Tanker Structure Co-operative Forum

Guidance Note on Welding

SUMMARY
It is recognized that welding and weld quality are critical factors with respect to the structural
performance of a tanker. Ensuring good quality of welding is a means to improve the
reliability of tanker structures with a consequent reduction of costs for both shipyards and
owners. The aim of this paper is to provide a “layman’s” guide to welding for superintendents,
inspectors, staff naval architects, etc. who are not necessarily welding experts.

Disclaimer: The information in this Paper has been developed by the members of the Tanker Structure Cooperative
Forum based on their individual experiences and using the best information currently available. The Paper can be
downloaded, copied or redistributed (with attribution to the TSCF) at the user’s own discretion and risk. The Paper
is not a substitute for proper engineering analysis, or the text of any law, treaty, convention or technical or reference
material referred to in the Paper. No responsibility or liability is accepted by TSCF, its members, or any person, firm,
corporation or organization in any way involved with the furnishing, compilation, translation, publication, or supply
of any information or materials contained in the Paper, or for the accuracy of any information or advice given in the
Paper or any omission from the Paper or for any consequence whatsoever resulting directly or indirectly from
compliance with, or adoption of or reliance on guidance contained in the Paper, even if caused by failure to exercise
reasonable care.

Reference Revision N° Revision Date

TSCF IP 007/2016 Revision 0 2016/07/01
TSCF IP 007/2016 Guidance Note on Welding

CONTENT

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 5 
1.1  Purpose ........................................................................................................................ 5 
1.2  Scope ........................................................................................................................... 5 
1.3  Safety ........................................................................................................................... 5 
2 Welding Basics ....................................................................................................................... 6 
2.1  The Welding Process ................................................................................................... 6 
2.2  Joint Types ................................................................................................................... 6 
2.2.1  Butt Joint .............................................................................................................. 6 
2.2.2  T-joint ................................................................................................................... 6 
2.2.3  Corner Joint .......................................................................................................... 7 
2.2.4  Edge Joint ............................................................................................................. 8 
2.2.5  Cruciform Joint .................................................................................................... 8 
2.2.6  Lap Joint ............................................................................................................... 9 
2.3  Welding Positions ........................................................................................................ 9 
2.3.1  Flat ........................................................................................................................ 9 
2.3.2  Horizontal ............................................................................................................. 9 
2.3.3  Vertical ................................................................................................................. 9 
2.3.4  Overhead .............................................................................................................. 9 
2.4  Features of a Weld ..................................................................................................... 10 
2.4.1  Parent Material ................................................................................................... 10 
2.4.2  Filler Metal ......................................................................................................... 10 
2.4.3  Weld Metal ......................................................................................................... 10 
2.4.4  Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) ................................................................................ 10 
2.4.5  Fusion Line ......................................................................................................... 10 
2.4.6  Weld Zone .......................................................................................................... 10 
2.4.7  Weld Face ........................................................................................................... 10 
2.4.8  Root .................................................................................................................... 10 
2.4.9  Toe ...................................................................................................................... 11 
2.4.10  Wetting ............................................................................................................... 11 
2.4.11  Coalescence ........................................................................................................ 11 
2.5  Shielding Gases ......................................................................................................... 11 
2.5.1  Argon .................................................................................................................. 11 
2.5.2  Carbon Dioxide .................................................................................................. 11 
2.5.3  Helium ................................................................................................................ 11 
2.6  Welding Processes ..................................................................................................... 12 
2.6.1  Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) .............................................................. 12 
2.6.2  Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) ....................................................................... 12 
2.6.3  Metal Inert Gas/Metal Active Gas Welding (MIG/MAG) ................................. 12 
2.6.4  Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) ..................................................................... 13 
2.6.5  Electroslag Welding ........................................................................................... 13 
2.6.6  Tungsten Inert Welding (TIG) ........................................................................... 13 
2.6.7  Plasma Arc Welding........................................................................................... 14 
2.6.8  Electro Gas Welding .......................................................................................... 14 
3 Certification ......................................................................................................................... 15 
3.1  Weld Engineer Qualification ..................................................................................... 15 
3.2  Welder Qualification ................................................................................................. 15 
3.2.1  Welder Certification ........................................................................................... 15 
3.3  Weld Procedure Certification .................................................................................... 16 

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3.3.1  WPS – Welding Procedure Specification........................................................... 16 

3.3.2  WPQT/WPQR – Welding Procedure Qualification Test/Record ...................... 16 
3.4  Certification of Consumables/Type Approval ........................................................... 17 
3.5  Certification of Weld Inspectors................................................................................ 18 
3.5.1  Visual Welding Inspectors ................................................................................. 18 
3.5.2  Welding Inspectors ............................................................................................. 18 
3.5.3  Senior Welding Inspectors ................................................................................. 19 
3.6  Equipment Calibration ............................................................................................... 19 
3.7  QA/QC at Yard/Shop................................................................................................. 21 
4 Welding Execution .............................................................................................................. 22 
4.1  Pre-Weld Preparations ............................................................................................... 22 
4.1.1  Welding Table .................................................................................................... 22 
4.1.2  Welding Sequence .............................................................................................. 23 
4.1.3  Edge Preparation ................................................................................................ 25 
4.1.4  Beveling ............................................................................................................. 26 
4.1.5  Gap, Alignment and Fit-Up ................................................................................ 26 
4.1.6  Pre-Heating......................................................................................................... 30 
4.2  Welding of joints ....................................................................................................... 31 
4.2.1  Open Square Butt Joint ...................................................................................... 32 
4.2.2  Closed Square Butt Joint .................................................................................... 32 
4.2.3  Single-V Butt Joint ............................................................................................. 33 
4.2.4  Double-V Butt Joint ........................................................................................... 34 
4.2.5  Single- and Double-U and J Butt Joint............................................................... 34 
4.2.6  T-Joint ................................................................................................................ 35 
4.2.7  T-Joint with Single Bevel ................................................................................... 35 
4.2.8  T-Joint with Double Bevel ................................................................................. 36 
4.2.9  Cruciform Joints ................................................................................................. 36 
4.2.10  Intermittent Welding .......................................................................................... 37 
4.3  Post Weld Treatment ................................................................................................. 37 
4.3.1  Post Weld Heating .............................................................................................. 37 
4.3.2  Grinding of Welds .............................................................................................. 37 
5 Welding Defects ................................................................................................................... 39 
5.1  Defect Types and Causes ........................................................................................... 39 
5.1.1  Crack .................................................................................................................. 39 
5.1.2  Lack of Side Wall Fusion ................................................................................... 39 
5.1.3  Incomplete Penetration ....................................................................................... 39 
5.1.4  Incomplete Fusion .............................................................................................. 40 
5.1.5  Spatter................................................................................................................. 40 
5.1.6  Slag Inclusions ................................................................................................... 40 
5.1.7  Gas Pores and Surface Porosity ......................................................................... 41 
5.1.8  Undercut ............................................................................................................. 42 
5.1.9  Worm Holes ....................................................................................................... 42 
5.1.10  Crater Pipe .......................................................................................................... 43 
5.1.11  Excess Weld Metal ............................................................................................. 43 
5.1.12  Excess Penetration.............................................................................................. 43 
5.1.13  Overlap ............................................................................................................... 43 
5.1.14  Irregular Width ................................................................................................... 44 
5.1.15  Root Cavity ........................................................................................................ 44 
5.1.16  Burn Through ..................................................................................................... 44 
5.1.17  Stray Arc ............................................................................................................ 44 

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5.1.18  Poor/un-even Weld Surface, Excess Weld Metal .............................................. 44 

5.1.19  Hydrogen Cracking ............................................................................................ 45 
5.1.20  Lamellar Tearing ................................................................................................ 45 
5.2  Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) ................................................................................ 46 
5.2.1  Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) ................................................................... 46 
5.2.2  Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI) ......................................................................... 47 
5.2.3  Ultrasonic Testing (UT) ..................................................................................... 48 
5.2.4  Radiographic Testing (RT)................................................................................. 49 
5.2.5  Eddy Current Inspection (ECI) .......................................................................... 50 
5.2.6  Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT) ......................................................... 51 
5.2.7  Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) ............................................. 51 
6 Special Welding ................................................................................................................ 53 
6.1  Introduction ............................................................................................................... 53 
6.2  Cast Steel ................................................................................................................... 53 
6.2.1  Introduction ........................................................................................................ 53 
6.2.2  Preheating and Post-Weld Heat Treatment ........................................................ 53 
6.2.3  Class Requirements ............................................................................................ 55 
6.3  Stainless Steel ............................................................................................................ 55 
6.3.1  Cleanliness of Materials Before and After Welding. ......................................... 55 
6.3.2  Welding Types and Consumables ...................................................................... 56 
6.4  Propellers (Bronze) .................................................................................................... 56 
6.4.1  Class Requirements ............................................................................................ 56 
6.5  Slot Welding .............................................................................................................. 57 
6.6  Repair of Pits by Welding ......................................................................................... 58 
6.7  Welding Against Water ............................................................................................. 59 
6.8  Underwater Welding.................................................................................................. 59 
6.9  Explosion Welding .................................................................................................... 60 
6.10  Friction Stir Welding ............................................................................................. 61 
6.11  Laser and Laser-Hybrid Welding........................................................................... 62 
6.12  Resistance Spot (stud) and Seam Welding ............................................................ 64 
Appendix 1 Welding Experience ............................................................................................. 66 
Appendix 2 Sample WPS, WPQR, WQTR ............................................................................. 98 
Appendix 3 References .......................................................................................................... 102 

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1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose
Welding and weld quality are recognized as being critical for the structural integrity and
reliability of tanker structures. Many of the damages observed on tankers are cracks related to
weld execution. Many of these damages can be traced back to poor weld execution, poor fit-
up or other factors which could have been addressed when the welding was carried out. In
addition it is well known that weld quality can have a dramatic effect on the fatigue life in
service.

By providing practical information with respect to welding it is hoped that the number of
damages, and consequent cost for both yards and owners, can be reduced.

The aim of this guidance note is to provide a practical “layman’s” guide to welding. It is
primarily intended for superintendents, inspectors, naval architects and others working in the
field with responsibility or interest in welding quality. The information presented is applicable
to both new building at the yard as well as in-service repairs.

1.2 Scope
Section 2 of the Note presents a basic introduction to welding, including a description of the
most commonly used welding procedures.

The remaining sections present the information which is typically of interest for personnel on
site, for example welder qualification, fit-up, typical defects, etc.

The guidance note is not intended to be a textbook on welding. If more detailed information is
required then some of the documents referenced here may be of interest.

1.3 Safety
Safety is outside the scope of this note but is an issue which must be addressed anytime
welding is carried out. Welding can be a dangerous activity and proper procedures should
always be adhered to. This includes such factors as gas freeing to avoid explosion danger, safe
access, proper training, etc.

The welding process can be dangerous and damaging to the human body if the correct
precautions are not taken. Since many common welding procedures involve an open electric
arc or flame, the risk of burns and fire is significant. It is known as a ‘hot work’ process. To
prevent injury, welders should wear the correct Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), usually
consisting of but not limited to: heavy gloves, boiler suit, safety glasses and welding helmet
with UV shield. Should the reader intend to undertake welding activities, relevant HSE
material must be used in association with the correct training and risk assessment prior to
commencement of the job. Reference is also made to “The International Safety Guide for Oil
Tankers and Terminals” (ISGOTT).

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2 Welding Basics
2.1 The Welding Process
Welding is a fabrication process for joining metals. The process takes place at a high enough
temperature to cause the base material (the pieces to be joined) to melt and then fuse. In many
welding processes additional material is added to the joint. The additional material forms a
pool of molten metal which then cools and fuses with the base metal. The resulting joint can
be as strong as or stronger than the base material.

This is in contrast to other processes such as brazing or soldering. In these processes the
temperature is not high enough to melt the base material and no fusion takes place. These are
essentially mechanical joints.

2.2 Joint Types

A joint is the name for the connection where the individual plate ends/edges, which are
suitably prepared and assembled, come together and are joined by welding.

2.2.1 Butt Joint

A Butt Joint is where the connection between the ends/edges of the plate is between 135o and
180o.

Figure 2.2-1 Typical butt joint

2.2.2 T-joint
A T-joint is where the connection between the ends/edges of the plate makes an angle to one
another of more than 5o up to and including 90o in the region of the joint. T-joints can be done
as fillet, partial or full-penetration welds. Selection of the type of weld will depend on the
geometry and stress level in the joint.

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Figure 2.2-2 Typical T-joint – fillet weld

Figure 2.2-3 Typical T-joints – full penetration

2.2.3 Corner Joint

A Corner Joint is where the connection between the ends/edges of the plate makes an angle to
one another of more than 30o but less than 135o in the joint region.

Figure 2.2-4 Typical corner joint, with backing

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Figure 2.2-5 Corner joint geometries

2.2.4 Edge Joint

An Edge Joint is where the ends/edges of the two plates making an angle to one another of 0o
to 30o inclusive, in the region of the joint. This joint is used for welding the membrane in
some types of LNG containment systems.

Figure 2.2-6 Edge joint geometries

2.2.5 Cruciform Joint

A Cruciform Joint is where two flat plates or stiffeners are welded to another flat plate at right
angles and on the same axis.

Figure 2.2-7 Cruciform joint

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2.2.6 Lap Joint

A Lap Joint is when the connection between two overlapping plates makes an angle to one
another of 0o to 5o inclusive in the region of the weld or welds.

Figure 2.2-8 Overlap joints

2.3 Welding Positions

The weld position is the orientation of a weld which is expressed in terms of:
(i) Working Position;
(ii) Weld Slope;
(iii) Weld Rotation.

2.3.1 Flat
A welding position where the welding is horizontal with the centerline of the weld vertical.

2.3.2 Horizontal
A welding position where the welding is horizontal with the centerline of the weld horizontal.

2.3.3 Vertical
Vertical up is where the welding is executed vertically upwards. Vertically down is where the
welding is executed vertically downwards.

