses stress stresses
genius geniuses virus viruses
glass glasses walrus walruses
governess governesses witness witnesses
ash ashes gash gashes Some words can be both a noun and a verb.
blemish blemishes gush gushes
brush brushes lash lashes
Nouns bush bushes sash sashes
Words that end in sh clash clashes rash rashes
3 Verbs form the plural crash crashes radish radishes
by adding -es. crush crushes skirmish skirmishes
Plurals dish dishes thrush thrushes
finish finishes marsh marshes
fish fishes wash washes
flash flashes wish wishes

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 10

 arch arches patch patches Some words can be both a noun and a verb.
batch batches peach peaches
beach beaches punch punches
Words that end in bench benches sandwich sandwiches
ch or tch branch branches sketch sketches
form the plural brooch brooches speech speeches
Nouns
by adding -es. church churches switch switches
coach coaches trench trenches
4 Verbs
clutch clutches torch torches
ditch ditches touch touches
Plurals
Exception: If the ch launch launches watch watches
ending is pronounced as lunch lunches witch witches
a k sound, just add -s. march marches wretch wretches
match matches wrench wrenches
epoch epochs monarch monarchs
matriarch matriarchs stomach stomachs
annex annexes hoax hoaxes Notes:
blitz blitzes index indexes * z is doubled in quizzes & whizzes
box boxes klutz klutzes
Nouns buzz buzzes prefix prefixes Some words can be both a noun and a verb.
Words that end in
complex complexes six sixes
x, z or zz
5 Verbs dux duxes suffix suffixes (indexes or indices is accepted)
form the plural
fax faxes tax taxes
by adding -es.
Plurals fix fixes thorax thoraxes
fizz fizzes waltz waltzes
flex flexes whiz whizzes
fox foxes quiz quizzes
address addresses iris irises When the base form ends in ss, sh, (t)ch, z, zz, or x add -es.
arch arches kiss kisses Examples include:
atlas atlases loss losses blesses, fusses, tosses, misses, assesses, kisses, blushes, gnashes, dresses,
blitz blitzes mass masses splashes, washes, etches, flinches, hitches, itches, reaches, searches,
boss bosses platypus platypuses touches, teaches, marches, fizzes, relaxes, faxes, fixes, vexes, waxes.
box boxes prefix prefixes
Nouns Words that end in bunch bunches reflex reflexes Nouns that end in ch, sh, s, ss, x, z, or zz form the plural by adding -es.
s, ss, ch, tch, sh, x, z buzz buzzes speech speeches
Review Verbs or zz, canvas canvases stitch stitches Exception: ox, oxen
form the plural dish dishes suffix suffixes
Plurals by adding -es. dress dresses tax taxes
duchess duchesses virus viruses
fox foxes waltz waltzes
gas gases watch watches
glass glasses wish wishes
grass grasses witch witches
hoax hoaxes witness witnesses

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 alley alleys medley medleys To from a plural of most English words that end in a vowel plus -y add an -s
attorney attorneys monkey monkeys to the word.
bay bays play plays
boy boys ploy ploys Some words can be both a noun and a verb.
buoy buoys quay quays
chimney chimneys ray rays
Nouns convey conveys relay relays
Words that end in day days replay replays
6 Verbs ay, ey and oy delay delays storey storeys
form the plural display displays survey surveys
Plurals by adding -s. donkey donkeys toy toys
essay essays turkey turkeys
galley galleys valley valleys
highway highways volley volleys
journey journeys way ways
key keys Wednesday Wednesdays
kidney kidneys X-ray X-rays
accessory accessories jury juries The sound ee on the end of a word is nearly always represented by the
artery arteries lady ladies letter y, e.g. cherry, lady and pony.
authority authorities library libraries
body bodies melody melodies If a noun ends in a consonant plus y, change the y to i and add -es to
boundary boundaries memory memories form the plural, e.g. factory - factories.
canary canaries pony ponies
Words that have a
Nouns cherry cherries poppy poppies Remember that some words can be both nouns and verbs, e.g. He ate the
consonant
city cities priority priorities salty French fries.
followed by y
7 Verbs copy copies property properties
form the plural
cry cries salary salaries Don't change -y to an -i if a vowel comes before -y.
by changing the y to i
Plurals delicacy delicacies similarity similarities Just add –s e.g. trays, ways, toys, kidneys, monkeys, journeys, valleys
before adding -es.
diary diaries sky skies
dictionary dictionaries story stories
duty duties supply supplies
fly flies theory theories
fry fries try tries
hobby hobbies worry worries
activity activities family families Most nouns that end in -i form the plural by adding -s.
army armies ferry ferries E.g. ski - skis, alibi - alibis, rabbi - rabbis, taxi - taxis.
aviary aviaries gallery galleries
baby babies lily lilies
Words that have a
Nouns berry berries party parties
consonant
butterfly butterflies pony ponies
followed by y
Review Verbs century centuries reply replies
form the plural by
community communities secretary secretaries
changing the y to i
Plurals country countries society societies
before adding -es.
dairy dairies spy spies
daisy daisies tragedy tragedies
dinghy dinghies trophy trophies
fairy fairies wallaby wallabies

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 Tense means time in grammar. The tense of a verb tells you when the action of the verb takes place.
climb climbs lunge lunges Present Tense means now.
Present time, past time dance dances play plays -s is added to a base verb to show present tense if the subject is a single
Present or future time. dive dives read reads person or thing and the text is being written from a third person point of
Tense We call this verb tense. draw draws rest rests view.
8
drink drinks run runs Some examples are:
Verbs For most plurals, eat eats sing sings Bob likes hamburgers. A horse eats oats and hay.
just add -s. jump jumps sleep sleeps The sun sets every night. She bakes cookies.
kick kicks walk walks
bring bringing pick picking -ing is added to verbs to show present tense.
climb climbing read reading
creep creeping rest resting The base word always needs a ‘helper’ [relating verb] such as is, are, am,
Present time, past time draw drawing ring ringing can.
Present or future time. dream dreaming scream screaming Some examples are:
Tense We call this verb tense. drink drinking sew sewing Jack is painting. We are talking.
9
eat eating sleep sleeping Bob is walking. I am reading.
Verbs For most verbs, grow growing slow slowing
just add -ing. jump jumping suck sucking The -ck digraph occurs only after a short vowel sound, e.g. lock, suck,
kick kicking swing swinging pick, tuck.
know knowing tuck tucking
lock locking walk walking
annoy annoying fry frying
apply applying hurry hurrying
busy busying journey journeying
buy buying lay laying
carry carrying obey obeying
Present When adding -ing convey conveying play playing
Tense to words that end in y, copy copying portray portraying
10
leave the y cry crying pray praying
Verbs and add -ing. defy defying pry prying
delay delaying say saying
display displaying spy spying
dry drying stay staying
enjoy enjoying try trying
fly flying worry worrying
apply applies hurry hurries Some words can be both a noun and a verb.
bury buries identify identities
carry carries justify justifies In most cases, y is changed to i before adding -es, e.g. cry-cries, fly-flies to
copy copies marry marries show present tense.
When adding -es
Present cry cries occupy occupies
to words that end in y,
11 Tense defy defies rectify rectifies A final y preceded by a consonant becomes i when a suffix is added,
change the y to i
Verbs deny denies satisfy satisfies except in the case of the suffix -ing e.g. worry, worrying, hurry, hurrying.
before adding -es.
dry dries scurry scurries
empty empties supply supplies Always add -es to the words go and do [goes, does].
fry fries tidy tidies
horrify horrifies worry worries

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 13

 accept accepted hope hoped Past tense means before now.
achieve achieved jump jumped
ask asked lace laced Most verbs are regular.
bake baked laugh laughed
climb climbed like liked To make the past tense of a verb, add -ed.
Regular Past Tense dance danced look looked If the word already ends in e, just add -d.
dislocate dislocated need needed
Past Tense We add -ed to the base dive dived slice sliced Remember that the past ending -ed is not pronounced as a separate syllable
12 verb to show past tense. divide divided starve starved [e.g. camped sounds like ‘campt’].
Verbs double doubled thank thanked
If the verb already ends doze dozed trace traced In other words, the e is silent, though it still has to be written.
in e, just add -d. enlarge enlarged turn turned e.g. bake→ baked [+d] escape → escaped [+d]
escape escaped use used
face faced walk walked
glue glued wave waved
help helped weave weaved
hike hiked wish wished
bat batted shop shopped If the word ends in a short vowel and one consonant, we double the
clap clapped skip skipped consonant before adding -ed.
Some verbs have a
dip dipped slap slapped Note:
single vowel sound
drop dropped slip slipped Words that end in double consonants do not double the last letter before
Past Tense followed by a single
flip flipped snap snapped adding -ed, e.g. banked, crushed, helped, mended, planted, sprinted,
13 consonant.
flop flopped stop stopped turned, washed
Verbs
hop hopped tap tapped
Double the last letter
hum hummed tip tipped
before adding -ed.
map mapped whip whipped
ship shipped wrap wrapped
apply applied marry married
bury buried pry pried
carry carried rely relied
When a word ends in a copy copied reply replied
Past Tense
consonant and y, cry cried scurry scurried
14
change the y to i defy defied spy spied
Verbs
and add -ed. deny denied tidy tidied
dry dried try tried
fry fried worry worried
hurry hurried vary varied
annoy annoyed obey obeyed
array arrayed play played
bray brayed pray prayed
delay delayed prey preyed
Past Tense When a word ends
deploy deployed relay relayed
15 in a vowel and y,
destroy destroyed replay replayed
Verbs just add -ed.
display displayed stay stayed
employ employed stray strayed
enjoy enjoyed sway swayed
fray frayed toy toyed