2.3.4 Overhead
A welding position where the welding is horizontal and overhead, with the centerline of the
weld vertical.

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Figure 2.3-1 - Groove welds positions

2.4 Features of a Weld

This section covers the terminology of the different parts of a weld.

2.4.1 Parent Material

The metal to be joined through the welding process.

2.4.2 Filler Metal

The metal added during the welding process.

2.4.3 Weld Metal

All the metal melted during the welding process to make up the weld which is retained in the
weld.

2.4.4 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

The area of the parent material that is metallurgically affected by the heat of the welding
process but which is not melted.

2.4.5 Fusion Line

The boundary between the weld metal and the HAZ.

2.4.6 Weld Zone

The area containing the weld metal and the HAZ.

2.4.7 Weld Face

The surface of a fusion weld exposed on the side from which the weld has been made.

2.4.8 Root
The zone on the side of the first run which is furthest from the welder.

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2.4.9 Toe
The boundary between the weld face and the parent metal. This is an important feature of a
weld given that they are points of high stress concentration and are often initiation points for
cracking. In order to reduce this stress concentration, the toe area must blend smoothly into
the parent material surface.

2.4.10 Wetting
The bonding of a liquid filler metal or flux on a continuous solid base metal.

2.4.11 Coalescence
Where two or more work pieces are bonded together by liquefying the places they are to be
bonded, joining these liquids (coalescing), and allowing the coalesced liquids to solidify. At
the end of the process the two work pieces have become a continuous solid metal that will be
as strong as the original material if the weld has been carried out properly.

2.5 Shielding Gases

Shielding gases used with gas metal arc welding processes and tungsten inert gas welding
(TIG) protect the molten weld pool from atmospheric contamination.

2.5.1 Argon
Argon is an inert gas which can be used either on its own or in combination with other gases
to achieve an arc for the welding of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, i.e. aluminum. Almost all
welding processes can use argon or argon mixtures to create efficient weldability. When using
ferrous metals, argon is usually mixed with other gases such as oxygen, helium, hydrogen,
carbon dioxide and nitrogen. With non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, nickel based alloys
etc., argon is used alone. The low ionization of argon creates an excellent current path and
good arc stability. Argon produces a constricted arc column at a high current density which
causes the arc energy to be concentrated in a small area.

2.5.2 Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide is used frequently in welding carbon steel, due to its ability to influence the
quality of the weld as well as its low cost and simple installation. Pure carbon dioxide is not
an inert gas because the heat of the arc breaks down the CO2 into carbon monoxide and free
oxygen. The oxygen will combine with elements transferring across the arc, to form oxides
which are released from the weld puddle in the form of slag.

2.5.3 Helium
Helium is an inert gas which is used on weld applications requiring higher heat input for
deeper penetration welds and higher travel speeds. However, in the Gas Metal Arc Welding
(GMAW) process, helium produces a less stable arc compared with argon and therefore is
often mixed with argon to take advantage of the good characteristics from each gas. The
argon improves arc stability and cleaning action when welding aluminum and magnesium,
while the helium improves wetting and weld metal coalescence.

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2.6 Welding Processes

2.6.1 Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW)
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) is also known as Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW) and is a process that uses a consumable electrode covered in a flux coating. An arc
is initiated and maintained between the end of the consumable electrode and the work piece.
Intense heat from the arc causes the surface of the work piece to melt and form a weld pool.
In parallel the tip of the electrode melts and small particles of the filler metal travel across the
arc into the molten weld pool to form a weld. The arc is initiated when the welder
momentarily touches the electrode tip onto the work piece, which causes a current to flow. At
this point, the welder retracts the electrode to give a gap of around 3mm between the electrode
tip and the work piece, however the current continues to flow across the gap. At the start of
the arc process, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates forming both a slag and gas
shield which protects the weld from atmospheric contamination. Due to the versatility and
simplicity of this process, MMAW is one of the most popular welding processes. Its
dominance can be seen in the maintenance & repair industry. However, flux-cored arc
welding is growing in popularity. MMAW is essentially used in the construction of steel
structures and industrial fabrication and the process is used primarily to weld iron and steels.

2.6.2 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is a very common arc welding process which uses a
continuous solid or cored wire electrode fed by motor driven rollers. The arc is struck
between the continuous wire and the parent metal where the arc, electrode end and molten
pool are submerged in a fused powdered flux. The flux turns into a slag layer when subjected
to the heat of the arc, ensuring the weld is protected from contamination. The flux is fed from
a hopper which is fixed to the welding head with a tube spreading the flux in a continuous
elongated mount in front of the arc, along the line of intended weld. Given this arrangement,
there is no spatter, the weld is shielded from the atmosphere and there are no ultra-violet or
infra-red radiation effects seen. The un-melted flux can be reclaimed and used again in the
process. The use of the powdered flux does however restrict the process to the flat welding
position. The process is noted for its ability to use high weld currents due to the properties and
function of the flux. Such high currents can give deep penetration and high dilution where
twice as much parent metal as wire electrode is melted.

2.6.3 Metal Inert Gas/Metal Active Gas Welding (MIG/MAG)

Known in the USA as gas metal arc welding (GMAW), MIG/MAG welding process is a
versatile technique which is suitable for welding most metallic materials of different
thicknesses. In a MIG process, often used for welding non-ferrous metals, inert gasses such
as argon and helium are used. In a MAG process the shielding gas is often a mixture of argon,
oxygen and carbon dioxide. During the process, an arc is stuck between the wire electrode and
the work material, melting both to form a weld pool. The arc at the end of the wire provides
the source of heat and filler metal for the joint. A copper contact tube, through which the wire
is fed, conducts welding current to the wire. A shielding gas fed through the nozzle
surrounding the wire protects the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere. The selection
of shielding gas is dependent on the materials being welded and the welding application. The
wire required is fed from a motor driven reel, and the welder or machine moves the welding
gun along the joint line. The process provides high productivity and is economical because
the consumable wire is fed continuously.

This process can be carried out in three ways:

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(i) Semi-Automatic Welding: This means that the equipment only controls the electrode wire
feed with the movement of the welding gun being controlled by hand.
(ii) Machine Welding: This operation uses a welding gun that is connected to a manipulator of
some kind and an operator has to constantly set and adjust controls that move the
manipulator.
(iii) Automatic Welding: When the welding equipment doesn’t need constant adjusting of
controls by a welder or operator. On some equipment, automatic sensing devices control
the correct gun alignment in a weld joint.

Today MIG/ MAG processes are two of the most common industrial welding processes due to
its versatility, speed and relative ease for adapting to automation.

2.6.4 Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is a semi-automatic arc welding process. It is a wire welding
process in which a continuous hollow wire electrode is fed through the welding gun into the
weld joint. An externally supplied shielding gas is sometimes used, but often the flux itself is
relied upon to generate the necessary protection from the atmosphere, producing both gaseous
protection and liquid slag protection to the weld. Use of external shielding gas is more
common due to fumes created when using only the flux core as shielding. FCAW is a process
similar to GMAW where both processes use continuous wire feeds and similar equipment.
GMAW is also considered as a semi-automatic process and has a very high production rate.
FCAW however is the most productive of the manual welding processes. When comparing
GMAW to FCAW, there is a large difference in the production capacity, i.e. length of weld
per hour. For this reason, FCAW is more frequently used in the ship building industry. FCAW
produces high quality welds very quickly, even in poor outdoor environmental conditions.

2.6.5 Electroslag Welding

Electroslag welding is a highly productive welding process designed for welding thick
materials in a vertical position. It is considered the most productive of any welding process in
joining very thick plates due to its high deposition rate. The process can weld materials with
thicknesses between 25mm and 300mm. Electroslag Welding is used in only a minor portion
of all welding done and is mainly used in industries such as shipbuilding, machine building,
bridge construction etc. It is technically not an arc welding process, however it does utilise a
current carrying electrode. An electric arc is initially struck by wire that is fed into the desired
weld location where flux is then added. Additional flux is added until the molten slag reaches
the tip of the electrode and extinguishes the arc. The wire is then continually fed through a
consumable guide tube into the surface of the metal work piece and the filler metal is melted
using the electrical resistance of the molten slag. The thicker the material is, the larger the
current needs to be. Given that the arc is extinguished early in the process as detailed above, it
confirms that electroslag welding is not an arc welding process.

2.6.6 Tungsten Inert Welding (TIG)

TIG welding is a process where the melting is produced by the heat of an arc which is struck
between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work piece. With this type of welding,
there is a need for an inert gas shielding of the electrode and the weld zone to prevent
oxidation of the tungsten electrode and atmospheric contamination of the weld/filler metal.
Tungsten is used given its high melting point which is above any other common metal and is

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therefore not consumed during the welding process. A filler metal is usually used, although
some welds, known as autogenous welds, do not require a filler metal. The filler metal is
typically in the form of a solid metal rod, with compatible properties with the base material,
and is manually added to the weld pool. This process produces high quality welds and in
general is spatter free. There is no slag formed as part of the process which makes the TIG
process well suited to welds requiring high degrees of cleanliness. Given the requirement for
the shieling gas, it can be difficult to shield the weld zone properly in windy conditions
therefore it is not often used on exposed work sites.

2.6.7 Plasma Arc Welding

The plasma welding process was introduced to the welding industry as a method of sustaining
control in the lower ranges of current. This process provides an advanced level of control and
accuracy to produce high quality welds in miniature or precision applications. It also helps to
prolong electrode life for high production requirements. Plasma is a gas which is heated to an
extremely high temperature and ionised so that it becomes electrically conductive. This
plasma arc welding process uses the plasma to transfer an electric arc to a work piece. The
metal to be welded is melted by the intense heat of the arc and fuses together the parent
material.

2.6.8 Electro Gas Welding

The electro gas welding process was developed in 1961 for continuous vertical position arc
welding. The arc is struck between a consumable electrode and the work piece. A shielding
gas is usually used, but the pressure is not applied. This process makes square-groove welds
for butt joint. The major difference between EGW and ESW (electroslag welding) is that the
arc in EGW is not extinguished, and instead remains struck throughout the welding process.

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3 Certification
3.1 Weld Engineer Qualification
A welding engineer is responsible for all design aspects related to welding. This includes
specifying what type of welding is to be applied, preparing the welding procedure
specifications, dimensioning the weld, etc. This is specialized work and it is important that the
weld engineer is properly qualified.

A degree in welding engineering from a recognized university would generally qualify the
individual. Other organizations, such as the International Institute of Welding (IIW), The
Welding Institute (TWI) and the American Welding Society (AWS), offer certification
programs for welding engineers.

3.2 Welder Qualification

One of the major factors affecting the quality of a weld joint is the skill of the welder. Making
sure welders are properly qualified for the work they are performing is very important. Not
only should the welder be qualified, but his or her work should be monitored. If welder skill is
lacking, welders may need to be retrained and/or requalified.

With an approved Welding Procedure Specification (WPS), welders are required to demonstrate
that they can produce the joints it describes. This testing procedure is called the Welder
Performance Qualification (WPQ). The requirements of the WPQ test (such as position,
mechanical tests, non-destructive examination etc.) depend on the work that the welder is to be
qualified for and the standards to which the welder is being qualified. A WPQ may be certified by
the employer or a third party in accordance with a manufacturer’s standard or standards provided
by organizations such as Classification Societies, AWS, ASME, API, CSA, and ISO. Having a
third party representative certify test results in accordance with recognized standards allows others
outside the welder’s company to have confidence in WPQ results. For ships, the certification is
typically performed by the classification society that classes the vessel(s) for which the work is
being carried out.

When a WPQ is certified, a Welder Qualification Test Record (WQTR) is issued to the welder.
WQTR’s are usually valid for 2 years before the welder must be requalified. A qualified welder is
someone who has passed a WPQ test for a specific WPS and has obtained a WQTR. The
qualification is valid only for that WPS.

3.2.1 Welder Certification

A certified welder is a welder that has been through a certification program that is accredited
by a technical society (such as AWS). The certification process typically involves exams and
certain WPQ’s, depending on the type of work for which the welder is being certified. AWS
welder certifications are valid indefinitely provided the welder uses the welding process at
least every six months, otherwise the welder must be requalified. A welder that is certified by
a society is not to be confused with a welder qualified to a specific WPS by passing a WPQ
test. In order to be qualified to a specific WPS, a certified welder is generally subject to the

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same requirements and testing as any welder, and must pass a WPQ test and obtain a WQTR.
When referring to welders, sometimes the terms “certified” and “qualified” are used
interchangeably, so it is important to understand and clarify, as necessary, what a person
means when they say a welder is certified or qualified.

3.3 Weld Procedure Certification

Before a weld procedure is used in practice it needs to be properly certified by an appropriate
body, for instance a classification society. This involves acceptance of the Welding Procedure
Specification (WPS) which specifies all the details of the procedure. In addition, sample
welds are to be tested through a Welding Procedure Qualification Test (WPQT) to
demonstrate that the welding procedure produces the required mechanical properties in the
finished weld. The results of the testing are noted in a Welding Procedure Qualification
Record (WPQR). A WPQR can also be called a Welding Procedure Approval Record
(WPAR).

3.3.1 WPS – Welding Procedure Specification

Before the skill of a welder to make a joint can be evaluated, the welding procedure must be
defined. The welding engineer develops a Welding Procedure Specification (WPS). This
document provides detailed information on welding conditions (variables) for a specific
application to assure repeatability by properly trained welders.

The welding variables in the WPS include:

1. Identification of builder/subcontractor
2. Welding process
3. Base material (grade, delivery condition, etc.)
4. Range of base material thickness/pipe diameter
5. Filler metal/welding electrodes
6. Weld type/geometry (groove/fillet, gap, bevel) including tolerances
7. Welding position(s)
8. Shielding gas type, purity, and flow rate
9. Minimum and maximum preheat and interpass temperature
10. Post weld heat treatment
11. Electrical characteristics (polarity, current, voltage, travel speed, wire feed speed, mode of
metal transfer, electrode size)
12. Welding progression (upward or downward)
13. Backing (metal, ceramic)

The scope of a WPS may be limited to a specific company, site, project, or certifier, and
requalification of a WPS may be required as companies, sites, projects, and certifiers change.

3.3.2 WPQT/WPQR – Welding Procedure Qualification Test/Record

The WPS must be qualified (proven) to show that joints made using the WPS meet the
prescribed requirements. This is done by performing a test weld according to the actual
welding conditions as given in the WPS. The sample weld is subjected to tests. The results of
the tests of the weldment are recorded in a Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR).
The testing requirements depend on the standard to which the WPS is being performed and

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typically include bend tests, tensile tests, and toughness tests. Testing may also include
micrographic and non-destructive examination and hardness tests. Passing these tests forms
the basis for issuing an approved WPS.

Figure 3.3-1 and Figure 3.3-2 below show a representative test weld and give an indication of
the types of mechanical tests which may be required and where the test pieces are taken. Note
that the ends of the sample weld are not used for testing since defects are often found at the
start and stop points of the weld.

Figure 3.3-1 - Typical test weld Figure 3.3-2 - Test samples for welding
qualification

3.4 Certification of Consumables/Type Approval

Welding consumables are to be obtained from a manufacturer that has been approved by the
pertinent regulatory body and/or classification society. Upon successful completion of testing
in the approval process, the inspector representing the regulatory body and/or classification
society shall issue a Welding Consumable Certificate (WCM CERT). The WCM is called a
Type Approval Certificate of Welding Consumables (TAW). Lists of approved products can
be found on the internet sites of the classification societies. The information contained on the
WCM CERT must accurately represent the properties of the consumable such as trade name,
position, grade, current/polarity, sizes, shielding gas and special information, as appropriate.

Welding consumables and electrodes of all forms must be stored and handled correctly in
order to avoid moisture and surface contaminants from accumulating on them. Otherwise, the
welds produced by the consumables could be more prone to forming defects such as cracks,
pores, and voids. Most consumable manufacturers have guidelines for storing and drying their
electrodes and fluxes. In general, moisture and rusting is avoided by using sealed packaging and

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heated cabinets. Shielded electrodes used for SMAW are particularly prone to absorbing moisture
and usually must be dried at elevated temperatures before use. An electric oven is often used for
storage of electrodes. Other contaminants such as oil, grease, and paint must be avoided at all
times when handling, storing, and welding with consumables.

Figure 3.4-1 Typical electrode storage devices

(Copyright Unitor, ref. 1)

3.5 Certification of Weld Inspectors

There are multiple national and international organizations that have programs for certifying a
welding inspector. These organizations include, but are not limited to, the American Welding
Society (AWS), the European Federation for Welding (EWF), The Welding Institute (TWI)
and the Asian Welding Federation (AWF). Typically, each of these organizations has a tier
system for certification. Each successive tier certifies the inspector for more responsibilities and
usually requires more education, work experience, and exams than the previous one. Entry level
inspectors usually operate under direct supervision of a more highly certified weld inspector.

An example of this tier system is the CSWIP system (Certification Scheme for Personnel),
developed by The Welding Institute. The Welding Institute is accredited to administer the
examinations required to achieve certification for the various CSWIP levels. These levels are:

i) CSWIP 3.0 Visual Welding Inspectors

ii) CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors
iii) CSWIP 3.2 Senior Welding Inspectors

Below are brief explanations of the competence of the three levels:

3.5.1 Visual Welding Inspectors

Visual Welding Inspectors will typically visually inspect a weld for defects and confirm that
the various requirements of the weld procedure have been adhered to (e.g. fit up, weld
consumable, pre-heat, etc.).

3.5.2 Welding Inspectors

Welding Inspectors will conduct the activities identified above for the Visual Welding
Inspector and in addition:
i) Supervise Visual Welding Inspectors
ii) Conduct welder and weld procedure approval tests

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3.5.3 Senior Welding Inspectors

Senior Welding Inspectors will conduct the activities identified above for the Welding
Inspector and in addition:
i) Supervise Welding Inspectors and Visual Welding Inspectors
ii) Interpret NDT results
iii) Have an appreciation of what factors create what defects in a weld.

3.6 Equipment Calibration

Almost all equipment used in the welding process and associated inspection/tests shall be
calibrated, some before each use as required by Class, agreed procedures or applicable
standards.

It is the Yards or shops responsibility to carry this out but it needs to be followed up by Class
and Owner/Purchaser by witnessing tests and spot checks during the fabrication.

Welding machines.
The welding parameters are essential, they should comply with the parameters in the WPS.
Since the machines can suffer from wear and tear over time it is important that they are
controlled regularly and by random spot check. This should be part of the fabricators QA/QC,
Class and Owners/Purchasers scope of work.

The machines should be controlled by measurement by ampere meter and volt meter, to verify
that the correct current and voltage are indicated/shown on the machine. The gas flow should
also be measured. For larger yards this is normally done by a separate service department
integral to the yard. For smaller companies and workshops this is to be done by an authorised
service company.

For automatic welding machines, the actual welding speed should be verified by measurement
and compared to the indicated speed on the machine. This could be done during monitoring of
the fabrication, to ensure that the welding process is in accordance with the WPS.

Temperature and humidity

Temperature and humidity are important parameters of the WPS. Calibrated thermometers or
thermocouples are to be available for continuous measuring of ambient and plate temperature,
for pre/post heating, and inter-pass temperature. Equipment for measuring humidity is also to
be available.

Dimension control
Special equipment such as lasers, theodolite, etc. used for more advanced dimension control
should have a certificate issued by an accredited company showing that the equipment is
working and properly calibrated, no more than 6 months old.

Tightness control
If pressure testing is applied by compressed air, the manometers are to be calibrated and
certified.

Test equipment used for verifying material quality

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The equipment used in the test facilities, for hardness test, impact and tensile strength etc.
should be certified by an independent body, i.e. Class or similar. Certificates are to be
available. Normally such facilities have some certification of the type of tests that they are
entitled to carry out and the equipment used.

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) equipment

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) Equipment
UT machines shall be certified by an accredited company, at least every 12 months. The serial
number on the certificate shall match the identification number on the machine. It is
recommended that calibration is carried out every second month. The calibration of the UT
machines and probes are to be described in a procedure submitted to Class and Owner for
approval. The UT machines and the UT inspections are complicated and special competence
is required.

It is important that adjustments and calibration of the amplification of the machine for
different tasks, probes or material are verified by control measurement using a calibration
block before use. The calibration block shall have the same acoustic properties as the test
object. The probes shall be calibrated after 4 hours use.

The sensitivity calibration shall be verified as a minimum at the end of each shift and for any
change in operator, ultrasonic instrument, transducer, coaxial cable, battery, or if the
operator has any doubt about the accuracy of the calibration. However, it is good
practice to verify the instrument calibration on a more frequent basis

A machine calibrated for normal steel cannot be used for casting or stainless steel or vice
versa. The details of the calibrations are further described and regulated in Rules and
standards, e.g. EN 1711 or ASME V.

Figure 3.6-1 - Figure of calibration blocks, from DNV CN07

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Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) Equipment

It is important to ensure that the magnetization is sufficient and requirements are stated in the
rules (e.g. DNV Classification note 7, DNV CN07 ). This should be stated in the agreed
procedure depending on the type, either AC or DC. For DC, each yoke shall have a lifting
force of at least 175 N (40 lb.) at the maximum pole space that will be used. For AC the
requirement is at least 45 N (10 lb.). This can be verified randomly with a steel plate of
known weight. The detecting media shall also be checked with respect to the concentration of
particles in the media and be traceable to a batch certificate or data sheet in compliance with a
recognized standard.

Radiographic Testing (RT) Equipment

This type of testing is heavily regulated and controlled, and difficult for a non-expert to check.
Calibration and checks of the equipment are done by qualified companies.

However, on site tests or qualifications can be carried out in order to verify that the complete
set-up of film, radiation source and distances is suitable for the material such that it gives a
good quality of the image/optical density. This is checked using an Image Quality Indicator
(IQI) and is described in the standards or Class guidelines, for example DNV CN07, Sec 5.5.1.
Basically a set of thin wires is placed in the exposure area and they shall be clearly visible on
the developed film. The parameters used, i.e. exposure time, distance type of film etc., are to
be noted and be the same as for the actual RT used.

3.7 QA/QC at Yard/Shop

Per AWS D1.1/4.2.3.1 and ASME Section IX/QW-322.1(a).

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4 Welding Execution
4.1 Pre-Weld Preparations
Correct pre-weld preparation, as described in sections 4.1.1 to 4.1.6, is essential to ensure
good quality welding.

At the design stage a Welding Table shall be prepared and typical welding sequences shall be
determined as described below (see Sections 4.1.1 - 4.1.2).

On-site pre-weld preparations include edge preparation by cleaning, beveling and fit-up of
members for welding with respect to alignment and gap (see Sections 4.1.3 - 4.1.6).

Pre-weld preparations shall also include check of base and filler materials against their
respective specifications.

Welding should not be allowed to start before all pre-weld preparations have been completed
satisfactorily.

Another important weld preparation, not mentioned in detail in this Guidance Note, is that for
manual welding there has to be sufficient room for the welder to get in position and perform
the welding at a steady state without obstructions. In general the structural designer has to
consider proper space for welding at the design stage. Improper or inadequate space will lead
to lower quality welding. For spaces not allowing proper access, one sided welding,
alternative welding sequences or temporary access holes can, amongst others, be considered.
An example of a location where one-sided welding is necessary is closure of rudder plating
where access inside the rudder does not allow sufficient room for proper welding. For this
case a permanent backing bar is often used.

4.1.1 Welding Table

For larger re-buildings and newbuilding of vessels the designer or the Yard shall submit a
Welding Table to the Classification Society for approval. Normally the Welding Table or a
yard standard shall include:

- General definitions of gap and weld sizes

- Welding factors depending on position of weld in vessel
- Table with sizes of fillet welds depending on weld factor and plate thicknesses
- Staggered welding and where this is allowed
- Definitions of partial and full penetration welding
- Working examples

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Figure 4.1-1 – Definition of Throat Thickness and Leg Length

4.1.2 Welding Sequence

The welding sequence is a means to reduce residual stresses and reduce shrinkage and
distortion of elements (see Section 4.1.2.1), which are essential for good quality welding. This
is particularly important to consider when the edges of the plates are constrained, i.e. during
assembly of blocks.

All yards and repair companies shall present a welding sequence which shall be reviewed by
the client. A welding sequence is a complicated matter which relies very much on experience
and tests. Unless specialized in welding it is hard to evaluate a welding sequence.

Below are a few examples of typical weld sequences for some general weld joints seen in
shipbuilding.

For smaller repair jobs, such as inserting plates, IACS Rec. No. 47 includes several welding
sequences to follow.

Example 1: Butt cross joint sequence

Figure 4.1-2 shows a typical example of a shipyard’s proposed sequence for welding butt
cross joints on a newbuilding project.

Figure 4.1-2 - Sketch of butt-cross joints sequence

Example 2: Fillet cross joint sequence

Figure 4.1-3 below shows a shipyard’s proposed sequence for fillet welding at cross joints
consisting of a primary and a secondary member for a newbuilding project. As it is seen in
Figure 4.1-3 the primary member has to be welded first and then secondary member. During
inspection the welded cross joint shown in Figure 4.1-4 was observed and rejected as the
secondary member had been welded first.

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Figure 4.1-3- Sketch of Fillet Cross Joint Sequence

Figure 4.1-4 – Rejected Fillet Cross Joint

4.1.2.1 Shrinkage and Distortion

When a steel material is heated during welding it expands and when welding is completed and
the steel material cools off it contracts again. This expansion and contraction can lead to
distortion and residual stresses if the welding sequence is not properly planned.

The heating and cooling cycle may not just distort the members. In severe cases the material
properties of the members can be affected. When a steel material is heated and cooled rapidly
the material can turn brittle.

One of the most renowned examples of brittle cracking of vessels in way of welding are the
Liberty Class auxiliary vessels which were built in the US during the 2nd World War. Many of
these ships were lost due to cracks in the hull girder originating from brittle cracking as
welding at that time was a new assembly procedure and not all factors were accounted for.

A second example which relates to distortion due to a poorly planned welding sequence
resulted in a permanent and visible distortion of the complete hull girder. A poorly planned
block joint erection of a thin-skinned vessel, where excessive welding of the block joints was
performed, forced the entire vessel to be in a permanent hogging condition. The keel area in

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the midships region on the slipway was lifted more than 100 mm on a vessel with a length of
approximately 150 meters in spite of the weight of the vessel.

A third example of how severe distortion and residual stresses can be relates to the sandwich
deck construction described in Section 4.2.3 and shown in Figure 4.2-6. For this specific case
the sandwich deck (deck doubling plates) extended over more than half the vessel length on a
vessel with the main engines located forward. With this forced deflection at deck level,
combined with very long propeller shafts, the actual deflection of the propeller shafts had to
be considered. A detailed welding sequence was prepared by an accredited institute to
minimize stresses. The calculated stresses were imported to a beam model with the same cross
sectional properties as the vessel, and the actual deflection could be estimated. The deflection
of the propeller shafts was acceptable given that a certain welding sequence was followed.