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 14

 annoy annoys annoying annoyed Note:
delay delays delaying delayed ai appears within a word and ay appears at the end of a word.
display displays displaying displayed Examples include:
destroy destroys destroying destroyed chain stray
employ employs employing employed mail play
When a word ends
enjoy enjoys enjoying enjoyed praise clay
Tenses in a vowel and y
lay lays laying laid sail bray
Review (ay, ey, oy)
obey obeys obeying obeyed
Verbs just add the ending
play plays playing played
(-s, -ing, -ed).
portray portrays portraying portrayed
pray prays praying prayed
stay stays staying stayed
sway sways swaying swayed
toy toys toying toyed
arise arose hold held A list of common irregular verbs -
awake awoke hurt hurt www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/irregular-verbs-list.htm
begin began keep kept Some irregular verbs are the same as the base form, some change their
bring brought know knew vowels and/or endings, and a few are completely different from the base
buy bought leave left forms.
Past Tense catch caught let let For some verbs, the common past form in British English ends in - t, but the
Grammar focus on cling clung lose lost same verbs end in – ed in American English. Here are a few examples:
16
Irregular irregular verbs. cut cut meet met burn / burned, burnt; dream / dreamed, dreamt; lean / leaned, leant ;
Verbs dig dug pay paid learn / learned, learnt; smell / smelled, smelt; spill / spilled, spilt
fight fought ring rang
fly flew shake shook
go went seek sought
grow grew think thought
write wrote
bone bony noise noisy When adding y to a word ending in e, drop the e to make an adjective.
breeze breezy nose nosy e.g. paste, pasty [a pasty complexion]
brine briny paste pasty
drowse drowsy rose rosy Exceptions: live - lively, fire - fiery
edge edgy scare scary
flake flaky shade shady
Nouns The final (silent) e glare glary shine shiny
17 is dropped gore gory slime slimy
Adjectives when adding -y. grease greasy smoke smoky
grime grimy spike spiky
haste hasty stone stony
haze hazy taste tasty
ice icy wave wavy
juice juicy whine whiny
lace lacy wire wiry

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 15

 busy busier merry merrier To compare people or things, you add the suffixes -er or -est to describing
creamy creamier moody moodier words.
dirty dirtier noisy noisier
easy easier pretty prettier
Words that have a
friendly friendlier scrawny scrawnier
consonant
funny funnier shady shadier
Comparative followed by y,
18 happy happier steady steadier
Adjectives change the y to -i
healthy healthier steamy steamier
before adding -er.
heavy heavier sticky stickier
hungry hungrier sunny sunnier
juicy juicier tiny tinier
lazy lazier ugly uglier
lovely lovelier wealthy wealthier
angry angriest lucky luckiest You use -est when comparing one person or thing with every other member
busy busiest nasty nastiest of their group, e.g. He was the tallest boy in the class.
chilly chilliest needy neediest
crazy craziest noisy noisiest Exception: shy - shyer - shyest [shier, shiest as well]
dirty dirtiest pretty prettiest
Words that have a
dry driest rowdy rowdiest
consonant
easy easiest shady shadiest
Superlative followed by y,
19 early earliest smelly smelliest
Adjectives change the y to i
friendly friendliest sticky stickiest
before adding -est.
greedy greediest sunny sunniest
happy happiest tidy tidiest
healthy healthiest tiny tiniest
heavy heaviest tricky trickiest
hungry hungriest ugly ugliest
lonely loneliest wealthy wealthiest
bright brighter brightest Adjectives often compare the qualities of people and things.
clean cleaner cleanest Sometimes we add the prefixes -er or -est to show comparative and
clever cleverer cleverest superlative degree.
cool cooler coolest
dark darker darkest You use -er when comparing two people or things, (nouns) e.g. He is taller
fast faster fastest than me.
Most base words
light lighter lightest
Positive remain unchanged
old older oldest Adjectives ending in e e.g. fine finer finest, nice nicer nicest, rare rarer
Comparative when adding the suffixes
rough rougher roughest rarest (Just add –r or –st)
20 and -er or -est.
slow slower slowest
Superlative
smooth smoother smoothest There are three degrees:
Adjectives If a word ends in e,
steep steeper steepest Positive: describes a quality of a person or thing e.g. Sue is a young girl.
just add -r or -st.
strange stranger strangest Comparative: makes a comparison between the qualities of two people or
strong stronger strongest things e.g. Jan is younger than Sue.
sweet sweeter sweetest Superlative: shows the highest degree of difference compared to all the
wild wilder wildest others e.g. Monika is the youngest girl in our class.
wise wiser wisest
young younger youngest

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 16

 big bigger biggest A way to remember the doubling rule
fat fatter fattest Look at the word. Say the word.
If an adjective ends fit fitter fittest Is the second last letter a short vowel? Yes
Comparative in a short vowel flat flatter flattest How many letters follow the vowel-one or two?
and followed by a consonant, hot hotter hottest Double the letter if there is one.
21
Superlative double the last letter mad madder maddest Do not double if there are two.
Adjectives before adding red redder reddest
-er or -est. sad sadder saddest Do not double the consonant in words ending in w or y:
thin thinner thinnest slow slower slowest
wet wetter wettest coy coyer coyest
attractive more attractive most attractive Sometimes, we use more or most before the adjective.
When using some beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Comparative
adjectives to make exciting more exciting most exciting This occurs when the adjective already has a suffix.
and
22 comparisons, the words famous more famous most famous
Superlative
more and most are honest more honest most honest
Adjectives
used. interesting more interesting most interesting
pleasant more pleasant most pleasant
bad worse the worst The suffixes -er and –est or the words more or most are usually used.
Comparative Some common adjectives
good better the best
and have irregular
23 little (of a quantity) less the least Adjectives of three or more syllables form the comparative with more/less
Superlative comparative and
many more the most and the superlative with most/least e.g. more interesting, less complicated,
Adjectives superlative forms.
far further the furthest most popular, less expensive, least expensive, more important
adjust adjusting play playing Words that end in double consonants do not double the last letter before
bait baiting press pressing adding -ing, e.g. banking, crushing, mending, washing, turning, helping,
blow blowing push pushing crushing, sprinting
do doing read reading
enjoy enjoying ring ringing Open and happen contain two syllables and the last syllable is preceded by
feel feeling say saying a single vowel, but the accent falls on the first syllable, not the last syllable,
fold folding see seeing so we do not double the last syllable before adding -ed or -ing.
fly flying sew sewing
happen happening show showing Two-syllable words:
Present
To make most verbs hunt hunting smell smelling
Tense
Review end with -ing, jump jumping stamp stamping ed = If the stress is on the first syllable, the word only gets one consonant + ed
just add -ing. kick kicking sort sorting ing= If the stress is on the first syllable, the word only gets one consonant + ing
Verbs
laugh laughing throw throwing
lick licking tick ticking examples: visited - visiting, opened - opening, entered - entering
listen listening tuck tucking
look looking touch touching
mend mending visit visiting
open opening wait waiting
paint painting walk walking
happen happening watch watching
open opening yelp yelping

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 17

 bat batted batting One-syllable words:
beg begged begging ed = if the word ends in a cvc pattern it gets a double consonant +ed
ing=if a word ends in a cvc pattern it gets a double consonant +ing
Verbs that have chat chatted chatting examples: whipped whipping, hopped hopping
a short vowel dot dotted dotting
followed by a drag dragged dragging Two-syllable words:
single consonant, regret regretted regretting ed = If the stress is on the second syllable, the word gets a double consonant + ed
double the last letter rub rubbed rubbing ing= If the stress is on the second syllable, the word gets a double consonant + ing
Tenses before adding examples: prefer preferring preferred, refer referring referred, admit admitting admitted,
scan scanned scanning
24 -ed or -ing.
permit permitting permitted
scrub scrubbed scrubbing
Verbs
skim skimmed skimmed
skip skipped skipping
submit submitted submitting Do not double the last consonant in words ending in w, x or y. eg fixed - fixing,
tip tipped tipping mixed - mixing, faxing - faxed, boxing - boxed, played - playing
Exceptions: put put putting
ski skied skiing
taxi taxied taxiing
excel excelled excelling To add -ed or -ing to a word that only has one syllable and one short vowel, double
flip flipped flipping the final consonant then add the suffix.
Verbs that have a run + n+ ing= running
knot knotted knotting
short vowel clap+ p+ ed= clapped
plan planned planning
Tenses followed by a
slam slammed slamming If the word has a short vowel followed by a single consonant, the consonant is
Review single consonant,
step stepped stepping doubled before the ending -ed.
Verbs double the last letter
stop stopped stopping This is to keep the vowel from being made long by the following e, e.g. pin becomes
before adding
tap tapped tapping pinned, not pined, rhyming with dined.
-ed or -ing.
trap trapped trapping
wrap wrapped wrapping
begin beginner shop shopper Adding -er to the verb makes the word become a noun e.g. fib, fibber.
chop chopper sit sitter
Verbs that have a dig digger skip skipper Double the final consonant
short vowel drum drummer swim swimmer Word that follow this rule end with letters like an, am, ap, ar, el, et, ep,
Nouns hit hitter travel traveller er, ip, it, ol, op, ot, ub, ug, er and ur, e.g. occurred, preferred, planner,
followed by a
25 lop lopper win winner slammer.
single consonant,
Verbs plan planner wrap wrapper
double the last letter
rob robber stir stirrer Double the final consonant before adding -ing, -ed, or -ed to a word with two
before adding -er.
run runner syllables when the stress is not on the first syllable, e.g. permit - permitting -
permitted, begin - beginner - beginning, cancel - cancelling - cancelled, infer – inferred
- inferring , refer - referred - referring, counsel - counselled - counselling.
ache ached hope hoped This also happens when the base word ends in ue, oe or ie e.g. glued,
bathe bathed lie lied rued, sued, hoed, toed, died, lied, tied
chase chased live lived
dance danced raise raised
Past Tense die died rule ruled
When a verb ends in e,
26 dive dived shoe shoed
just add -d at the end.
Verbs face faced sue sued
glue glued tie tied
hoe hoed waste wasted