4.1.2.2 Residual Stresses

The shrinkage and distortion as described in Section 4.1.2.1 can lead to residual stresses when
the structure is fixed and not allowed to move freely. Dimensioning of a vessel’s plate
thicknesses, stiffener properties and size of welding are determined for a certain set of loading
conditions that the vessel is expected to experience throughout its lifetime. A plate thickness
of a strength deck plate can be given on basis of a buckling load when the vessel is in a
sagging condition. This buckling load does not take into account any residual stresses due to
welding. Should such residual stresses be present they have to be added to the buckling stress.
This addition can, in the most severe cases, mean rupture of plating and possible loss of the
vessel.

A good example of when to be aware of residual stresses is when a vessel is to be repaired

afloat in the midship region close to the strength deck or the bottom. Given the loading
condition of the vessel the structure can be exposed to a hull girder bending stresses which
will be superimposed to the introduced welding residual stresses. This can lead to a higher
stress level in the welding than it is approved for. When doing welding afloat always do this
in a sheltered area with no waves and use the vessels loading computer to determine a loading
condition of the vessel where the hull girder stress level in the area of welding is close to zero.

4.1.3 Edge Preparation

Proper edge preparation can be visually checked. Edges of members to be welded are to be
clean, straight and within acceptable surface roughness limits.

With respect to cleanliness of edges these shall be visually inspected for foreign matter such
as paint, oil, water, grease, rust or scale. Poor cleaning of edges may lead to poor side wall
fusion of welding filler and porosity of welding due to inclusion of foreign matter in the weld.

With respect to surface roughness and straightness of edges these shall be visually inspected.
Surfaces intended for welding shall in general be planar, free of local discontinuities and with
a surface roughness within acceptable limits. IACS Rec. No. 47 gives guide lines on both
surface roughness and straightness.

Surface roughness and straightness outside specification may lead to poor side wall fusion
with the welding filler material.

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Figure 4.1-5 and Figure 4.1-6 below show examples of a poor edge preparation where the
member edges for a closed butt weld joint and a single-V butt joint have not been grinded
smooth prior to fit-up.

Figure 4.1-5 Figure 4.1-6

Poor Closed Square Butt Preparation Poor Single-V Butt Preparation

4.1.4 Beveling
Preparation of members for welding by beveling depends on the joint type, loads to be carried
by the weld, welding position and accessibility, welding location on the vessel and thickness,
type and shape of the members to be joined. As an example of beveling requirement
depending on the location on the vessel, the “IACS Common Structural Rules for Bulk
Carriers and Oil Tankers” requires full penetration welding between the lower end of
vertically corrugated bulkheads and the lower stool top plate.

Beveling is normally done by machining, gouging or flame cutting.

Re-beveling can be necessary if poor fit-up of plates with misalignment requires cutting of the
plate edges.

4.1.5 Gap, Alignment and Fit-Up

Acceptable tolerances for alignment should be specified in a yard or workshop standard. This
in turn should reflect a recognized industry standard, for example as given by the
classification societies or IACS guideline number 47, “Shipbuilding and Repair Quality
Standard”.

IACS Rec. No. 47 has guidance as to what gap size and alignment is adequate for specific
joints. The guidance includes limits and appropriate remedial action if the limits are exceeded.
For repair jobs with companies not used to working with ship structures the IACS Rec. No. 47
is a good starting point and should be included as a reference. Repair companies and
shipyards working with ship structures on a regular basis will have their own procedures for
gap size and alignment which are approved by the Classification Society. Normally shipyards
procedures and standards for this are based on IACS Rec. No. 47.

In general the gap has to be large enough to ensure proper side wall fusion through the entire
member thickness. The gap shall however not be larger than necessary to avoid excess use of
filler material from an economical point of view as well as possible problems with distortion
of members and residual stress in the weld. Figure 4.1-7 shows a fit-up where the gap is too

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large. The proper way to handle this would be to release enough of the completed weld so that
the elements can be adjusted and the gap reduced, or if this is not possible use an insert piece.

Figure 4.1-7 – Large Gap

Edges of members are to be parallel and with a specified gap which is important for the later
straightness and overall tolerances of the construction. In general plate edges shall be as
parallel as possible and distance “d2-d1” shown in Figure 4.1-8 shall be as small as possible.

Figure 4.1-8 - Alignment of Member Edges

Alignment of members before welding is very important for the quality of the weld and for
the stress concentrations in and around the welding. For distributing the stresses in a structure
the most efficient way, the path of the stress shall be as smooth as possible. Abrupt changes in
sectional properties will lead to stress concentrations and subsequently possible cracks
depending on the actual loading of the joint. In general distance “dt” given on Figure 4.1-9
and Figure 4.1-10 shall be as small as possible and for highly stresses areas “dt” shall be close
to zero.

Figure 4.1-9 - Alignment of Members at Butt Joint

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Figure 4.1-10 - Alignment of Members at Cruciform Joint

In addition to the gap and linear alignment as described above, angular alignment must be
checked. Angular misalignment is when there is misalignment between two welded pieces
such that their surface planes are not parallel with each other or at the intended angle. It is
often caused by inaccuracies in the assembly procedures or distortion from other welds.
Angular misalignment can also be caused by local deformation of the edge of a plate if it is
not properly supported or has been distorted by heating due to welding.

Gap and alignment of plates shall be secured by fixation of the members to be welded. Use of
tab pieces for this purpose is described later in this section.

Two examples of poor alignment are shown in Figure 4.1-11 and Figure 4.1-12. Figure 4.1-11
shows a misalignment of a butt joint also shown in Figure 4.1-9. The actual misalignment was
measured to 8 mm compared to 3 mm allowed misalignment. Figure 4.1-12 shows
misalignment of a butt joint of the welded flange of a stiffener.

Figure 4.1-11 – Poor Butt Joint Alignment Figure 4.1-12 - Poor Alignment of Stiffener Flange

When proper edge preparation, beveling, gap and alignment is in place, it is essential that the
members up for welding are fixed to secure proper quality and strength of the weld, smooth
transfer of stresses from member to member and straightness and tolerances of the finished
structure.

Fit-up of smaller structures to ensure acceptable gap and alignment can be done by clamps
whereas larger structures are normally fit-up using welded strong backs (see Figure 4.1-13)
and wedges (see Figure 4.1-14) or hydraulic jacks.

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Figure 4.1-13 Figure 4.1-14

Fit-up with Welded Strongback Fit-up with Welded Strongback and Wedges

Fit-up can also be designed to take account the deformations the welding will impose on the
connection of members due to the shrinkage of the filler material when cooling off. Figure
4.1-15 shows an example of such a fit-up. The example of the sandwich deck construction
described further in Section 4.2.3 and shown in Figure 4.1-15 did not allow such an angled fit-
up, which could have reduced residual stresses considerably. For the case only one-sided
welding was possible.

Figure 4.1-15 - Fit-Up of Butt Joint in Angle

Tab pieces are fitted to ensure a good “end” of the weld. As ends of welds are often prone to
have defects tab pieces at the ends of the weld are introduces to extend the welding. As a rule
of thumb a tab piece should extend as far out from the plate or stiffener as the thickness of the
plate or stiffener. After welding of the member the tab piece is removed and the area properly
cleaned and ground.

In Figure 4.1-16 and Figure 4.1-17 the correct use of tab pieces is shown. The tab pieces have
an adequate length and the shape of the tab piece matches the beveling of the members.

In Figure 4.1-18 and Figure 4.1-19 the incorrect use of tab pieces is shown. In Figure 4.1-18
the tab piece is missing and in Figure 4.1-19 the weld is not extended sufficiently over the tab
piece.

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Figure 4.1-16 Figure 4.1-17

Correct Use of Tab Piece Correct Use of Tab Piece

Figure 4.1-18 Figure 4.1-19

Missing Tab Piece In-Correct Use of Tab Piece

4.1.6 Pre-Heating
Pre-heating of members up for welding is mainly done for 3 reasons:
1- Welding is done in an exposed climate where ambient temperature is around 0°C.
2- Members have large thickness
3- Members are high-carbon or alloy steel

For item 1, IACS Rec. No. 47 recommends pre-heating of members to 20°C.

For item 2, pre-heating can be necessary to slow down the cooling rate in the weld to avoid
hydrogen cracking. Increased thickness and increased carbon content in members can increase
the risk of hydrogen cracking. IACS Rec. No. 47 again gives good guidance as to the extent
of required pre-heating as a function of member thicknesses and carbon content.

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For item 3, high-carbon steel or alloy steel welding will contain a high percentage of
martensite which is brittle. Pre- and post-heating will reduce the martensite content in the
welding.

Any requirements to pre-heating will be given in the WPS and should be carefully followed.

Pre-heating shall preferably be done by electrical resistance heating as it gives a constant

heating especially in erection joints where FCAW welding is used. Gas torches or radiation
heaters can be considered alternatives for smaller joints.

4.2 Welding of joints

When fit-up of the members is completed the welding can commence.

In general a good joint design will provide proper access for the welder, adequate root
opening to permit proper side wall fusion of welding filler and at the same time secure the
least possible amount of welding filler.

In Section 2.2 several joint types are described. In the following sections beveling and gap is
described for the most common joint types in ship building, i.e. butt joints, T-joints and
cruciform joints.

In general “Gap” and “Bevel angle” in the following Section shall be described in the
Welding Procedure Specification “WPS” (See Section 3.3.1). Furthermore IACS Rec. No. 47
has guidelines.

In the following section the abbreviations as shown in Figure 4.2-1 will be used.

Figure 4.2-1 - Abbreviations

Where:
“t” is thickness of abutting plate.
“dt1” is defined in the Welding Table and is normally between 0.2 – 0.3 times the thickness of
the abutting member.
“dt2” distance gives type of welding. When distance “dt2” on figure 4.2-1 is 1-2 mm the
welding is classed as “full penetration”. When “dt2” is less than approx. 1/3 of the thickness
of the abutting member the welding is classed “partial penetration”.

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4.2.1 Open Square Butt Joint

The open square butt joint welding as shown in Figure 4.2-2 is one of the most economical as
the joint preparations are limited. It is widely used at the shipyards where plates up to 20 mm
can be welded using SAW welding during block production. Some yards only have facilities
for welding from one side, however most yards turn the plate over and weld from both sides.

Figure 4.2-2 - Open Square Butt Joint

In order to perform welding with a larger current and reduced welding time, a backing can be
applied for all types of butt joint welding as shown in Figure 4.2-3. The backing reduces the
risk of filler material burning through the intended weld area. When both sides of the member
are accessible after the joint is welded, a temporary ceramic backing - often provided in the
form of self-adhesive tape - is used. When one side is not accessible after welding a
permanent backing is used. The permanent backing shall be of same material as the members
to be joined. Normally the backing is not to be less than 6 mm in thickness and it is welded to
one of the members to be joined. A weld with a permanent backing will have an additional
stress concentration in the root of the weld and they are generally not allowed in areas with
high stresses.

Figure 4.2-3 - Open square butt joint with permanent backing

4.2.2 Closed Square Butt Joint

A closed square butt joint is similar to open, but where the gap between the plates is closed as
shown in Figure 4.2-4 below. The closed square butt joint is widely used at the shipyards due
to the low preparation costs. In general closed butt joint is used for thinner plates than open
butt joint. Yards will have a standard practice for the maximum thickness of plates to be
welded by closed butt joints.

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Figure 4.2-4 - Closed square butt joint

4.2.3 Single-V Butt Joint

Single-V butt welding as shown in Figure 4.2-5 is used for welding of thicker plates and
plates where stress level is not low. More filler material is used than for the open square butt
weld and hence the welding is not as economical as the open square butt weld. The increased
amount of filler material can also affect residual stresses, distortion and shrinkage if the
welding sequence (see Section 4.1.2) is not correct.

Figure 4.2-5 - Single-V butt joint

The V-shape joint normally has an angle between 40° to 50° depending on the welder’s
qualifications and the yards standard practice for the chosen weld method. The bevel angle
has to be large enough to ensure proper side wall fusion, but as small as possible to avoid
excess use of weld filler and minimise residual stresses. For thicker plates where distortion,
residual stresses and amount of necessary filler material increase excessively, double V-shape
penetrations are preferred. Single-V butt joints are most often used for welding of horizontal
joints and welding this type of joint in an overhead position should be avoided. As described
in the example below, this is for some cases not an option when only one-sided welding is
possible.

Figure 4.2-6 shows an example of welding 30 mm deck plates on top of an existing deck
structure forming a sandwich construction. The sandwich deck construction was introduced as
the as-built working deck of an anchor handling vessel did not have sufficient thickness and
loading capability for an increased deck load requirement. Extensive testing and inspection of

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weld method and angle of single-V were investigated to minimize residual stresses and the
amount of weld filler and at the same time ensure proper strength of welding as deck plates
are subjected to hull girder bending moment as well as local load from heavy cargo on deck.
Testing and inspection of welds included slicing up sections of the welded sections to visually
ensure proper side wall fusion. The angle of the single V beveling was by this procedure
decreased to 30° and accepted by Class.

Figure 4.2-6- Single-V welding of thick plate.

4.2.4 Double-V Butt Joint

Double-V penetration welding as shown in Figure 4.2-7 is used instead of single-V for thicker
plates and when both sides are accessible for welding. Advantages compared to single-V are
less filler material and less residual stresses as welding from both sides will balance stresses.
The procedure is however more time consuming as welding from both sides is required.
Double-V butt joint is normally used when welding position is vertical up.

Figure 4.2-7 - Double-V butt joint

4.2.5 Single- and Double-U and J Butt Joint

Single- and double-U and J butt joints are all shown in Figure 4.2-8 and Figure 4.2-9 below.
U- and J-joints require special machine cutting to prepare edges and are subsequently more
costly than V-preparations. U- and J- joints are used when joining very thick plates as they
provide a stronger weld with less filler material than V.

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Figure 4.2-8 - Single-U and Single–J Butt Joint

Figure 4.2-9 - Double-U and Double–J Butt Joint

4.2.6 T-Joint
T-Joint welding as shown in Figure 4.2-10 is used to weld to members at an angle generally
larger than 30 degrees. The welding of the joint is based on the expected stress level in
members and position of the joint. Figure 4.2-10 shows a regular fillet weld of a T-joint. In a
fillet weld the welding is defined by the throat thickness “a” (or the leg length “l”, see Section
4.1.1) which is a function of the thickness of abutting plate and the position of the weld on the
vessel. Throat thickness is normally between 0.1 - 0.5 times the thickness of the abutting
member (t) and is specified in the welding table (see Section 4.1.1).

Figure 4.2-10 - T-Joint

4.2.7 T-Joint with Single Bevel

Depending on the expected stress level in members or the location of the weld, the welding
can be required to be performed with a beveled edge. Under normal circumstances welding
from both sides of an abutting member forming a T-joint is preferred, but for some cases one-
sided welding is necessary due to lack of access.

Figure 4.2-11 below shows a typical single bevel of a T-joint for both 90°and 45° angle. When
it is difficult to access the area behind the weld for post treatment of welding by gouging, a
small backing strip can be applied before welding, as seen on the left most figure. Instead of a
backing strip a permanent backing can be applied, by fillet welding, before welding the actual
member, as seen in the center figure. For definitions of full and partial penetration welds see
Section 4.2.

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Figure 4.2-11 - T-Joint with Single Bevel

4.2.8 T-Joint with Double Bevel

General T-joint welding with double bevel as shown in Figure 4.2-12 is preferred to a T-joint
with single bevel as the welding on both sides of the abutting member will decrease distortion.
As for the single bevel joint, the double bevel joint can be classed as both “full penetration”
and “partial penetration”, see Section 4.2.

Figure 4.2-12 - T-Joint with Double Bevel

4.2.9 Cruciform Joints

Cruciform joint welding as shown in Figure 4.2-13 is similar to T-joints however with
members abutting on both sides. For cruciform joints, alignment of members as shown in
Figure 4.1-10 is of great importance for the force transfer without stress concentrations.
Cruciform joints do not require the same type of welding above and below as indicated in
Figure 4.2-13 below with a full penetration above and a fillet weld below. The horizontal
member could be the tank top, the upper vertical member the inner shell forming a cargo tank
barrier and the lower vertical member a double bottom girder. It is however recommended for
best possible force transfer that the upper welding and plate properties are as close to the
lower as possible.

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Figure 4.2-13 - Cruciform Joint

4.2.10 Intermittent Welding

Intermittent welding as shown in Figure 4.2-14 can be used in selected areas of a vessel.
Normally the classification society allows such welding for welding of profiles to plating
inside accommodation blocks except in wet areas.

The advantage of intermittent welding is the minimized use of filler material as well as lower
distortion and residual stresses.

Figure 4.2-14 - Intermittent Welding

4.3 Post Weld Treatment

4.3.1 Post Weld Heating
Post weld heat treatment is very rarely used during a regular shipbuilding process. For
castings however, post weld heating can be a part of the production procedure. Any
requirements for post weld heat treatment will be specified in the WPS.

4.3.2 Grinding of Welds

Grinding of welds can improve the fatigue life of the joint. Classification Societies have
certain welding surface roughness limits in different areas of the vessel which must be met.
Today vessels are designed with extensive use of finite element modelling and here reduced
plate thicknesses can be compensated by increased requirement to welding surface roughness
to obtain an acceptable fatigue life of the joint.

Increased requirements for welding surface profile can in some cases also be used to repair
cracks in an existing weld. If the scantlings and material of a joint are appropriate, it may be

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sufficient to gouge, re-welded and grind to achieve less surface roughness or a better profile
than the cracked weld.

Before and after grinding, the weld and adjacent member surfaces should be cleaned properly
by burr grinding or similar. To gain any advantage from grinding the weld it is important that
corrosion is avoided, so coating is critical.

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5 Welding Defects
5.1 Defect Types and Causes
5.1.1 Crack
An imperfection in the weld which is produced by a local rupture in the solid state. Cracking
may happen due to the effects of cooling or stresses acting on the structure. This is one of the
most serious defects as the geometry of a crack in a weld produces a very large stress
concentration at the crack tip, which can cause crack propagation. There are different types of
cracks which can be situated in different areas, including the weld metal, the HAZ and/or the
parent material.

5.1.2 Lack of Side Wall Fusion

This is where the fusion between the welding consumable and the parent material is not
complete. It is often caused when the joint preparation is too narrow. During the welding
process, the arc is attracted to one side of the joint causing causing a lack of fusion on the
other side. It can sometimes be caused when there is inadequate penetration onto a previously
deposited weld bead. Other causes can include: incorrect welding parameter settings; poor
welding techniques; lack of cleaning of oily surfaces or with scaled surfaces.

Figure 5.1-1 - Lack of side wall fusion (courtesy TWI Ltd.)

5.1.3 Incomplete Penetration

Incomplete penetration is when the initial root weld bead does not start at the root of the weld
groove. This leaves an incomplete penetration channel in the root of the weld where both
sides of the joint are unfused with the parent material.

Lack of penetration is found when:

(i) The weld bead does not penetrate the entire thickness of the base plate.
(ii) The two opposing weld beads do not interpenetrate.
(iii) When the weld bead does not penetrate the toe of a fillet joint but only bridges
across it.

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Welding current has the greatest effect on penetration. Incomplete penetration is usually
caused by use of a low welding current. It can be eliminated by simply increasing the input
amperage. Other causes can be the use of too slow a travel speed and an incorrect torch angle.
Both will allow the molten weld metal to roll in front of the arc, acting as a cushion to prevent
penetration.

5.1.4 Incomplete Fusion

Incomplete fusion occurs when there is no fusion between the weld metal and the surfaces of
the base plate. The most common cause of lack of fusion is poor welding technique. Either the
weld pool is too large, meaning the travel speed was too slow, or the weld metal has been
permitted to roll in front of the arc. It can also result if the width of the weld joint is too large.
In this case, the arc is directed down the centre of the joint and the molten weld metal will
only flow and cast against the side walls of the base plate without melting them. It can also
occur if the welding voltage is too low. As a result, the wetting of the bead will be poor.
Lack of fusion can however be prevented by taking a number of precautions:

(i) Good travel speed appropriate to the welding method.

(ii) Using the correct current input for the welding process.
(iii) Using good joint preparation with a good weld size.

5.1.5 Spatter
Spatter is beads of weld metal or filler metal which are expelled during the welding process
and stick to the surface of the parent metal. It can be caused by a high arc current, damp
electrodes or the selection of the wrong shielding gas for a given welding process. It is a
cosmetic defect which doesn’t affect the integrity of the weld profile however it is usually a
sign that one of the input parameters is wrong and hence the welding conditions are not
correct. Anti-spatter compounds can be used on the parent material to avoid the spatter
sticking. This allows the spatter to be simply scrapped off. If not used, spatter usually has to
be ground off.

5.1.6 Slag Inclusions

Slag is formed when flux, or solid shielding material used in the welding process, melts on
top of the welding zone. Slag is the solidified remaining flux after the weld area cools. It is
possible for areas of slag to become embedded within the solidified metal if it does not float
to the top of the molten metal. This is called a slag inclusion. Slag inclusions are of an
irregular shape and therefore differ from a gas pore. They usually occur if slag isn’t properly
removed from underlying surfaces of multi-pass weld runs or if the slag becomes entrapped
into the work surface. To avoid slag inclusions, complete slag removal must be ensured
before welding and ensuring the slag is always behind the arc.

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Figure 5.1-2 - Slag inclusion (Courtesy TWI Ltd.)

5.1.7 Gas Pores and Surface Porosity

A gas pore is when a gas cavity of a typically spherical shape is trapped within the weld metal.
The gas pockets can be either isolated, uniformly distributed or locally clustered. Gas pores
can be caused by a number of factors including damp flux, corroded electrode, water
contamination of prepared surface, air entrapped in the gas shield and too high a shielding gas
flow rate. To avoid gas pores, weld areas should be kept dry and clean, utilizing the correct
gas flow rate where required. Surface porosity is a gas pore which penetrates the surface of
the weld.

Figure 5.1-3 Figure 5.1-4

Gas pores trapped within the weld metal Surface Porosity on the weld surface
(Courtesy TWI Ltd.)

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5.1.8 Undercut
Undercut is a defect that appears as a groove in the parent metal directly along the edges of
the weld. It is characterised by its depth, length and sharpness. It is most common in lap fillet
welds but can also be found in fillet and butt joints. The undercutting defect is normally
caused by improper welding parameters such as incorrect travel speed or high welding current.
When the current is too high or the travel speed is too slow, the top edge of the parent
material melts at the free edge creating a groove. Undercut can either be a continuous defect
along the edge of the weld or found intermittently.

Figure 5.1-5 – Undercut (Courtesy TWI Ltd.)

5.1.9 Worm Holes

Worm holes are elongated or tubular cavities formed by entrapped gas. These areas of
entrapped gas can occur during the solidification of the weld metal and can be seen both
singly and in groups. Some worm holes can be seen to break the surface of the weld. They are
often caused by a contaminated surface or work surfaces which have crevices due to joint
geometry.

Figure 5.1-6 - Worm holes (Courtesy TWI Ltd.)

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5.1.10 Crater Pipe

Crater pipe is a shrinkage cavity at the end of a weld run. The main cause of the defect is
shrinkage during solidification of the weld metal. Although it looks similar to other gas
defects, it is a metal shrinkage imperfection not a gas defect. It is caused by the use of too
high a current input.

Figure 5.1-7 - Crater pipe (Courtesy TWI Ltd.)

5.1.11 Excess Weld Metal

Excessive weld metal is the extra metal which produces an excessively convex weld profile in
a fillet weld and a butt weld which has greater thickness than the parent metal. It is only
classed as a welding defect when the height of the excess weld metal is greater than a specific
limit. It can be caused by the use of a wrong size of electrode, excess arc energy or too slow a
travel speed. Where excess weld metal is referred to as reinforcement, this is misleading as
this excess metal does not normally produce a stronger weld. The imperfection can be an
issue as the angle of the weld toe can have a sharp profile, leading to an increased stress
concentration at the toes of the weld and therefore fatigue cracking.

5.1.12 Excess Penetration

Excessive penetration is when there is a projection of the root penetration bead beyond a
specified limit. This can either be local or continuous along the weld bead. It can often be
caused by having too high a weld heat input, incorrect weld preparation or lack of welder skill.
The use of permanent or temporary backing bars can be used to assist with the control of the
penetration extent.

5.1.13 Overlap
Overlap is an imperfection at the toe of a weld which is caused by metal flowing onto the
surface of the parent metal without it fusing onto the metal. It can be caused by poor
electrode manipulation, incorrect welding position and/or high heat input with a low travel
speed causing the metal to flow onto the parent material surface.

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5.1.14 Irregular Width

Irregular width is where there is excessive variation on the width of the weld profile. This
defect does not necessarily affect the integrity of the complete weld but it can affect the width
of the HAZ and reduce the load carrying capacity of the joint. It can be caused by severe arc
blow or from an irregular weld bead surface.

5.1.15 Root Cavity

Root cavity is a shallow groove that occurs due to shrinkage at the root of a butt weld. It can
be caused by poor welder skill or insufficient arc power to produce a positive bead profile.
The use of a backing strip can be used to control the extent of the root bead.

5.1.16 Burn Through

Burn through is when the weld pool collapses resulting in a hole in the weld. It is an
imperfection that occurs basically due to the lack of skill of a welder. It can be repaired by
bridging the gap formed of the joint although this requires a great deal of attention to be a
successful repair. Burn through is often caused by insufficient travel speed, excessive welding
current or excessive root gap.

5.1.17 Stray Arc

Stray arc is a local damage to the surface of the parent material next to the weld resulting
from an arcing or striking of the arc outside the weld groove. It can produce a hard HAZ
which may contain cracks. If not addressed when found, it can lead to serious cracking in
service. It is better to remove and arc strike by grinding rather than by use of a weld repair. It
is often caused by poor access to the work piece or failure to provide an insulated resting
place for the electrode holder or torch when it is not in use.

5.1.18 Poor/un-even Weld Surface, Excess Weld Metal

Several of the defects mentioned above, as well as poor workmanship in general, can result in
a very poor and uneven weld surface. Excess weld metal is weld filler lying outside the plane
of two plates being joined and can also be referred to as overfill. This can result in two
problems. The first is that if the surface is very poor it can lead to additional stress
concentrations which in turn can lead to fatigue cracks. The second is that the surface can be
very difficult to coat properly. Early breakdown of the coating at the weld, which is usually a
high stress area, can result in aggressive corrosion and reduced fatigue life. Remedial action
such as dressing or grinding the weld profile should be considered for a poor weld profile.

Figure 5.1-8 – Example of poor weld profile

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5.1.19 Hydrogen Cracking

Hydrogen cracking, also known as cold cracking or delayed cracking is caused by the
diffusion of hydrogen in the highly stressed, hardened part of the weld material or heat
affected zone (HAZ). The cracking will typically occur immediately on welding, or a short
time after welding, usually within 48 hours. There are four key factors which contribute to
cracking:
1. High hydrogen content
2. High tensile stresses
3. Susceptible microstructure
4. Low temperature
There are a number of ways to prevent hydrogen cracking, some of these include:
- Ensure all welding electrodes are stored and baked as per the manufacturers requirements.
A common source for hydrogen is the moisture contained in flux.
- Heat treatment, either one or a combination of preheat, interpass heat treatment or post
weld heat treatment to control the cooling rate or reduce residual stresses.
- Ensure the weld joint is clean, with no rust, paint or other possible contaminations, and
avoid excessively large root gaps.

Figure 5.1-9 – Macros of hydrogen cracks (Courtesy TWI Ltd.)