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 18

 When a word of one syllable contains two vowels, just add the suffix, e.g.
One long vowel
seat - seated - seating
bake baked baker baking spoil - spoiling - spoilt
consume consumed consumer consuming
dive dived diver diving Note:
divide divided divider dividing Most words drop the e before adding ing to words ending in a silent e. See
No consonant is doubled file filed filer filing rule 28.
after a long vowel or a hike hiked hiker hiking
Tenses double vowel when vote voted voter voting
27 adding the suffixes: tile tiled tiler tiling
Verbs -ed
-er Double Vowel
-ing clean cleaned cleaner cleaning
drain drained drainer draining
dream dreamed dreamer dreaming
play played player playing
scream screamed screamer screaming
steam steamed steamer steaming
stream streamed streamer streaming
admire admiring illustrate illustrating Words ending in ee always keep the ee when adding -ing.
When a verb ends in advise advising imagine imagining
(silent) e, amuse amusing lecture lecturing
drop the e assure assuring line lining
before adding -ing. believe believing love loving
care caring notice noticing
Present
chase chasing rhyme rhyming
Tense
28 come coming save saving
divide dividing separate separating
Verbs
face facing shine shining
have having suppose supposing
hope hoping taste tasting
Exceptions: agree agreeing guarantee guaranteeing
disagree disagreeing referee refereeing
flee fleeing see seeing
amaze amazing move moving Note: queuing or queueing (both occur and there is no difference in
blame blaming poke poking meaning)
change changing queue queuing
close closing share sharing
escape escaping shave shaving
Present When a verb ends in
fake faking shine shining
Tense (silent) e,
Review gaze gazing slice slicing
drop the e
give giving stare staring
Verbs before adding -ing.
glance glancing store storing
grate grating strike striking
leave leaving swipe swiping
live living waste wasting
make making wave waving

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 19

 age ageing (getting older)
canoe canoeing (down the river)
dye dyeing (my hair)
Exceptions:
Present eye eyeing
For some verbs
Tense hoe hoeing (the field)
29 ending in (silent) e,
shoe shoeing (a horse)
you keep the e
Verbs singe singeing (the dress while ironing)
and add -ing.
toe toeing
tiptoe tiptoeing
whinge whingeing
An apostrophe takes are not aren’t cannot can’t The two words being contracted are usually:
the place of the missing did not didn’t does not doesn’t a pronoun and a verb [I + am = I’m]
Contractions
letter or letters. do not don’t he is he’s a verb and not [do + not = don’t]
I have I’ve I had I’d
30 Tenses
is not isn’t I will I’ll Blake’s Grammar Guide for Primary Students – Del Merrick (Pascal Press) p 29
we are we’re she will she’ll Blake’s Spelling Guide for Primary Students – Del Merrick (Pascal Press) p 57
Pronouns
who is who’s was not wasn’t
Exception: will not won’t we will we’ll
When Jo and I return.... Pronouns are words that replace nouns in a sentence.
When with another
Peter and I...
person, it is polite to
31 Pronouns After dinner, Sally and I....
speak of them first and
Fred and I are going to the movies.
yourself last.
Last autumn, Dad and I went fishing together.
brother brethren man men Some words change the vowel or vowels to show the plural. These plurals
cactus cacti mouse mice are irregular and require a change of spelling.
child children oasis oases
cherub cherubim ox oxen
Some words change their
die dice person people
form when they become
Nouns emphasis emphases tooth teeth
plural.
32 foot feet woman women
Plurals goose geese formula formulae
louse lice
Exceptions:
human humans
antenna (on a television) antennas
antenna (on a bug’s head) antennae
octopus octopuses octopi or octopods
a deer many deer one aircraft many aircraft The nouns in this list have the same spelling whether singular or plural
one bison many bison one antelope two antelope e.g. aircraft
one cod many cod one craft many craft
one fish many fish one deer many deer
Nouns Some words stay the one moose many moose one dozen three dozen
33 same when they become one mullet many mullet one offspring many offspring
Plurals plural. one salmon many salmon one reindeer many reindeer
one sheep many sheep one score five score
one squid many squid one swine many swine
one trout several trout one plankton many plankton
one tuna many tuna one elk many elk

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 20

 archives crossroads measles series Some nouns end in s but have no singular form. These are called aggregate
barracks dregs news shears nouns. These are traditionally plural but also used for singular forms.
bathers forceps (one) innings shorts
bellows gallows pants species
Nouns
Some nouns have no binoculars glasses pincers spectacles
34
singular form. britches goods pliers stairs
Plurals
clippers headquarters pyjamas tidings
clothes jeans scissors tongs
contents means secateurs trousers
corps tweezers
calf calves scarf scarves Nouns that end in f usually change the f to v before adding -es to form the
elf elves self selves plural, e.g. scarf – scarves.
half halves shelf shelves
For some words
Nouns knife knives thief thieves We also change f to v when changing nouns to verbs before adding -e.
ending in f or fe,
35 leaf leaves wife wives Some examples are: thief – thieve; belief – believe; relief – relieve; grief –
change the f or fe to v
Plurals life lives wolf wolves grieve.
and add -es for plurals.
loaf loaves yourself yourselves
Sometimes a -ves ending indicates a change of word class from a noun to a
verb, e.g. belief – believes; grief – grieves; proof – proves.
belief beliefs proof proofs All nouns ending in ff, and some nouns ending in f, just add -s to form the
cafe cafes puff puffs plural, e.g. bluffs, beliefs, briefs, fifes
carafe carafes reef reefs
chief chiefs ref refs
cliff cliffs roof roofs Exceptions:
Nouns cuff cuffs safe safes [bank] hoof – hoofs or hooves
For some words ending
36 dwarf dwarfs sheriff sheriffs wharf – wharfs or wharves
in f, ff or fe, just add -s.
Plurals fife fifes skiff skiffs
gaffe gaffes sniff sniffs
giraffe giraffes staff staffs
gulf gulfs tariff tariffs
handkerchief handkerchiefs tiff tiffs
oaf oafs waif waifs
eighty-five ninety-one Note:
eighty-seven seventy-one fifty - five loses its ve and gains f when the suffix -ty is added.
Remember to include
fifty-six seventy -three fifteen - five changes its ve to teen
the hyphen when writing
fifty-three sixty-eight eighteen- does not double the t-exception to the ‘teen ‘ rule
37 Hyphens numbers from twenty-one
forty-four thirty-two forty - four loses its u when the suffix -ty is added.
to ninety-nine that
forty-nine twenty-nine Also, change the y to i and add -eth for ordinals on the decade after tenth:
are not multiples of ten.
ninety-eight twenty- seven twentieth, thirtieth, fortieth, fiftieth, sixtieth, seventieth, eightieth, and
ninetieth.
When a word contains a fun funny
short vowel run runny
38 Adjectives skin skinny
followed by n,
the n is doubled. sun sunny

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 21

 bold boldly part partly The suffix -ly tells how something is done, e.g. slowly, quickly, or smoothly.
brave bravely pure purely
friend friendly quick quickly List words in bold retain the l before adding -ly.
high highly sad sadly
king kingly slow slowly
love lovely smart smartly
When -ly is added
Adjectives main mainly smooth smoothly
to most words,
39 night nightly sure surely
the words remain
Adverbs actual actually physical physically
unchanged.
fatal fatally radical radically
final finally real really
ideal ideally ritual ritually
individual individually usual usually
mortal mortally virtual virtually
perpetual perpetually visual visually
angry angrily hungry hungrily Note: -y changes to -i when you add the suffixes -ness, -er, -est, -ed, and
busy busily lazy lazily -ly.
cheeky cheekily lucky luckily
clumsy clumsily merry merrily
y is changed to i dainty daintily momentary momentarily
Adjectives
before adding -ly easy easily necessary necessarily
40
to the end of these funny funnily ordinary ordinarily
Adverbs
words: greedy greedily pretty prettily
happy happily ready readily
hasty hastily steady steadily
hearty heartily sloppy sloppily
heavy heavily weary wearily
Vowel before o: If a noun ends in o, check the letter before the o:
audio audios patio patios If it is a vowel [e.g. cuckoo], add -s for the plural [cuckoos].
cockatoo cockatoos radio radios
curio curios ratio ratios
duo duos rodeo rodeos
embryo embryos scenario scenarios Add s to words that end with o and have to do with music e.g. altos, banjos,
folio folios studio studios cellos, altos, pianos, piccolos, sopranos, solos, tangos.
igloo igloos trio trios
kangaroo kangaroos video videos
Nouns Add -s to most words
41 that end in o
Consonant before o:
Plurals to make them plural.
alto altos kimono kimonos
banjo banjos merino merinos
cappuccino cappuccinos photo photos
cello cellos piano pianos
disco discos piccolo piccolos
dynamo dynamos silo silos
flamingo flamingos solo solos
hairdo hairdos tempo tempos
kilo kilos typo typos

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 22

 cargo cargoes mosquito mosquitoes If a noun ends in o, check the letter before the o: If it is a consonant [e.g.
Nouns Some words ending in o dingo dingoes potato potatoes potato] add es for the plural [potatoes].
42 can be made plural by echo echoes tomato tomatoes
Plurals adding -es. embargo embargoes torpedo torpedoes Exceptions to this rule are dynamos, halos, kilos, memos, photos, pianos,
hero heroes veto vetoes solos, condos, gizmos, torsos
avocado avocados avocadoes
buffalo buffalos buffaloes
domino dominos dominoes
fresco frescos frescoes
ghetto ghettos ghettoes
Some words ending in o
Nouns gazebo gazebos gazeboes
can be made plural
43 halo halos haloes
by adding either
Plurals lasso lassos lassoes
-s or -es.
mango mangos mangoes
motto mottos mottoes
tornado tornados tornadoes
volcano volcanos volcanoes
zero zeros zeroes
brother-in-law brothers-in-law
Most compound nouns
Compound daughter-in-law daughters-in-law
form the plural by
Nouns maid of honour maids of honour
44 making the principal
passer-by passers-by
(first) word of the
Plurals sister-in-law sisters-in-law
compound noun plural.
son-in-law sons-in-law
all and most almost all right/ alright
all and one alone Is it acceptable to write alright as one word, rather than two separate ones.
all and ready already Nevertheless, many people dislike it and regard it as incorrect, so it’s best to avoid
When all is used as a
45 Prefixes all and though although using alright in formal writing.
prefix, one l is dropped.
all and ways always
Write it as two separate words instead: She emails them whenever she is travelling to
all and together altogether assure them she is all right.
achieve friend priest The well-known rule:
achievement grief relief Use i before e except after c where the sound makes ee.
believe hygiene relieve
Using brief mischief shield The letters ei can be pronounced as a long e sound, as in deceive and
46 Write i before e...
i and e field niece sieve conceited, or as a long a sound, as in weight and eight.
fiend patience thief
fierce patient unwieldy The letters ie can be pronounced as a long e sound, as in piece, or as a
fiery piece long i sound as in tie.
ceiling deceit perceive Poem
conceit deceive receipt Use i before e (friend, view, believe, niece)
conceive receive transceiver Except after c (receive, ceiling, deceive)
Words with
47 ...except after c Or when sounding like ‘a’
ei and ie
As in ‘neighbour’ or ‘weigh’; (eight, vein, freight, reign)
But leisure and seize
Do as they please. (Other exceptions are neither, science, weird, height, foreign.)