5.1.20 Lamellar Tearing

Lamellar tearing occurs when a rolled steel product, i.e. a plate, is subjected to stresses in the
through-thickness direction, perpendicular to the plane of the plate. This situation is found in
T-joints. When steel is rolled into plates non-metallic inclusions, very often sulpher, are rolled
into very thin platelets. When subjected to through-thickness stresses the plate can split along
these platelets resulting in the terraced defect shown below.

In some cases the thermal strain due to welding is sufficient to cause lamellar tearing.
Lamellar tearing can be prevented by using steel with a low percaentage of impurities,
particularly sulpher. It is also possible to use steel with guaranteed through-thickness
properties, denoted “Z-quality” steel. Ultrasonic testing can be used to identify lamellar
tearing.

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Figure 5.1-10 – Lamellar tearing

5.2 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

Non-destructive Testing (NDT) is a wide group of inspection techniques used in the industry
to test welds or components without causing them any damage throughout the testing process.
Given that it doesn’t do any damage to the area in question, it is a highly valued technique
that can save both time and money in product quality evaluation. To ensure the test is reliable
the following are required:

(i) Qualified NDT personnel.

(ii) Correct methods/techniques.
(iii) Acceptable procedures/reports.
(iv) Satisfactory inspection capabilities.

NDT is divided into various method groups, where each group is based on a particular
principle. Each method group may be further subdivided into various techniques which can
be applied for that testing group. The following sections explore the different NDT groups
that are available.

5.2.1 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

This method is accomplished by inducing a magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material and
then dusting the surface with iron particles. Surface and near-surface imperfections distort the
magnetic field and concentrate iron particles near imperfections, giving a visual indication of
the flaw

Advantages:
- This is a quick and simple process.
- Most reliable method of surface inspection on ferritic materials.
- Can be carried out at almost any location, including underwater.
- It is possible to detect (shallow) sub surface defects.
- Relatively low cost method.

Limitations:
- Difficult to use on rough surfaces.

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- Applicable to ferromagnetic materials only.

- Requires skill and recognition of irrelevant patterns. False indications, for example, can
occur at changes of section or weld undercut.
- Defects will only be detected when they give rise to leakage in the magnetic field. Planar
defects or small rounded defects can sometimes be difficult to detect.
- Only detects imperfections down to a depth of approximately 2mm.

Figure 5.2-1 – MPI equipment (©Force Technology3)

5.2.2 Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI)

Dye Penetrant Inspection is where a liquid is applied to the surface of a material which is
absorbed into narrow surface openings such as cracks. Excess liquid is then removed from the
surface leaving traces of the liquid contained in the openings. The traces of indicator fluid are
drawn out of the defects by applying a “developer” powder/fluid, revealing any defects upon
close examination. DPI can be applied to virtually any non-porous material surface and it is
not affected by the surface orientation or material grain structure. The penetrant liquid
contains a dye which is bright red for high visibility against a white background. Fluorescent
dye may be used for a more sensitive inspection as it appears very bright against a dark
background when viewed under ultra violet light. The inspection process is to thoroughly
clean the surface in question, coat the inspection with dye penetrant liquid, leave the liquid to
work for some time allowing it to penetrate into any cracks in the surface, carefully remove
the excess penetrant from the surface using wipes (not a surface spray), apply a thin coating of
developer powder to draw penetrant out onto the surface and then view indications as they
appear, allowing the results to be assessed after a suitable time frame.

Advantages:
- Can be used on most materials for surface breaking defects.
- Equipment is portable and inexpensive.
- For the visible colour contrast, no power supply is required as long as light levels are
adequate for inspection.

Limitations:
- Cannot be used on porous surfaces.
- False indications can occur on rough surfaces where excess dye is difficult to remove.
- It is a less sensitive method than MPI for in-service inspection on ferritic materials.

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- Cannot detect cracks filled with water, grease, oil or paint.

Figure 5.2-2 – Penetrant testing (©Force Technology3)

5.2.3 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Ultrasonic testing uses the transmission of high-frequency sound waves into a material to
detect imperfections or to locate changes in material properties. The most commonly used
ultrasonic testing technique is pulse echo, wherein sound is introduced into a test object and
reflections (echoes) are returned to a receiver from internal imperfections or from the parts’
geometrical surfaces.

Advantages:
- The location and size of internal defects can be detected.
- It is sensitive to both surface and sub-surface defects.
- Thick and thin work pieces can be inspected at the same time.
- UT is suitable for castings and forgings (thicker materials).
- Inspection can be completed with access to only one side of the component.
- Permits probing of joints inaccessible to radiography.
- There is no radiation hazard in UT examination and therefore no disruption of work. This
is not the case for radiography.
- Planar/linear defects can be detected irrespective of their orientation.

Limitations:
- Requires high degree of skill in interpreting pulse-echo patterns.
- Permanent record is not readily obtained.
- In some materials, such as austenitic steel, the large grain size found in welds can hide
defects when inspected by UT.
- Misreading of signals or false signals can lead to unnecessary repairs.
- Components of a thickness less than 8mm can be difficult to inspect.
- Surface must be accessible to probe and coupling medium.

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Figure 5.2-3 – UT equipment (©Force Technology3)

5.2.4 Radiographic Testing (RT)

Radiography involves the use of penetrating gamma or X-rays to examine parts for
imperfections. A radioactive isotope is used as a source of radiation. Radiation is directed
through the part and onto film or other imaging media. Possible imperfections are indicated as
density changes on the film in the same manner as an X-ray shows a broken bone in a human
body.

Radiographic inspection is very useful for welders and welding processes. Due to its cost
however, its use should be limited to those areas where other methods will not provide the
assurance required.

Advantages:
- Gives a permanent record when imperfections are recorded on film.
- Can be used to inspect a wide range of materials and thicknesses.
- Detects surface and sub-surface defects.
- It provides a low cost method of internal inspection when viewed using a fluoroscopic
screen.

Limitations:
- Requires skill when operating equipment and also choosing the angles of exposure.
- Access to both sides of the structure is usually required.
- Requires safety precautions to prevent radiation exposure.
- Not generally suitable for fillet/partial penetration weld inspection due to the existing void
at the root of the weld.
- Orientation of the radiation beam to non-volumetric defects is critical. It can be difficult to
detect defects such as solidification cracks, hydrogen cracks, lack of fusion etc.

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Figure 5.2-4 – RT equipment and exposed film (©Force Technology3)

5.2.5 Eddy Current Inspection (ECI)

Eddy Current Inspection can be used for many applications including defect detection, coating
thickness measurement and material sorting. ECI involves scanning a probe coil over the
surface of the material and monitoring the electrical properties of the coil to interrogate the
material condition. The ECI equipment is designed to display changes to the eddy current
field caused by discontinuities in the material. Testing is most sensitive to surface defects but
there is some penetration into the material which can give sub surface indications. The extent
of the penetration is however dependent on the material being tested and the frequency at
which the probe is driven. Although the process may detect a defect, it doesn’t give any
indication on the defect depth. Some signal amplitude gives indication as to when a defect is
deeper than another, but it cannot work out the actual depth.

Advatages:
- Detects surface and near surface defects.
- It is not necessary to remove the coating when carrying out eddy current. Hence making
this a popular option for offshore operations.
- This method can be used for measuring coating thickness.

Limitations:
- Only conductive materials can be inspected.
- Ferromagnetic materials require consideration to address the magnetic permeability.
- The depth of a defect indication is limited.
- A high level of skill and training is required for this method.

Figure 5.2-5 – ECI probes and equipment (©Force Technology3)

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5.2.6 Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT)

This is an advanced technique not commonly used due to the cost and requirements for
equipment and the operator. Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing uses a multiple element probe
whereby the output pulse from each element is time delayed in such a way to produce
constructive interference at a specific angle and depth. The time delays are incremented over a
range of angles to sweep the UT beam over a wide angular range allowing inspection of the
weld under consideration.

Advantages:
- Investigates more angles through one testing procedure.
- There is a permanent record of the inspection.
- Has the ability to define flaws in 3 dimensions.

Limitations:
- PAUT equipment is expensive.
- Equipment is more complex.
- There is no dedicated international standard.
- There are fewer manufacturers than conventional UT equipment.
- Transducers are expensive.

5.2.7 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)

Alternating Current Field Measurement is an electromagnetic technique to detect surface
breaking cracks. This method involves passing alternating current onto the testing surface
which induces a uniform electromagnetic field. The electromagnetic field is disturbed by
surface-breaking defects. The sensors located on the probe measure the disturbance and locate
the defect. The interaction is recorded and modelled to provide the depth and length of a
defect without the need for on-site calibration (for steel). Similar to the Eddy Current
inspection, no electrical contact is required allowing the probes to work on paints and coatings.
In comparison to MPI, this technique gives fewer false indications and predicts both length
and depth without the use of ink. In comparison to the Eddy Current inspection, this technique
is more reliable for detecting cracks and can determine the depth of cracks to around 25 mm
deep. Knowing the depth of the crack is important for fracture mechanics. ACFM can be used
underwater, where the divers run the probe against the steel surface and the measurements are
recorded and interpreted on the deck. Lately, this technique has been deployed remotely using
Remote Operated Vehicles (ROVs).

Advantages:
- Detects surface breaking cracks and can size length and depth of cracks (up to around
25mm deep)
- It works on paints and coatings and underwater and therefore a popular option for
offshore structures
- Lower false calls reducing costs from investigating spurious indications and all data is
saved for a later review and audit
- Can be deployed remotely by ROVs

Limitations:
- Only conductive materials can be inspected

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- Only surface breaking cracks are detected leaving the root cracks that have not yet
surfaced undetected
- Skilled or experienced technicians are needed to operate the ACFM equipment

Figure 5.2-6 – ACFM equipment (photo courtesy of TSC Inspection Systems)

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6 Special Welding

6.1 Introduction
This part of the information paper considers those types of welding other than the
conventional butt or fillet welds used in the majority of welded connections in a ship. It is
limited to welding of structural elements and thus the welding of machinery parts has not been
considered.

6.2 Cast Steel

6.2.1 Introduction
The process of building a ship will, at various limited points of construction, require the
welding of steel castings. The thickness of a casting is normally much greater than a typical
steel plate used in ship construction. This greater thickness provides a larger heat sink which
cools the newly-formed weld more quickly, increasing residual stresses and producing a
coarser grain structure with associated higher hardness values of the weld and parent metal.

Figure 6.2-1 - Welding heat flow, courtesy of Lloyd’s Register

To counter-act these effects, pre-heating and post-weld heating are typically required or
specified. Pre- and post-weld heat treatment will be a function of both the material thickness
and chemical composition, particularly the carbon content. Necessary heat treatment will be
specified in the WPS.

Welding of castings in ship repair and construction is typically found in the following areas:
i) Welding of rudder, rudder horn, stern boss, stern frame, etc. for new construction.
ii) Welding of propellers

There are certain limitations when considering welding of propellers and so this will be
covered separately in this paper.

6.2.2 Preheating and Post-Weld Heat Treatment

Pre-heating the casting and plates to be joined helps in two ways:

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i) Reduces the effect of the heat sink and thereby slows the cooling rate, improving
the weldability of the steel casting
ii) Helps to eliminate cracks in the weld by removing moisture from the area to be
welded.

Post-weld heat treatment of the casting and plates to be joined reduces residual stresses in the
weld but does not change the grain structure of the materials.

Pre-heating and post-weld heating are typically achieved through the use of gas-torches (using
propane gas for example) for smaller weld areas or electric heated blankets for larger welding
areas such as large castings (e.g. rudder horns). Care should be taken not to heat the work
piece too quickly as this can increase residual stresses as thinner sections of the casting will
heat more quickly than thicker sections.

During post-weld heat treatment the temperature of the work piece is raised, allowed to ‘soak’
for a defined time and then slowly reduced (see figure below).

Figure 6.2-2 – Temperature evolution, courtesy of Lloyd’s Register

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Figure 6.2-3 – Pre-heating of rudder horn, courtesy Figure 6.2-4 – Pre-heating of pipe
of DNV GL

The temperature of pre-heating and post-weld heating can be checked using tempilstiks
(crayons whose mark melts when the required temperature is reached), thermocouples and
digital thermometers attached to the workpiece which provide a constant temperature readout,
or optical pyrometers.

6.2.3 Class Requirements

The various Class Societies include requirements in their Rules for welding of castings but
generally they stipulate similar requirements.

If welding is to be done on a casting to rectify a defect, the defect must first of all be
completely removed and confirmed as such via suitable non-destructive examination (e.g.
magnetic particle inspection, dye penetrant). Any resulting excavations must be shaped to
enable sufficient access for welding.

All castings in alloy steels, other than duplex and austenitic steels, are to be pre-heated before
welding. After welding is completed the weld and neighboring casting should be subjected to
further heat treatment, at a temperature not less than 550C, to remove any residual stresses
that may have built up during the welding process. The approved weld procedure used should
include the details of the pre-heat and post-weld heat treatment requirements.

6.3 Stainless Steel

6.3.1 Cleanliness of Materials Before and After Welding.
Stainless steels are often used in the construction of equipment due to their corrosion
resistance, which results from a protective oxide layer forming on the surface of the metal
when it comes into contact with air.

However, this oxide layer may prevent a good quality weld being achieved and so must be
removed prior to welding. This is typically achieved through wire brushing of the areas to be
welded but blasting or machining can also be used. If blasting is to be used then care should
be taken that the blasting material does not introduce contaminants into the stainless steel (e.g.
grit blasting which may contain steel).

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Once the weld is completed then passivation, typically using nitric acid, is performed to
remove any contaminants introduced during welding and to help with the formation of the
protective oxide layer.

6.3.2 Welding Types and Consumables

Most conventional welding methods can be used for welding stainless steels (e.g. GMAW,
GTAW, FCAW, SAW). For those welding methods that leave a slag (SMAW, SAW) the flux
helps in removing the protective oxide layer to enable a good weld quality to be achieved.
Typically calcium and sodium flourides are used in the flux to achieve this. However, these
flourides are corrosive to the stainless steel and so the slag needs to be completely removed
after welding.

The high expansion coeffiecient and low thermal conductivity (low dissipation of heat) of
stainless steel can cause problems with distortion when welding stainless steels. Rigid fixing
of thin plates, welding sequences to reduce distortion (e.g. sequence welding) and chilled
metal backing can help to reduce distortion.

6.4 Propellers (Bronze)

6.4.1 Class Requirements
Welding of propellers would normally be limited to repairs, although Class Rules do
generally allow some repairs to new propellers. Class Rules allow the welding of propellers
only under strict limitations. Typically the propeller is split into a number of areas with
differing degrees of repair allowed for each area. An example is shown below:

Figure 6.4-1 - Figure from LR Rules (Pt2, Ch.9, Section 1)

Typically weld repairs are not permitted in area A, weld repairs are permitted in area B with
the prior approval of the Class surveyor, weld repairs in area C are permitted provided they
are carried out to an approved procedure. More detailed requirements can be found in Class
Rules. Typically, the propeller will require stress relief heat treatment after welding followed
by dye penetrant inspection. Pre-heat may also be required.

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6.5 Slot Welding

Slot welding is used frequently where access to complete a conventional weld is limited. For
example, when constructing the rudder the web frames are welded to the side shell plating on
one side but there is insufficient room within the rudder for the welder to weld the other shell
plate from inside the rudder. Therefore this other side shell must be welded to the webs from
outside the rudder, using slot welds.

Figure 6.5-1 shows a rudder with the side shell plate welded to the internal stiffening with
numerous slot welds, together with a close up photograph of those slot welds.

Figure 6.5-1 - Slot Welds on a Rudder

Classification Society Rules contain requirements for the design and execution of slot welds.
For example for slot welds of rudder shell plating Lloyds Register’s Rules require:
i) Length of the slot shall be no less than 75mm
ii) Width of the slot shall be no less than twice the side plating thickness
iii) The ends of the slot shall be rounded and spaced not more than 150mm apart.

Other requirements for slot welds, used elsewhere in vessel construction, include the slots
being free of notches and not to be completely filled with welding.

Figure 6.5-2 - Typical slot weld detail

In Figure 6.5-2 the slot design includes a 6mm diameter round bar used to help locate the
epoxy putty used to fill the slot. The epoxy putty provides a smooth external surface on the
ruder shell plate and thus prevents erosion of the slot edges.

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As with any welds, care should be taken when producing them. Defects in the slot welds can
act as stress raisers and cause premature failure of the weld as shown in Figure 6.5-3 below.

Figure 6.5-3 - Fracture initiated by poor weld profile and excessive vibration of rudder

6.6 Repair of Pits by Welding

Repair of pitting by welding may be a practical solution provided the remaing thickness in
the pit is not too small and the pitting intensity is not excessive. The Class societies have
requirements for the minimum remaining thickness in a pit for weld repair to be acceptable. If
pitting intensity is too severe repair by an insert is normally required. Where pitting is to be
repaired by welding the pit should be ground out to clean base metal, removing any sharp
edges. The weld run should start and finish outside the pit as per the IACS Rec.47
requirements shown below. Depending on the pitting depth, multiple passes may be required.
Weld cap cleaning and grinding should be completed between each run and all welding
should be ground smooth upon completion.

Figure 6.6-1 – Repair of Pits with Welding (IACS Rec. 47)

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6.7 Welding Against Water

Welding against a water backing, e.g. welding pits of bottom shell plating whilst afloat, is
generally not recommended due to the sea acting like a large heat sink, cooling the weld and
parent metal plates too quickly resulting in a poor quality weld. Class Rules typically,
therefore, do not permit this type of welding.

However, the Class Society may consider its use on the basis of certain criteria being met,
which may include:
a) The welding procedure having been performed and tested with water backing of
suitable temperature and flow rate.
b) The welding procedure having been performed on plating thickness equal to the
minimum hull plating thickness.
c) Pre-heating, for example by torch, to prevent rapid cooling and condensation with the
subsequent risk of hydrogen cracking.
d) Additional non-destructive testing of the welds.
e) The use of low hydrogen electrodes.

6.8 Underwater Welding

Underwater welding can take place either wet in the water itself or dry within a positively
pressurized cofferdam. Underwater welding is more commonly used for offshore structures
rather than ships structures due to the expense of docking offshore structures in order to
perform a dry weld repair. When performed in a wet environment it is typically called
‘underwater welding’ and when in a dry environment it is referred to as ‘hyperbaric welding’.
Generally dry hyperbaric welding is used in preference to wet underwater welding when high
quality welds are required. In the past wet welding has been considered as temporary repairs
but work is currently underway by companies such as TWI to develop weld procedures that
provide permanent repairs.

Dry hyperbaric welding is performed in an air-tight cofferdam fixed to the structure to be

welded from which the water is removed by pumping the cofferdam full of air or helium.
Under these conditions the welder can produce a high quality weld under similar conditions to
those found on the surface, with the addition of breathing equipment when helium is being
used as the surrounding medium.

Wet underwater welding uses DC current and insulated gloves to maximize the protection of
the diver from being electrocuted. The electrodes typically used are similar to the Manual
Metal Arc electrodes used for dry welding in that they are comprised of an electrode core
surrounded by flux which is then protected by a waterproof coating. This waterproof coating
protects the flux from absorbing water and burns away as the welding rod is consumed.

With wet welding hydrogen cracking presents a significant risk to the quality of the resulting
weld. During the welding process the welding arc dissociates the sea water into oxygen and
hydrogen. The oxygen reacts with elements in the weld resulting in an environment rich in
hydrogen. This hydrogen can dissolve into the molten weld and become trapped as the weld
cools. If the dissolved hydrogen is present in sufficient amounts it can cause porosity in the
weld or even crack the weld.

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The hydrogen produced by the welding process not only adversely affects the quality of the
weld, it also poses a danger to the welder. If the environment in which the wet weld is
produced does not enable the rapid dispersion of the produced hydrogen as small bubbles it
can accumulate into gas pockets that could cause an explosion when ignited by a heat source,
such as a piece of hot slag.

6.8-1 - An underwater welder, courtesy of TWI Ltd.

6.9 Explosion Welding

Explosion welding is a method of joining differing metals that cannot be welded using
conventional methods. For example, where mild steel is to be welded to aluminium this could
not be achieved with conventional welding because of the largely differing melting
temperatures of the different materials. Explosion welding does not cause either metal to melt
but instead causes the surface of both metals to plasticize. Explosion welding is not applied
during construction at the yard. It is used during manufacturing of pre-fabricated elements at a
sub-supplier.

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Figure 6.9-1 - Explosion Welding

Figure 6.9-2 - Magnified Explosion Weld

Due to their use of steel and aluminium superstructures, explosion welding is often found on
large passenger ships.

6.10 Friction Stir Welding

Friction stir welding is a relatively new welding method, having been invented in1991, and
not yet commonly applied in shipbuilding. Friction stir welding in shipbuilding can be found
in the welding of aluminium structures, typically for lightweight, high speed and passenger
vessels.

With friction stir welding, a rotating tool is introduced into the gap between the two metal
plates to be joined. The friction between the rotating tool and the plates creates heat, which
reduces the yield stress of the materials and allows them to be ‘stirred’ together at a
temperature below their melting point. The plates to be joined must be tightly clamped into
position to prevent them moving during the operation. There should be no gap between the
plates during the process, allowing the weld to be created without the need of filler material.

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Figure 6.10-1 - Friction Stir Welding, Courtesy of TWI Ltd.

The rotating tool is pressed down into the gap between the two plates, the probe part of the
tool first touches the plates, creating friction and thus heat, reducing the yield stress of the
plates and thus allowing the probe to be pressed down into the gap between the plates. The
tool shoulder then reaches the surface of the plates providing additional heating and
preventing material flowing away from the fusing gap. The tool then traverses along the gap
heating the plates and stirring them together, thus creating the ‘weld’.

The advantages of friction stir welding include:

a) Low distortion and shrinkage due to low energy being input into the weld.
b) Excellent mechanical properties in fatigue, tensile and bend tests
c) No arc or fumes
d) No porosity
e) No spatter
f) Can operate in all positions
g) Energy efficient
h) One tool can typically be used for up to 1000m of weld length in 6XXX series
aluminium alloys
i) No filler wire required
j) No gas shielding for welding aluminium
k) Some tolerance to imperfect weld preparations - thin oxide layers can be accepted
l) No grinding, brushing or pickling required in mass production

There are some disadvantages of friction stir welding the main ones for shipbuilding being the
relatively inflexible operation as the process is only applicable to butt welds and requires the
plates to be heavily clamped. In addition, when the tool is withdrawn at the end of the weld
the probe will leave a small hole in the gap between the plates.

6.11 Laser and Laser-Hybrid Welding

Laser welding uses a focused laser beam to produce partial penetration welds with lower heat
input and therefore lower distortion. However, it requires very small gaps between the plates
to be joined and is therefore difficult to adopt in shipbuilding.

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Laser hybrid welding is currently being trialed by major European shipyard building
passenger ships, e.g. Meyer Werft, Fincantieri. The process uses a combination of a laser and
an arc welding process (such as MAG) within the same weld pool to produce a butt weld with
reduced distortion, due to lower heat input from laser welding, and an increased gap between
the plates to be joined, due to the filler metal being provided by the arc welding process.
However the gap between the plates to be joined is still limited (circa 1mm) and thus the
process is currently limited to the panel line.

Figure 6.11-1 - Laser Welding

Figure 6.11-2 - Laser Hybrid Welding

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6.12 Resistance Spot (stud) and Seam Welding

Resistance welding works when two metals are brought into contact and a current passed
between two attached electrodes. The interface between the metals will create resistance to
the current flow and the energy expended overcoming this resistance is converted into heat,
localized at the interface. If the current is high enough and provided long enough this heat
will cause the metals to melt and create a weld pool between them. When the current is then
removed the weld pool cools and the metals become welded together.

Figure 6.12-1 - Spot Welding

In shipbuilding resistance welding can be found as both spot welding and seam welding. Spot
welding is found in the form of stud welding, where typically threaded studs are welded to a
metal panel to provide an anchor for linings, insulation, containment systems etc.

Figure 6.12-2 - Stud Welding Technique

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Figure 6.12-3 - Stud Welding Gun, courtesy of Nelson Stud Welding

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Appendix 1
Welding Experience

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Case 1: Paint in way of welding seam

Ship-Type Product tanker Capacity:50000
Year of build Vessels age when damage found: New building

Location of damage: Maindeck, deck house

Photo/Sketch of
defect/damage

Description of - Poor weld quality.

defect/damage - Material – AH36 in deck.
- Type of weld – fillet weld.
- Welding method, MIG.
- Plate thickness 12.5mm

How discovered - Visual

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Probable cause of - Poor workmanship and lack of preparation

Damage

Description of Repair - Remove plate and remove paint below

Preventative - Enforce proper preparation before erection

action/lessons learned

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Case 2: Crack in inner bottom plate seam

Ship-Type Product tanker Capacity:50000
Year of build Vessels age when damage found: New building

Location of damage: Inner bottom, transverse in way of insert/suction well

Photo/Sketch of
defect/damage

Description of - Crack in inner bottom plate seam

defect/damage - Material – AH36.
- Type of weld – Full penetration butt weld.
- Welding method, MIG.
- Plate thickness 14.5 mm

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How discovered - Visual, during fit-up inspection

Probable cause of - The transverse plate weld was partly completed during block
Damage fabrication.
- The crack has appeared due to heat shrinkage or possibly handling of
the block.
Description of Repair - Gouge out the crack, clean and check with MTI/DPI and complete the
transverse weld. Then continue with the insert plate, longitudinal
weld.
Check completed welds by UT/RT
Preventative - In this case the transverse weld should have been completed before
action/lessons learned moving the block or completing block erection welds.
- In general, the root should be checked with MTI/DPI prior to welding
the opposite side.
- Education of worker, QC/QA, use MPI/DPI after gouging.
- If the crack had been over welded it is likely that there would have
been an internal defect/crack that would have propagated due to the
longitudinal hull girder loads.

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Case 3: Porosity in plate seam, vertical transverse weld

Ship-Type Product tanker Capacity:50000
Year of build Vessels age when damage found: New building

Location of damage: Side shell, vertical block or normal plate seam

Photo/Sketch of
defect/damage

Description of - Weld porosity.

defect/damage - Type of weld – Full penetration butt weld.
- Welding method, MIG or SMAW.
- Plate thickness 14mm, A grade mild steel

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How discovered - Visual, during fit-up inspection

Probable cause of - The plate weld. Has been carried out without run-off tabs, possibly
Damage with poor control of welding parameters or in windy condition, lack
of shield gas.
Description of Repair - Gouge out the vertical welds until defect free, check with UT/RT
further along the weld (100%) to ensure that no more porosity exists.
Re-weld the vertical plate seam, then continue with the erection seam.
Preventative - Use run-off tabs, large enough to avoid defects like this in the
action/lessons learned remaining weld.
- Enhance inspection routines for prefabrication parts, sub inspections.

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Case 4: Crack due to excessive gap

Ship-Type VLCC Capacity: abt. 261,000 dwt
Year of build Vessel’s age when damage found: 11 years old

Location of damage: - Erection fillet weld joint of T.BHD

Photo/Sketch of - Cracks at erection fillet weld joint of T.BHD in way of vertical stiffener
defect/damage

Description of - Crack in fillet weld due to excessive gap.

defect/damage - Material – AH32
- Type of weld – Fillet weld
- Welding method – semi-automatic with CO2 shielding

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- NDT applied – Unknown

- Plate thickness ‐T. BHD: 14.0mm and 16.5mm
‐V. Stiffener: 10.5mm and 12.0mm

How discovered - Alleged oil leakage from COT to WBT through oil-tight bulkhead was
reported.
- Leak test was used to identify the extent of the cracks.
Probable cause of - Excessive gap (about 9mm to 10 mm) between T. BHD and vertical
Damage stiffener on the occasion of erection fillet welding.