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 23

 beige neigh sleigh
Write ei when the vowel deign neighbour skein
Words with
48 sounds like a as in eight reign veil
ei and ie
‘weigh’. eighty reindeer vein
freight reins weight
ancient height scientist
being heir seize
Exceptions
caffeine heifer society
There are many words
Words with efficient leisure species
49 that break the rule.
ei and ie either neither stein
Memorise these
foreign protein their
exceptions:
forfeit science weir
glacier weird
conscience heifer seismologist
Harder exceptions conscientious kaleidoscope sheik /sheikh
There are many words counterfeit poltergeist sleight
Words with
50 that break the rule. deficient proficient sovereign
ei and ie
Memorise these feisty retrieve sufficient
exceptions: financier codeine
geisha
kn wr gn mb l mn st gh sc h p
knee wrap align bomb almond autumn bustle bought scene honour pneumonia
knew wreck consign climb calf column castle caught scent hour psalm
knight wrestle feign comb calm condemn fasten eight science honest psychology
knit wring foreign crumb balm hymn glisten freight scissors dinghy cupboard
knob wrist gnat comb chalk solemn gristle high scythe rhyme receipt
In some words, certain
knock write gnarl lamb could hasten light
consonants are not
51 Silent Letters knot wrong gnaw limb folk listen night
pronounced.
know wrote gnome numb half nestle sigh
knowledge design thumb palm thistle sight
knuckle campaign salmon whistle thought
bt talk weight
debt walk t
doubt often
subtle mortgage
boil boiling boiled Note: shear shearing (sheared or shorn)
heat heating heated
mail mailing mailed
When a word of one
pout pouting pouted
syllable contains two
52 Suffixes seat seating seated
vowels, just add the
shear shearing sheared
suffix.
shout shouting shouted
spoil spoiling spoiled
toil toiling toiled

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 24

 gel genetics giant gym g+e: agent, engage, singe, challenge, enlarge, urge, wage, angel, legend,
When a word gelignite genie gigantic gymnasium urgent, huge, cringe, plunge, orange, discharge, large
starts with g gem gentle gibber gymnast
g and is followed gender gentleman gin gymkhana g+i: magic, margin, origin, engine, agile, legion, original, allergic, margin,
sounds by e, i or y, general gerbil ginger gypsum apologise, eligible, ginseng, logic, region, religion, surgical, contagious,
53
like it is pronounced as j. generally germ gingerly gypsy / gipsy fugitive, hygiene, imagination, strategic, tragic
‘j’ generate German giraffe gyrate
Otherwise, it says g as in generation gesture gist gyroscope g+y: allergy, energy, trilogy, clergy, lethargy, edgy, stingy, prodigy,
gold. generous analogy, meteorology, anthology, mythology, zoology, apology, biology,
geology.
begin gibbon girl
g gear giddy girth
sounds geese gift give
54 Exceptions:
like gesture giggle gizmo
‘j’ get gimmick gilt
geyser ginger gig
barge garbage orange
When g used challenge hinge package
g
in the middle of a word damage huge passenger
sounds
55 or at the end of a word detergent large range
like
and is followed by e, emergency luggage revenge
‘j’
it makes a j sound. engage manage teenager
exaggerate message urgent
bridge hedge nudge The letter pattern -dge only follows a short vowel, as in edge, fudge and
budge judge pledge fudge & bridge. This keeps the vowel in these words short.
g After a short vowel budget knowledge porridge -ge is used when the /j/ sound comes right after a long vowel sound (page,
sounds sound we put d before dodge knowledgeable ridge wage) or after the letter n (strange, average,arrange).
56
like ge to keep the short edge ledge sledge
‘j’ vowel sound. fidget lodge smudge
fridge midge trudge
gadget midget wedge
cease centimetre cinema cyclist
ceiling centipede circle cyclone
When a word celebrate central circuit Cyclops
starts with c and is cell centre circus cygnet
followed by e, i or y, cellar cereal cite cypress
it is pronounced as s. cellophane cicada crescent cylinder
c Otherwise, it says c as in cement cigar cyberspace cymbal
sounds cat.
57 cemetery cigarette cycle cynical
like
centenary city cyclic
‘s’ ---------------
abscess descendant scene scientific
When a c is followed by adolescent discipline science scintillating
e, i, or y it is ascent fancy scenery scissors
pronounced as s. bicycle lacy scenic scythe
bouncy mercy scent spicy
decimal obscene sceptre

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 25

 acquaintance quack quest square QANTAS is an acronym
acquire quad question squash
adequate quadrant queue squat
antique quaint queuing squawk
In the spelling of English aqua quake quick squealing
words, the letter q is boutique quality quiet squeamish
58 The letter q
always followed by the eloquently quandary quilt squint
letter u. equal quantity quince squirrel
frequent quarantined quite technique
inquisitive quarter quiz tranquil
liquid queen request tranquilise
plaque queer require unique
verb past tense present related noun When an ending which begins with e, i, or y is added to a word which ends
Words If a verb ends in ac or participle in c, a k is also added to the c to keep its hard sound.
ending in ic, always add a -k picnic picnicked picnicking picnicker
59 ac or ic. before adding the mimic mimicked mimicking mimicker An exception to this is arc, arced, arcing.
suffixes traffic trafficked trafficking trafficker
Suffixes -ed, -ing, -y, or -er. frolic frolicked frolicking frolicker
panic panicked panicking panicky -adj.
The plane of the president The president’s plane A possessive noun tells who or what owns [possesses] something, e.g.
The computer of the boss The boss’s computer The girl’s toy is in the floor.
The coat of Sherlock Holmes Sherlock Holmes’s coat Who owns the toy? The girl does. girl’s is a possessive noun.
The tail of the ox The ox’s tail
Singular
To make a singular noun The bike of the boy The boy’s bike Tasmania’s weather is much milder in the summer.
Possessive
possessive, add ’s. The handbag of the woman The woman’s handbag What place’s weather is milder in the summer? Tasmania’s is a possessive
Nouns
60 The nest of the dove The dove’s nest noun.
This rule also applies to The pets of my sister My sister’s pets
Apostrophes
words ending in ss. The whiskers of the cat The cat’s whiskers An apostrophe of ownership is used to show ownership of something. When
The soft texture of the moss The moss’s soft texture adding an apostrophe and an s at the end you must remember:
The eyes of the lass sparkled The lass’s eyes sparkled
The interest of the class was The class’s interest was If the last letter of the plural noun is not s, add ’s.
aroused aroused
The car of Mrs. Jones Mrs. Jones’s car For some proper nouns ending in s, we still apply the rule above (number.
The book of Professor Collins Professor Collins’s book 59) when writing the possessive form.
Singular The hat of James Sims James Sims’s hat
Possessive To make singular proper The speech of Mr. Simmons Mr Simmons’s speech To spell the possessive of proper nouns that end in s, add an apostrophe
61 Noun nouns possessive, The work of Miss. Nguyen Miss. Nguyen’s work and s to the end of the word, e.g. The Jones’s house.
add ’s. The dog of Jim and Jake Jim and Jake’s dog
Apostrophes The fish of Sue and Craig Sue and Craig’s fish When there are several owners of the one thing, only the last mentioned
The daughter of Mr. and Mr. and Mrs. Wong’s owner gets an apostrophe e.g. Kath and Kim’s house.
Mrs. Wong daughter

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 26

 The bags of the girls The girls’ bags To make plural nouns possessive, check the last letter of the plural noun.
The books of the students The students’ books
The food of the hamsters My hamsters’ food If it is an s, just add an apostrophe.
The manes of the horses The horses’ manes Example: the boxes’ contents, the trees’ leaves, the girls’ bikes.
The wings of the butterflies The butterflies’ wings
Regular
The food of the pigs The pigs’ food Note:
Plural
If a plural noun The feathers of the chickens The chickens’ feathers Possessive pronouns never have apostrophes:
Possessive
62 ends in s, The staffroom of the The teachers’ staffroom
Nouns
add an apostrophe. teachers yours, hers, its, ours, theirs
The motors of the cars The cars’ motors
Apostrophes
The eyes of the owls The owls’ eyes For example:
The nest of the ants The ants’ nest Yours is the blue one.
The feet of the kangaroos The kangaroos’ feet Hers has white and green dots.
The tails of the dogs The dogs’ tails The bear hurt its paw.
The bottles of the babies The babies’ bottles Ours is bigger than theirs.
children The children’s pens Blake’s Spelling Guide for Primary Students – Del Merrick (Pascal Press) p 56
Irregular
geese The geese’s feathers
Plural
To show possession men The men’s ties
Possessive
63 of irregular plural nouns, mice His mice’s cheese
Nouns
add ’s. oxen The oxen’s loads
teeth Your teeth’s enamel
Apostrophes
women The women’s shoes
Compound The book of the daughter-in- The daughter-in-law’s book
Words law
In compound words, add
The car of the mother-in-law The mother-in-law’s car
64 the apostrophe to the
Nouns The keys of the father-in-law The father-in-law’s keys
last word.
Apostrophes
A dollar’s worth Apostrophes are occasionally used to indicate the plural forms of certain
Measurement of size,
A week’s holiday letters and expressions, e.g. Mind your p’s and q’s.
Apostrophes weight, time and space
65 An hour’s delay
of Possession take an ’s when used
A hair’s breadth
possessively.
A year’s leave
The sound of ee at the bunny itchy sorry
end of a word is usually flighty mighty stony
Adjectives spelled with a -y. funny runny story
66 happy sappy sunny
Nouns hurry skinny tidy
icy soppy tinny
Exceptions: coffee committee toffee

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 27

 boast and full boastful The suffix -ful can form nouns or adjectives like plateful or cheerful.
colour and full colourful
doubt and full doubtful People sometimes make the mistake of spelling this type of word with ll at
grace and full graceful the end.
harm and full harmful
When a compound word help and full helpful Note that it is always spelled with one l.
Adjectives is formed mouth and full mouthful
67 by adding the suffix full pain and full painful Only one word in the English language ends in -full and that is the word
Suffixes only one l is kept. peace and full peaceful full.
play and full playful
power and full powerful
spoon and full spoonful
thank and full thankful
thought and full thoughtful
wonder and full wonderful
cheer and full cheerful
cup and full cupful
dread and full dreadful
faith and full faithful
When a compound word
fear and full fearful
Adjectives is formed
forget and full forgetful
Review by adding the suffix full
hand and full handful
Suffixes only one l is kept.
hurt and full hurtful
scorn and full scornful
venge and full vengeful
woe and full woeful
wrong and full wrongful
armfuls handfuls Seven spoons full of sugar.
Plurals Words ending in -ful basketfuls pocketfuls Seven spoonfuls of sugar.
68 form the plural by bucketfuls spadefuls
Suffixes adding -s. cupfuls spoonfuls
beauty beautiful
Words that have a
bounty bountiful
Adjectives consonant
duty dutiful
69 followed by y,
fancy fanciful
Suffixes change the y to i
mercy merciful
before adding -ful.
plenty plentiful
blissfully forcefully
The related ending
carefully gratefully
Adverbs -fully forms adverbs.
cheerfully hopefully
70
doubtfully joyfully
Suffixes This suffix is always
dreadfully powerfully
spelled with double l.
faithfully thankfully

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 28

 convey conveyed conveyer conveys If the word ends in a vowel and y, the base word does not change, e.g.
Verbs Words that have a delay delayed delayer delays delay + ed = delayed; employ + ment = employment.
71 vowel followed by y, employ employed employer employs
Suffixes just add the suffix. enjoy enjoyed enjoyer enjoys Exceptions: pay – paid day – daily
spray sprayed sprayer sprays say – said gay – gaily
Words that have a baby babies laboratory laboratories If a word ends in a consonant and y, when you add any suffix except -ing,
Verbs consonant certify certifiable mystery mysteries then change the y to i:
72 followed by y, copy copies mystify mystified reply + ed = replied busy + ness = business
Suffixes change the y to i duty duties rectify rectifies pity + ful = pitiful multiply + cation = multiplication
before adding a suffix. justify justifies try tried Exception: reply + ing = replying
tie tying
Verbs Verbs that end in -ie die dying
73 change the -ie to -y lie lying
Suffixes before adding -ing. vie vying
annoy annoying enjoy enjoying If a word ends in y, keep the y when adding -ing.
apply applying fly flying
buy buying justify justifying
Verbs Some words ending in y
certify certifying rely relying
74 remain unchanged when
convey conveying spray spraying
Suffixes adding -ing.
copy copying study studying
delay delaying unify unifying
employ employing worry worrying
control controlled controlling controller Exceptions are:
enrol enrolled enrolling - When a suffix beginning with an -i is added to a word that ends in an -l
excel excelled excelling - which is preceded by a vowel, do not double the -l.
fulfil fulfilled fulfilling - For example,
Verbs When a word ends in l,
level levelled levelling leveller moral - moralise, equal - equality, central - centralise, idol - idolise,
75 double the l before
propel propelled propelling propeller angel - angelic, capital - capitalise, special - specialise
Suffixes adding the suffix.
quarrel quarrelled quarrelling -
shovel shovelled shovelling - Also remember that you double the final ‘l’ when you add –ous, -ed, or
travel travelled travelling traveller -ing e.g. marvelling – marvellous - marvelled
marvel marvelled marvelling
bare barely main mainly Many adverbs are formed from adjectives and end in -ly.
brief briefly plain plainly Here are some tips to help you form adverbs and spell them correctly:
close closely pure purely See rules 76-81.
dead deadly quick quickly
Adverbs The basic rule is that dim dimly rapid rapidly
76 -ly is added to the distinct distinctly slow slowly
Suffixes end of the adjective. entire entirely stern sternly
faint faintly sudden suddenly
firm firmly sweet sweetly
frank frankly swift swiftly
glad gladly tender tenderly

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 29

 audible audibly noble nobly
comfortable comfortably possible possibly
durable durably probable probably
If the word ends with a
Adverbs feeble feebly reliable reliably
consonant followed by
77 forcible forcibly responsible responsibly
le, replace the final e
Suffixes gentle gently simple simply
with -y on its own.
horrible horribly subtle subtly
idle idly terrible terribly
incredible incredibly visible visibly
extreme extremely When adding -ly to a word with a long vowel / consonant /final e,
Adverbs When a word ends in e futile futilely leave the final e [as it keeps the vowel long].
78 after a long vowel, serene serenely Exceptions: duly truly wholly
Adjectives add -ly. sole solely
vile vilely
angry angrily lazy lazily
busy busily merry merrily
clumsy clumsily necessary necessarily
If an adjective has two
Adverbs easy easily noisy noisily
syllables and ends in y,
79 greedy greedily pretty prettily
change the y to i
Suffixes happy happily ready readily
before adding -ly.
hearty heartily scary scarily
heavy heavily steady steadily
hungry hungrily weary wearily
annual annually mental mentally
awful awfully normal normally
careful carefully practical practically
Adjectives
critical critically radical radically
If the word ends in fatal fatally skilful skilfully
80 Adverbs
ful or al, add -ly formal formally spiteful spitefully
hopeful hopefully thoughtful thoughtfully
Suffixes
local locally total totally
loyal loyally vengeful vengefully
magical magically vocal vocally
basic basically mechanic mechanically Only one word in the English language ends in -icly and that is publicly.
comic comically numeric numerically To all other words ending in ic, -ally is added.
Verbs critic critically problematic problematically
economic economically realistic realistically ic is a vowel suffix- Root words drop a final e or change y to i before taking
When a word romantically
81 Adverbs electric electrically romantic the suffix e.g. history - historic, specify - specific, horrify - horrific.
ends in ic, add -ally. sarcastically
emphatic emphatically sarcastic
Suffixes heroic heroically scientific scientifically
historic historically systematic systematically
magic magically tragic tragically

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 30

 alter altered altering
appear appeared appearing
Normally when adding despair despaired despairing
r and rr
an ending to a word encounter encountered encountering
82 before
with a final r, just add offer offered offering
endings
the ending. order ordered ordering
suffer suffered suffering
whisper whispered whispering
char charred - 1. Double the r for verbs of one syllable when the final r is preceded by a single vowel
tar tarred tarring e.g. stir - stirring, stirred; star starred starring.
bar barred barring
Do not double the r for verbs of one syllable when the final r is preceded by a double
jar jarred jarring
vowel e.g. fear - fearing, feared.
mar marred marring
Double the r before scar scarred scarring 2. Double the r for words of more than one syllable when the stress does not fall on
r and rr adding -ing to words stir stirred stirred the first syllable e.g. deter - deterred deterring, defer – deferred, deferring.
83 before that have a single confer conferred conferring
endings vowel followed by a infer inferred inferring Do not double the r for words of more than one syllable, when the stress falls on the
consonant at the end. occur occurred occurred first syllable e.g. prosper, prospered, prospering.
prefer preferred preferring
It helps a lot to say the word aloud to make this rule clear.
refer referred referring
transfer transferred transferring Note: If a word ends in ar, double the r before adding an ending, e.g. star – starry,
concur concurred concurring starred, starring.
Suffix cancel cancelled pedal pedalled In words ending with one l, double the l when a suffix is added, e.g. travel
l and ll enrol enrolled quarrel quarrelled traveller, marvel marvellous.
before excel excelling rebel rebellion
endings jewel jeweller repel repelling But this rule does not apply to American Spellings.
When adding a suffix
e.g. label labelled rival rivalled
beginning with a vowel,
84 -ed level leveller swivel swivelled Exceptions:
to words ending in l,
-er marvel marvellous travel traveller When there are two vowels before the final l, don’t double the l, e.g.
double the l.
-ing medal medallion tunnel tunnelled appealing, foolish, healing, unveiled.
-en metal metallic wool woollen
-y panel panelling wool woolly These words are also exceptions: angelic, centralise, equality, generalise,
-ous patrol patrolled moralise, speciality. You just have to learn them.
Adjectives that end Examples:
in ly, such as friendly 'in a friendly way’
cannot be made into ‘in a lively way’
Forming
85 adverbs by adding -ly. ‘in a homely way’
Adverbs
You have to use a
different form of the
words.
When adding suffixes glamour glamorous rigour rigorous Blake’s Spelling Guide for Primary Students – Del Merrick (Pascal Press) p 64
Nouns to a noun that ends honour honorary valour valorous & 86-89 has an excellent list of suffixes.
in -our, drop the u humour humorous vapour vaporise
86 Adjectives before adding the labour laborious vigour vigorous
following endings: odour odorous
Suffixes -ous, -ious, -ary
-ation, -ific or -ise.