Description of Repair - Affected T. BHD and vertical stiffener were partly cropped and
renewed. The concerned fillet weld was gouged out and re-welded with
full penetration weld.
Preventative - Excessive gap shall be avoided on the occasion of erection welding.
action/lessons learned - Highlights the importance of good fit-up inspection and following the
WPS.

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Case 5: Pinhole and crack

Ship-Type VLCC Capacity: abt. 284,000 dwt
Year of build Vessel’s age when damage found: 5 years old

Location of damage: - Fillet weld joint between T. BHD and bilge hopper plate

Photo/Sketch of
defect/damage

Description of - Pin hole and cracks in the fillet weld joint between T. BHD and bilge
defect/damage hopper plate
- Type of weld – Fillet weld
- Welding method – CO2 welding
- Plate thickness‐T. BHD: 18mm AH36
‐Hopper Plate: 30mm and 20mm AH36
.
How discovered - Oil mark was found on the occasion of the internal examination at class

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periodical survey.
- PT was used to identify the extent of the defects.
Probable cause of - Presumably welding conditions of the approved Welding Procedure
Damage Specifications (WPS) were not observed and/or environmental condition
of welding work was not appropriate.
Description of Repair - Pin hole and cracks were permanently repaired by gouging and re-
welding.
Preventative - Welding shall be conducted in accordance with the approved WPS.
action/lessons learned - Moisture, grease, rust, etc. shall be removed from the intended weld part
properly.

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Case 6: Welding wire defect

Ship-Type Aframax Oil Tanker Capacity:105,000 deadweight
Year of build: 2003 Vessels age when damage found: 5 years old

Location of damage: Transverse erection weld on the main deck.

Photo/Sketch of
defect/damage

The defect was found when inert gas was seen to be bubbling through water
on the main deck in way of an erection butt weld located close to the deck
store vertical stiffeners.

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MPI of Weld indicating extent of the crack

Description of damage - Through-thickness crack found in deck weld by visual inspection by

crew member. MPI and UT subsequently used to determine the
extent of the defects.
- Examination of the defective weld indicated lack of sidewall and
inter-run fusion.
- Material – deck plating, 17mm thick AH32
- Type of weld – Full penetration butt weld
- Welding method – Submerged arc welding using two electrodes and
embedded wire.

Macro of Defective Weld Showing Void of Un-Fused Embedded Wire

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Piece of Weld Showing Un-Fused Embedded Wire at

Centre of Weld Thickness

How discovered - Inert gas was seen to be bubbling up through water on the main deck
in way of an erection weld located close to the vertical stiffeners of a
deck store bulkhead.
- MPI was used to identify the extent of the defect. Subsequent
gouging and further MPI ensured the true extent of the defect was
found.

Probable cause of Inspection of the weld revealed that a weld procedure had been used
Damage whereby, after a root run is applied, specially prepared welding wire
is placed into the weld gap. An automatic weld is then made using
two electrodes; the first electrode melts the embedded wire in the gap
and the second provides a capping run of weld.

- It appears that the approved weld procedure was not followed

resulting in the embedded wire not melting completely.

Description of Repair - All main deck plating welds were examined with UT to identify lack
of inter-run fusion and sidewall fusion.
- All defective areas were gouged and re-welded
Preventative - Newbuild specifications now require that all weld procedures are
action/lessons learned submitted to the Buyer.

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Case 7: Main deck erection weld porosity

Ship-Type Handysize Product Capacity: 47,000 DWT
Tanker
Year of build Vessels age when damage found: 7.5 Years

Location of damage: Main Deck: Erection welds in way of No. 4 & No.5 COT/WBT’s

Photo/Sketch of
defect/damage

Wormhole porosity in root run after blasting

Herringbone pattern caused by surface breaking porosity (wormholes)

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Description of - Porosity in the root run, with long pores causing wormholes.
defect/damage - Material –Grade ‘A‘ Mild Steel,
- Type of weld – Full penetration butt weld - erection welds
- Welding method - Likely, FCAW with gas shielding, using backing
strip, although unconfirmed
- NDT applied - UT and RT
- Plate thickness - 12mm

How discovered - Initial discovery from surface visual defect under corrosion. Further
investigation undertaken with UT and RT

Probable cause of - Analysis carried out - Visual Inspection, UT, Radiography,

Damage Macrostructure examination and Hardness profiling.
- Root cause of defect - Poor welding control. Probably moisture either
in the backing strip or on weld preparation.
- Environmental conditions - high humidity, rain and high wind speeds
may have been contributing factors.

Description of Repair - Gouge and re-weld root of the affected welds.

- 100% UT after repair to confirm complete removal of defect.

Preventative - Audit of welding practice and ensure WPS is being followed.

action/lessons learned - Increased level of owner inspection and patrolling, ensuring correct
weld practice.
- Increased number of NDE locations at new build.

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Case 8: Weld scallop

Ship-Type VLCC Capacity: 300,000 DWT
Year of build Vessels age when damage found: during construction

Location of damage:

Photo/Sketch of Structural discontinuity is shown in below figure.

defect/damage

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Description of Slag inclusion, porosity, lack of fusion, lack of penetration at build up

defect/damage welding of scallop.

How discovered UT or RT according to NDT plan for new construction

Probable cause of Welding is done at overhead position. Due to the height of T bar being small,
Damage/defect welding to build up the scallop becomes difficult. Therefore, weld zone of
scallop has more possibility of defect.
Description of Repair Gouge/ Reweld
Preventative Extensive NDT at this location.
action/lessons learned Consider changing the detail to something easier to construct, i.e. a larger
scallop closed with a collar plate.

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Case 9: Poor design – small scallop

Ship-Type MR tanker Capacity:
Year of build Vessels age when damage found: New building

Location of damage: Bottom plate/stiffener

Photo/Sketch of
defect/damage

Poor workmanship.

Scallop too small. Not possible to

do a good weld around corners.

Description of Generally poor and uneven welding with pores.

defect/damage Scallop at bottom is insufficient to achieve round welding and good
corrosion protection
How discovered - Visual

Probable cause of - Poor workmanship

Damage - Design mistake w.r.t. size of scallop

Description of Repair - Unknown, likely left as is.

Preventative - Ensure good access for welding.

action/lessons learned

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Case 10: Poor fit-up and workmanship

Ship-Type MR Tanker Capacity:
Year of build Vessels age when damage found: New building

Location of damage: Bottom shell

Photo/Sketch of
defect/damage

Description of - Excessive gap and uneven edge

defect/damage - Too small scallop for good round welding and corrosion protection

Probable cause of - Poor workmanship and design

Damage
Description of Repair - Unknown. Should be repaired by insert or building up edges with
weld (“buttering”)
- Note the small scallop which will make welding difficult

Preventative - Importance of a good fit-up inspection

action/lessons learned

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Case 11: Poor edge preparation and fit-up

Ship-Type MR tanker Capacity:
Year of build Vessels age when damage found: New building

Location of damage: Side shell

Photo/Sketch of
defect/damage

Description of − Poor edge preparation and fit-up

defect/damage − Inadequate tack welding
− Thickness 12mm

How discovered - Visual

Probable cause of - Poor workmanship (beveling, fit-up, surface preparation)

Damage
Description of Repair
Preventative - The yard/workshop should have a standard for fit-up, tack welding,
action/lessons learned etc. which should be followed.
- Bevel to ensure full penetration.

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Case 12: Poor hopper knuckle weld

Ship-Type VLCC Capacity: 320,000 DWT
Year of build Vessels age when damage found: < 5 years

Location of damage:

Photo/Sketch of
defect/damage

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Description of Welding defect in hopper corner. Voids and slag inclusions. Intermittent
defect/damage defects along entire length of hopper corner. Material HTS 32.

How discovered Discovered due to cargo oil leakage into ballast tank after short time in
service.

Probable cause of Poor fit-up – gap too large. Poor welding with insufficient back-
Damage gouging/cleaning between welding passes, likely that WPS not followed.

Description of Repair Gouge/reweld. Due to poor fit up (see macro section) inserts were also
required.

Preventative Fit-up inspection before welding commencement would have detected the
action/lessons learned poor fit-up. This could have been corrected by inserts or possibly building up
the edge of the sloping plate (“buttering”). The defects could have been
picked up at an early stage of production by a competent NDT operator.

The owner may consider requiring full penetration welds at this joint to ease
NDT. With a partial penetration weld UT will detect the gap at the root and
results may be unclear.

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Case 13: Weld repair of propeller blade

Ship-Type Capacity:
Year of build Vessels age when damage found:

Location of damage: This relates to a crack on a CU3 propeller blade which developed during
service.

Photo/Sketch of
defect/damage

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Case 13: Weld repair of propeller blade

Description of See pictures above

defect/damage

How discovered This relates to a crack on a CU3 propeller blade which developed during
service.
Probable cause of Most likely the crack could have initiated due to a sudden impact.
Damage
Description of Repair The requirements for weld repair of copper alloy propellers are given in
Class Rules for Materials.

Although the defect falls in Zone A for this repair, we do not envisage or
recommend any condition of Class or memorandum provided that the repair
is carried out in accordance with the Class requirements.
Preventative
action/lessons learned

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Case 14: Rudder stock crack

Ship-Type Capacity:
Year of build Vessels age when damage found:

Location of damage:

Photo/Sketch of
defect/damage

Description of During rudder inspection it was found that a horizontal crack has developed
defect/damage on the rudder stock (please see the pictures attached) on about ¾ of total
perimeter. Crack depth was measured with UT and it varied from15 mm to
20 mm.

Rudder stock diameter at the cracked area is 524 mm. The material is forging
with carbon content less than 0.23.

How discovered During rudder inspection in a dry dock.

Probable cause of
Damage
Description of Repair Considering long delivery time of a new rudder stock, the shipyard proposes
to repair it by welding.
Preventative
action/lessons learned

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Case 15: Deck Longitudinal Block Joint Welds

Ship-Type Tanker Capacity: 125,000 DWT T
Year of build Vessels age when damage found: 7 years

Location of defect: Fracture noted in a transverse erection weld in the main deck plating.

Photo/Sketch of defect

Internal inspection of the defect 1

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Internal inspection of the defect 2

Internal Inspection of the defect 3

The defect was first detected from the crack on the main deck, however
following the internal inspection it was noted to have propagated from the
construction weld of the bulb profile.

Description of damage - Through thickness crack found in the deck erection weld during
visual inspection by ships staff. Further visual inspection and MPI/
UT carried out to confirm extent of the defects.
- Type of weld – Butt erection weld
- Plate thickness – Deck 21mm A 36, Bulb Profile 300x12mm A 36

Probable cause of - Samples of the butt weld in deck longitudinals were sent to the
defect Classification Society for further analysis including x-ray, macros and
microstructure examination. Examples of the results shown below:

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Close up of the weld cap showing defects in the weld caps.

Macrograph showing slag inclusion in the weld root area.

Micrograph of the cavity in the weld root area. A crack was observed from the cavity to the
outer surface.

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A slice through the web of the bulb flat deck longitudinal

- The root cause of was found to be a combination of factors

originating from poor workmanship.
- From the macros it was clear that edge preparation was not in
accordance with the WPS.
- Due to narrow gap it was not possible to weld properly, resulting in
large slag inclusions.

Description of Repair - Defective welds were gouged and re-welded with suitable edge
preparation. Insert repairs carried out where defects had propagated
to the base material.
- Following completion of repairs MPI and UT carried out.

Preventative - Increased level of owner inspection and random inspection to ensure

action/lessons learned the correct edge preparation and welding practice is implemented.
- Increased scope for NDT at new build.

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Case 16: Poor piping welds

Ship-Type N/A Capacity:
Year of build Vessels age when damage found:

Location of damage: Piping

Photo//Sketch of
defect/damage

Fabricated pipe bend – many pieces, many poor welds.

Description of - Lack of penetration

defect/damage - Lack of fusion
- Pin holes

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- Poor weld profile

How discovered - Visual

Probable cause of - Poor workmanship

Damage - Poor design of pipe bend

Description of Repair - Unknown, but the work has to be re-done. Either gouge and re-weld
or new pieces.

Preventative - Change in welding procedure.

action/lessons learned - Training and qualification of welders to be checked.
- Design of welded bend to be modified.

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Appendix 2
Sample WPS, WPQR, WQTR

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Appendix 3
References
1. “The Welding Handbook for maritime welders”, UNITOR/Wilhelmsen Ships Services,
11th edition, Revision 0.

2. “Rec. No. 47 Shipbuilding and Repair Quality Standard”, IACS, Rev.7, June 2013.

3. “NDT Course Material”, Force Technology, Nesbru, Norway

4. “Lloyd’s Register Rules for the Classification of Ships”, January 2016.

5. www.twi-global.com. 2006. wet welding repairs. Available online at: http://www.twi-

global.com/technical-knowledge/published-papers/wet-welding-repairs-may-2006/

6. www.twi-global.com. 2009. Friction Stir Welding of Aluminium Alloys. Available

online at: http://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/published-papers/friction-
stir-welding-of-aluminium-alloys/

7. “The International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers & Terminals” (ISGOTT), Fifth
edition, Witherby & Co., Ltd., 2006.

8. DNV GL Class Guideline CG-0051, “Non-destructive testing”, December 2015.

9. DNV GL Rules for the Classification of Ships, Part 2 “Materials and Welding”,
January 2016.

10. Course Material - CSWIP Visual Welding Inspector Level 1, TWI Training and
Examination Service, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

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