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 31

 Nouns When adding other colour colourful
endings, such as -ful, favour favourite
87 Adjectives -ite, -able or -less, the odour odourless
-our spelling honour honourable
Suffixes stays the same. humour humourless
You drop the final l install instalment Exception: -ness
from words that end in ll skill skilful small – smallness
Verbs
before adding endings will wilful ill – illness
88
that begin with a
Suffixes
consonant,
eg. -ment, -ful and -ly.
apply appliance justify justifies Note: Always keep the y when adding the suffix -ing or any other suffix
army armies luxury luxurious beginning with an -i, because in the English language we seldom write ii,
bury burial mystery mysterious e.g. marrying, relying, copying, hurrying, occupying, defying and tidying.
When adding a suffix
busy busier mystify mystified Exceptions: skiing, taxiing
beginning with a vowel
carry carried naughty naughtier
to a word ending in y,
ceremony ceremonial pretty prettiest Note: if the y is preceded by a vowel, the y remains.
change the y to i before
Suffix certify certifiable silky silkiest Refer to rule 71.
89 adding the suffix:
y to i empty emptied supply supplier
-ed -est
envy envious try tried Two exceptions are:
-er -ance
glory glorious vary variance satisfy – satisfaction
-es -ous
heavy heavier vary – variation
-able
er and able are vowel suffixes. If the root word ends in y, change the y to
an i. e.g.
apply application mercy merciful Note: busy - busyness
beauty beautiful mercy merciless
busy busily merry merriment
When adding a suffix ceremony ceremonial multiply multiplication
beginning with a cloudy cloudiness naughty naughtily
consonant to a word drowsy drowsiness naughty naughtiness
ending in y, change the empty emptiness notify notification
Suffix
90 y to i before adding the fancy fanciful ordinary ordinarily
y to i
suffix: greedy greedily penny penniless
-ness -less greedy greediness mercy merciless
-ful -ly happy happily pity pitiful
-ment -cation happy happiness plenty plentiful
identify identification ready readily
lonely loneliness vilify vilification
magnify magnification windy windiness

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 32

 act action invent invention When adding -ion to words ending in ct, ss or t, there are no spelling
adapt adaption object objection changes. Simply add the -ion.
adopt adoption oppress oppression Examples:
confess confession opt option extinct + ion = extinction
congest congestion predict prediction express + ion = expression
convict conviction prevent prevention deduct + ion = deduction
deduct deduction product production
Nouns
digest digestion react reaction -sion can be sounded in two different ways:
For words that
discuss discussion reflect reflection
91 Verbs end in ct, ss or t,
elect election reject rejection *sounds like ‘shun’ : extension, discussion, percussion, tension
add -ion.
erupt eruption subtract subtraction
Suffix -ion
except exception suggest suggestion *sounds like ‘sion’ in ‘vision’: division, confusion, explosion, television.
express expression
extinct extinction t to ss:
impress impression admit admission Note:
inject injection omit omission Some words ending in t, change the t to ss before adding -ion.
inspect inspection permit permission
interrupt interruption submit submission
complete completion averse aversion For words that end in te, ce or se drop the e and then add -ion.
congratulate congratulation circulate circulation
create creation confuse confusion The ending -tion may be spelled cian, sian, sion, tian for some words,
decorate decoration deduce deduction e.g. magician, Persian, explosion, Dalmatian.
Nouns delete deletion devote devotion
If the word ends in te, educate education graduate graduation
92 Verbs ce or se drop the e fascinate fascination pollute pollution
before adding -ion. imitate imitation produce production
Suffix -ion institute institution reduce reduction
narrate narration repulse repulsion
participate participation revise revision
separate separation supervise supervision
translate translation tense tension
dissolve dissolution
Verbs If a word ends in -lve, evolve evolution
93 change the ve to ut resolve resolution
Suffix -ion before adding -ion. revolve revolution
solve solution
collide collision exclude exclusion
Nouns
conclude conclusion explode explosion
If a word ends in de,
corrode corrosion intrude intrusion
94 Verbs change the de to s
decide decision invade invasion
before adding -ion.
divide division persuade persuade
Suffix -ion
erode erosion provide provision
comprehend comprehension
Verbs If a word ends in nd, expand expansion
95 change the d to s before extend extension
Suffix -ion adding -ion. suspend suspension

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 33

 If a word ends in ibe, describe description The suffix -ion can be added to words ending in -be to form nouns.
drop the e and change inscribe inscription
the b to pt before prescribe prescription
Verbs adding -ion. subscribe subscription
96 ---------------
Suffix -ion If a verb ends in eive, conceive conception
drop the silent e and deceive deception
change the ve to pt perceive perception
before adding -ion. receive reception
appreciate appreciation hibernate hibernation There is no difference in sound between the endings -sion and -tion.
celebrate celebration indent indentation The main pattern to look for is this:
The suffix -ation can be concentration
Nouns concentrate infest infestation
added to words to form confrontation
confront invite invitation -sion almost always occurs when a verb ending in se, ss or de is made into
nouns. consideration
97 Verbs consider limit limitation a noun.
If the word ends in te decoration
decorate plant plantation
drop the e before adding education
Suffix -ation educate present presentation All other cases effectively involve -tion.
-ation. fascination
fascinate separate separation
frustrate frustration tempt temptation
Present Tense When a word ends catch catching
in two consonants discuss discussing
Review Verbs and you want to fast fasting
add the suffix -ing, notify notifying
Suffix -ing no letters are doubled. supply supplying
admit admitting fit fitting
bet betting jog jogging
Present Tense If the word ends in a
bob bobbing pop popping
consonant with one short
chip chipping scrap scrapping
Review Verbs vowel before it, double
chop chopping ship shipping
the last consonant
drip dripping skip skipping
Suffix -ing before adding -ing.
drop dropping submit submitting
flip flipping wet wetting
advise advising imagine imagining
Present Tense
crave craving measure measuring
When a word ends in a
create creating rave raving
Review Verbs silent e, drop the e when
decide deciding shape shaping
adding -ing.
handle handling surprise surprising
Suffix -ing
idle idling write writing
belief believe
Nouns When changing nouns to grief grieve
98 verbs, change f to v relief relieve
Verbs before adding -e. thief thieve

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 34

 Silent e word Suffix Drop the e Exceptions: Another exception to the rule is the final -e is not dropped
abuse ive abusive from words ending in: -ee, -oe, -ye.
response ive responsive flee + ing = fleeing
convene ient convenient see + ing = seeing, agree + ing = agreeing, guarantee + ing =
divide ing dividing guaranteeing
secure ity security tiptoe + ing = tiptoeing
dose age dosage agree + able = agreeable
endure ance endurance mile + age = mileage
fortune ate fortunate acre + age =acreage
hope ed hoped canoe + ist = canoeist
Nouns love able lovable dye +ing = dyeing
argue able arguable
If a noun ends in ce, change the ce to ti before adding -al to make the
Verbs Drop the e before adding serve ant servant
adjective:
99 an ending beginning with nature al natural
confidence – confidential palace – palatial
Adjectives a vowel [aeiou] or a y. tribe al tribal
sequence – sequential preference – preferential
pure er purer
Suffixes safe er safer Exceptions:
sense ible sensible office – official practice – practical
scare y scary Exceptions: If a word ends in ce, or ge, keep the e if you add a suffix
shine y shiny beginning with either an a or an o. ie able and ous
tame est tamest Can you think why this is?
fine est finest You need the e to keep the sound ‘soft’ (/s/ or/j/) For example:
nerve ous nervous peace + able = peaceable
style ish stylish salvage + able + salvageable
change + able = changeable
outrage + ous = outrageous
advantage + ous = advantageous
clamour clamorous monstrous monstrosity Words ending in our and ity delete the u when adding -ous.
If a word ends in our or
Suffixes curious curiosity odour odorous vigour → vigorous [omit u before ous ending]
ous leave out the u
100 -ous generous generosity rigour rigorous curious→ curiosity [omit u before ity ending]
before adding the
-ity glamour glamorous vapour vaporous
suffixes -ous and -ity.
humour humorous vigour vigorous
anxiety anxious melody melodious If the base word ends in ce or y, change the e or y to i before adding -ous.
avarice avaricious mystery mysterious e.g. envy, envious
Adjectives When adding -ous to
envy envious prodigy prodigious
words that end in ce or
101 fury furious space spacious
Suffix -ous y, change the e or y to i
glory glorious study studious
before adding -ous.
grace gracious vary various
luxury luxurious victory victorious
advantage advantageous notice noticeable Do not drop the silent e when the word ends with a soft -ge or a soft -ce.
change changeable outrage outrageous Some words have two possible forms before -able.
Adjectives When adding -able or courage courageous replace replaceable like - likeable/likable (US) , move - moveable/movable ( More popular), love
102 -ous to words ending in manage manageable service serviceable - loveable/lovable (more common), use –useable/usable (both are correct)
Suffixes ge or ce, keep the e. love loveable trace traceable
knowledge knowledgeable

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 35

 Silent e word Suffix begins Don’t drop the e Exceptions:
with a
consonant acknowledge ment acknowledgment
arrange ment arrangement argue ment argument
amaze ment amazement judge ment judgement
state ment statement awe ful awful
Suffixes
advance ment advancement horrible ly horribly
-ful
move ment movement incredible ly incredibly
-ly Keep the e before adding
announce ment announcement due ly duly
-less an ending beginning with
103 forgive ness forgiveness nine th ninth
-ment a consonant.
late ness lateness wide th width
-ness
pale ness paleness sure ly terribly
-teen
close ness closeness terrible ly surely
-ty
sore ness soreness true ly truly
safe ty safety twelve ly twelfth
nine ty ninety whole ly wholly
love less loveless possible ly possibly
price less priceless wise dom wisdom
use less useless nine teen nineteen
care + less = careless remorse + ful = remorseful
help + less = helpless success + ful = successful
Suffixes Keep the e before adding home + less = homeless watch + ful = watchful
-less a suffix price + less = priceless close + ly = closely
104 selfless lone lonely
-ful beginning with a self + less = + ly =
-ly consonant. use + ful = useful love + ly = lovely
care + ful = careful wise + ly = wisely
hate + ful = hateful sincere + ly = sincerely
-ed -ing -est -en -y When adding a suffix beginning with a vowel [-y, -ed, -er, -est, or -ing] to
batted beginning biggest bitten batty words of one syllable which have a short vowel followed by one consonant,
Double the final
committed committing fattest smitten catty always double the consonant before adding the suffix.
Suffixes consonant when adding
fitted getting fittest written fatty This is done to keep the vowel short.
-ed a suffix that begins with
planned regretting gladdest forbidden foggy
-ing a vowel [-ed, -ing, -est,
105 skimmed skidding maddest gladden muddy Exceptions:
-est -en or -y] to a word that
slapped skimming reddest madden shaggy bus, gas and words that end in w.
-en ends with a vowel and a
submitted stopping saddest sadden skinny
-y consonant. transmitted tipping sunny Note:
whipped upsetting witty cat - cattiest, cattier: change the y to i before adding the suffix.
wrapped
-able -ance -ion
controllable admittance rebellion
Double the final
Suffixes regrettable remittance
consonant when adding
-age
a suffix that begins with
-able -age -er
106 a vowel [-age, -able,
-ance baggage bigger
-er, -ion] to a word that
-er winner
ends with a vowel and a
-ion hotter
consonant.
thinner

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 36

 baby babyish hobby hobbyist Note: Always keep the -y when adding the suffix -ing or any other suffix
Always keep the y when
Verbs boy boyish hurry hurrying beginning with an -i, because in the English language we seldom write ii.
adding the suffix –ing
107 carry carrying marry marrying
or any other suffix
Suffix -ing copy copying occupy occupying Exceptions: skiing, taxiing
beginning with an -i.
defy defying rely relying
alga algae ellipsis ellipses Notes:
axis axes larva larvae  Add -s to form the plurals of most abbreviated words and acronyms [DVDs,
bacterium bacteria oasis oases CDs, VIPs, Drs, 1920s, DJs, tspns]
basis bases octopus octopuses  Double a letter to make some abbreviations plural [p-page, pp-pages]
campus campuses phenomenon phenomena Some words are both singular and plural [trout, sheep, deer]
108 Plurals
Some words we use campus campuses platypus platypuses  Some words are only plural [scissors, rice, spaghetti, rain, snow, sunlight,
come from foreign crisis crises radius radii tweezers, cutlery]
languages. criterion criteria stimulus stimuli  Data is now commonly used as plural and singular.
datum data thesis theses
We use both their virus viruses
singular and plural form. appendix appendices or appendixes
cactus cacti or cactuses
fungus fungi or funguses
terminus termini or terminuses
medium media or mediums
radius radii or radiuses
accept acceptable pass passable Knowing when to use -able and -ible is complicated.
afford affordable prefer preferable Use -able:
Adjectives
avoid avoidable punish punishable If the root word [what you are adding the suffix to] makes sense more or
For many words, no
bend bendable read readable less on its own e.g. [drink], use -able [drinkable; able to be drunk].
Review Suffix spelling changes are
comfort comfortable reason reasonable
-able necessary.
distinguish distinguishable remark remarkable
enjoy enjoyable respect respectable
laugh laughable treat treatable
Adjectives Words that end in e change changeable peace peaceable Do not drop the silent e when adding a suffix that begins with -ous or
following the consonants enforce enforceable service serviceable courageous
Review manage manageable trace traceable
Suffix c or g,
-able usually retain the e. notice noticeable
admire admirable desire desirable able means ‘able to’.
adore adorable excuse excusable If the root word ends in an e then it must be dropped before the suffix is
argue arguable excite excitable added, e.g. describe + able = describable.
Adjectives For most words
believe believable love lovable Exceptions:
that end in e,
Review compare comparable move movable live/liveable (US- livable)
Suffix drop the e
conceive conceivable notice noticeable trace/ traceable (when the letter before e is c)
-able before adding -able.
compare comparable note notable
debate debatable use usable
deplore deplorable value valuable

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 37

 After Root word ns or miss After a Use ible
non-root has an -ion soft c or g *After non-root words.
words form e.g. audible, horrible, possible.
*When the root has an immediate -ion form.
visible digestible permissible legible
e.g. digestible, suggestible, convertible.
Adjectives legible suggestible sensible negligible
Drop the e audible responsible forcible
109 before adding -ible *After a root ending in ns or miss.
Suffix horrible comprehensible invincible
to a base word. e.g. responsible, comprehensible, permissible.
-ible possible
*After a soft c or g.
e.g. legible, negligible, forcible, invincible.

Exceptions: contemptible, resistible, collapsible, flexible, formidable,

memorable, portable, convertible, inevitable.
acceptable acceptability possible possibility Words ending in -ible and -able are adjectives.
Nouns
available availability predictable predictability These words may also add -ity as a second suffix.
Drop the le durable durability probable probability Adding -ity changes the adjective to a noun.
Adjectives
110 before adding -ility flexible flexibility respectable respectability
to a base word. fragile fragility responsible responsibility If the word ends in ge leave the before adding ity e.g. changeability,
Suffix
irritable irritability stabile stability exchangeability.
-ity
legible legibility visible visibility
abundant abundance extravagant extravagance Adjectives can be formed by making a word end in -ant.
assistant assistance ignorant ignorance Abstract nouns can be formed by making the word end in -ance.
Nouns Words ending in -ant brilliant brilliance relevant relevance
111 change to -ance defiant defiance reluctant reluctance Note:
Adjectives in the noun form. distant distance resistant resistance If the adjective ends in -ant, the noun usually ends in -ance e.g. distant
elegant elegance tolerant tolerance distance, tolerant tolerance, resistant resistance.
entrant entrance vigilant vigilance
absent absence offend offence If the adjective ends in -ent, the noun usually ends in -ence
defend defence present presence e.g. violent - violence, evident - evidence, absent - absence.
Nouns Words ending in -ent
dependent dependence pretend pretence
112 change to -ence
diligent diligence resident residence
Adjectives in the noun form.
evident evidence silent silence
innocent innocence violent violence

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 38

 -er -or The most common everyday words end in -er.
bake baker collect collector e.g. baker, painter, teacher.
build builder conduct conductor If in doubt, use -or, when the meaning of the word is "one who" or "that
dance dancer delegate delegator which".
draw drawer direct director e.g. author, director, instructor, indicator, conveyor, escalator.
The most common drive driver educate educator Note: Words that end in -ate drop the e before adding -or.
Nouns everyday words end in employ employer illustrate illustrator
-er. football footballer imitate imitator Exceptions:
113 Suffixes learn learner inspect inspector beggar governor
-er Words which end in ct, lecture lecturer instruct instructor debater scholar
-or it, ate, or ess, take the paint painter navigate navigator burglar sugar
ending -or. plumb plumber negotiate negotiator councillor counsellor
repair repairer operate operator
report reporter possess possessor
teach teacher profess professor
train trainer senate senator
wait waiter solicit solicitor
-ment -dom -ship -hood Some words ending in -ment can be used as both a noun and a verb, e.g.
achievement boredom censorship adulthood experiment, compliment.
Nouns advertisement freedom championship childhood
The suffixes -ment, amendment earldom citizenship fatherhood
Verbs -dom, -ship, and -hood development kingdom companionship likelihood
all form noun forms. disappointment martyrdom friendship livelihood
114 Suffixes employment officialdom hardship manhood
-ment The base word does not equipment princedom kinship motherhood
establishment leadership neighbourhood
-dom usually change when random
government membership priesthood
-ship these suffixes are added. seldom
movement ownership sainthood
-hood wisdom
placement relationship
procurement scholarship
confection confectionary second secondary The rules only apply if the ary or ery is attached to a root word.
discipline disciplinary scare scary
legend legendary station stationary For example, the words January and February do not fit the rule because,
revolution revolutionary after removing -ary, Janu and Febru are not words.
Nouns If a word ends in -ary, it
is usually an adjective.
Seven words ending in ery might cause confusion, e.g. distillery, millinery,
Adjectives
cemetery, dysentery, stationery (paper).
115 ------------
butter buttery image imagery
Suffixes
brave bravery jitter jittery
-ery If a word ends in -ery, it
deliver delivery leather leathery
-ary is probably a noun.
discover discovery recover recovery
feather feathery station stationery

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 39

 Homonyms: A homonym is a word that has the same pronunciation or spelling as another word but a different meaning.
There are two types of homonyms: homographs and homophones.

con/tent The content of the essay was clear and concise.

Homographs are words
con/tent The new mum felt very content holding her baby.
that are spelled exactly
con/vict The convict travelled to Australia by boat.
116 Homographs alike but have different
con/vict The judge and jury decided to convict the prisoner of the crime.
sounds and different
min/ute There are sixty seconds in a minute.
meanings.
mi/nute The minute spores were blown across the garden.
These words sound the air heir die dye
same as another word aunt aren’t grate great
Homophones bare bear idle idol
but have a different
meaning and/or spelling. cellar seller muscle mussel
anti antisocial il illegal Blake’s Spelling Guide for Primary Students - Del Merrick - Pascal Press
A prefix is a syllable un unlock mis misjudge p 63 & 82-85 has an excellent list of prefixes.
attached to the ir irregular dis disappear
beginning of a word. circum circumnavigate multi multitude
117 Prefixes
It changes the meaning
of the word.

Numbers, Prefixes and Suffixes - word root, origin, meaning and examples
[NSW Dept. of Education - Teaching Spelling 1998] p 71-72
118 Etymology Reference list for etymological knowledge
Blake’s Spelling Guide for Primary Students - Del Merrick - Pascal Press
p 64 & p 90-95

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 40

 Reference Material for Spelling Rules and Grammar Overview
A complete list is to be found in the NSW Syllabus for the Australian Curriculum ‘English K-10 Syllabus’ p 184-218
Capital Letters Taught across all grades Words begin with capital letters for a number of reasons.
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck -
There are four types of nouns: common, proper, collective and Pascal Press p 56
abstract.
Common nouns: people, places, things (child, painter, school,
pool, computer)
Nouns Taught across all grades Collective noun: a bunch of bananas, a flock of sheep, an
anthology of poetry, bouquet, assembly, nation
Abstract noun: love, anger, happiness, freedom, apathy,
empathy, patience
Proper nouns: people, places, things, events (Jenny, Sydney,
January, Christmas) It always begins with a capital letter.
A word that shows action, doing or being e.g. swim, eat, skip. Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck –
Verbs Taught across all grades Pascal Press p 95-97

Adjectives are words which tell us more about nouns or Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck –
pronouns. Pascal Press p 5-10
Adjectives are usually placed immediately in front of the noun
they refer to, e.g. an exciting show, or they are linked to a
noun by a verb, e.g. Highways are noisy.

You can often spot an adjective by its ending [suffix].

Adjectives Taught across all grades The most common are:
-able or ible: terrible, likeable/ -al: natural, vital / -en: broken,
sunken, fallen / -ful: beautiful, awful, dreadful/ -ic: artistic,
terrific
-ish: childish, selfish, brownish/ -ive: active, massive,
persuasive /-less: homeless, hopeless /-ous: marvellous,
adventurous, famous
-some: handsome, loathsome / -y: sticky, bumpy, windy
An adverb is a word that describes or modifies: Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck –
 a verb Pascal Press p 10-13
Adverbs Taught across all grades  an adjective
 another adverb

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 41

 An apostrophe is used with nouns to show ownership. Blake’s Spelling Guide – Del Merrick - Pascal Press p 56
Apostrophes are used:
 In contractions e.g. I’m sorry that he’s not going to be there.
In possessive nouns e.g. Jenny’s cousin found Shelley’s scarf in
Apostrophes Taught across all grades
the Parks’ car.
 When you refer to the plural of letters and words e.g. There
are four s’s, four i’s, and two p’s in Mississippi. There are too
many and’s in your story.
Contractions are used in speech or informal writing. Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck –
Contractions Taught across all grades Pascal Press p 31.

Pronouns are used instead of nouns and often take the place Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck -
of a person or thing. Pascal Press p 70-71.
Pronouns Taught across all grades May be singular and plural
May be male, female or neutral [neutral means not male or
female]
Two words joined together make a compound word Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck -
Compound Words Taught across all grades e.g. stop + watch =stopwatch Pascal Press p 26.
horse + shoe = horseshoe
Synonyms are words that have the same, or nearly the same, Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck -
Synonyms Taught across all grades meaning. e.g. student, pupil. Pascal Press p 91-92.

Antonyms are words that have the opposite, or nearly the Blake’s Grammar Guide for Primary Students - Del Merrick -
opposite, meaning. e.g. front, back Pascal Press p 14.
Antonyms Taught across all grades Antonyms can be made by: Blake’s Spelling Guide for Primary Students - Del Merrick -
Adding a prefix: happy → unhappy Pascal Press p 62 & 81.
Changing the suffix: thoughtful → thoughtless
Blake’s Spelling Guide - Del Merrick (Pascal Press) p 59- 61
Homonyms
has a list of homonyms, homographs and homophones.
Homonyms are words with the same sound or spelling, but different meanings.
Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck -
There are two types of homonyms- homographs and homophones:
Pascal Press p 44.

Homographs are words with the same spelling, but are Blake’s Spelling Guide - Del Merrick (Pascal Press) p 78-79 has
Taught across all grades pronounced differently and have different meanings. a list of homonyms, homographs and homophones
Homographs He is close to me. Blake’s Spelling Guide - Del Merrick - Pascal Press p 80 has a
Close the door. list of homographs.

Homophones are words that have the same sound but are Blake’s Spelling Guide - Del Merrick - Pascal Press p 78-79 has
spelt differently and have different meanings. a list of homophones.
Homophones Taught across all grades e.g. meet - meat; steal - steel; sauce - source; crews - cruise.
Put the meat in the freezer.
Did you get to meet them?

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 42

 An abbreviation is a word that has been shortened by leaving See Spelling Essentials page 54-55 Elizabeth Tucker R.I.C
out some letters. e.g. Dr-Doctor Publications
Abbreviations are short forms of longer words, Rd= road Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck -
Pascal Press p 3
Abbreviations Taught across all grades
Acronyms Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter
Clutterbuck - Pascal Press p 4

A prefix is a syllable attached to the beginning of a word. Blake’s Spelling Guide for Primary Students - Del Merrick
It changes the meaning of the word. Pascal Press p 63 & 82-85
Prefixes Taught across all grades The general rule concerning a prefix is simply to add it Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck -
e.g. anti-, de-, dis-, il-, in, im-, ir-, mis-, on-, un- Pascal Press p 68

A suffix is a syllable attached by the end of a word. Suffix: A unit of letters such as -ing, -ness, or -ed that are
It changes the way the word is used. e.g. careful careless attached to a root word to modify its meaning.
carefully. A suffix is placed at the end of a word and changes the status
The general rule concerning a suffix is simply to add it e.g. of a word, singular to plural, present to past tense, noun to
verb or adjective, verb to noun, comparatives.
Suffixes Taught across all grades
Blake’s Spelling Guide for Primary Students - Del Merrick
Pascal Press p 64 & p 86-89
Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck -
Pascal Press p 90

Blake’s Spelling Guide for Primary Students - Del Merrick

Pascal Press p 64 & p 90-95
Latin and Greek Roots
Late Stage One, Stage Two Blake’s English Guide for Primary Students - Peter Clutterbuck -
and other language
Stage Three Pascal Press p 83
roots
Teaching Spelling K-6 p 71-72
Blake’s Spelling Guide for Primary Students – Del Merrick -
English Sounds in Pascal Press p 3-6
Taught across all grades
Spelling

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 43

 AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM OVERVIEW
Spelling falls under the Language strand, namely the areas of Text structure and Organisation, Expressing and developing ideas and Sound and letter knowledge.
Year

Foundation Year 1 Year 2

Content
Descriptions
ACELA1463
Understand that different types of texts have identifiable
text structures and language features that help the text
serve its purpose.
Text structure and organisation

ACELA1464
Understand how texts are made cohesive through
resources, for example word associations, synonyms,
and antonyms.

ACELA1465
Recognise that capital letters signal proper nouns and
commas are used to separate items in lists.

ACELA1466
Know some key features of text organisation including
page and screen layouts, alphabetical order, and
different types of diagrams, for example timelines.

ACELA1758 ACELA1778 ACELA1471

Know that spoken sounds and words can be written Know that regular one-syllable words are made up of Understand how to use digraphs, long vowels, blends
developing ideas

down using the letters of the alphabet and how to write letters and common letter clusters that correspond to and silent letters to spell words, and use morphemes
Expressing

some high-frequency sight words and known words. the sounds heard, and how to use visual memory to and syllabification to break up simple words and use
write high-frequency words. visual memory to write irregular words.
and

ACELA1438
Know how to use onset and rime to spell words. ACELA1455 ACELA1472
Recognise and know how to use morphemes in word Recognise common prefixes and suffixes and how they
families for example ‘play’ in ‘played’ and ‘playing’. change a word’s meaning.

ACELA1439 ACELA 1458 ACELA1474

Recognise rhymes, syllables and sounds (phonemes) in Recognise sound-letter matches including common Recognise most sound-letter matches including silent
spoken words. vowel and consonant digraphs and consonant blends. letters, vowel/consonant digraphs, and many less
letter knowledge

common sound-letter combinations.

ACELA1440 ACELA1459
Sound
and

Recognise the letters of the alphabet and know there Understand the variability of sound-letter matches.
are lower and upper case letters.

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 44

 Year

Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6

Content
Descriptions
ACELA1487 ACELA1500
Understand that Standard Australian Understand that pronunciation, spelling
and change
Language
variation

English is one of many social dialects and meanings of words have histories
used in Australia, and that while it and change over time.
originated in England it has been
influenced by many other languages.

ACELA1480 ACELA1490 ACELA1506

Text structure

Know that word contractions are a Understand how texts are made cohesive Understand how the grammatical
organisation

feature of informal language and that through the use of linking devices category of possessives is signalled
and

apostrophes of contraction are used to including pronoun reference and text through apostrophes and how to use
signal missing letters. connectives. apostrophes with common and proper
nouns.

ACELA1482 ACELA1779 ACELA1512 ACELA1526

Understand that verbs represent different Understand how to use strategies for Understand the use of vocabulary to Understand how to use banks of known
Expressing and developing ideas

processes (doing, thinking, saying, and spelling words, including spelling rules, express greater precision of meaning, words, word origins, base words, suffixes
relating) and that these processes are knowledge of morphemic word families, and know that words have different and prefixes, morphemes, spelling
anchored in time through tense. spelling generalisations, and letter meanings in different contexts. patterns and generalisations to learn and
combinations including double letters. spell new words, for example technical
ACELA1513 words and words adopted from other
ACELA1780 Understand how to use banks of known languages.
Recognise homophones and know how to words, as well as word origins, prefixes
use context to identify correct spelling. and suffixes, to learn and spell new
words.

ACELA1514
Recognise uncommon plurals, for
example ‘foci’.

ACELA1485
Understand how sound-letter
Sound and letter

relationships and knowledge of spelling

knowledge

rules, compound words, prefixes, suffixes

and morphemes and less common letter
combinations, for example ‘tion’.

ACELA1486
Recognise high frequency sight words.

K. Milliken & H. Lewis Page 45