F.
The separation axioms
We give two examples of spaces that satisfy a given separation
axiom but not the next stronger one. Te first is a familiar space,
and the second is not.
Teorem F.1. If J is uncountable, J is completely regular, but
not normal.
Proof. The proof follows the outline given in Exercise 9 of §32.
The space RJ is of course completely regular, being a product of
completel regular spaces. Le't X = Z+ ; since X is a closed subspace
of R J it suffices to show that X i not normal. WE! shall use functional
notation for the elements of X rather than tuple notation.
Given a finite subset B of J and given a point x of X, let
U(x,B) be the set of all those elements y of X such that y(od = x( )
for all a in B. Then U(x,B) is open in X; irldeed, it is the cartesian
product FU~, where U is a one-point set fr in B and U = 2+
otherwise. It is immediate that the sets U(x,B) form a basis for X,
since the one-point sets form a basis for 7.
Given a positive integer n, let Pn be the subset of X consisting
of those maps x :J-47 such that for each i dfferent from n,
-1
the set x (i) consists, of at most one element of J. (This of course
implies that x In) consists of uncountably many elements of J.)
The set Pn is closed, for if y is not in Pn, then there is an integer
i n and distinct indices ," of J such that y(4 ) = y( ) = i.
The basis element U(y,E), where B = ,jiC, contains y and is
disjoint from Pn
Furthermore, if n m, then Pn and Pm are disjoint. For if x
is in P , then x maps uncountably many elements of J to n; while
if x is in P , it maps at most one element of J to n.
L!t U and V be open sets of X containing P1 ard P2 respectively.
We show that U and v are not disjoint. It follows that X is not normal.
F.2
Step 1. We define a sequence 1' 2'",... of elements of J, a
sequence xl, x 2 ,... of points of X, ar;d a sequence nl < n 2 < ..
of positive integers, inductively as follows:
Let x(A) = 1 for all o(. Then xl is in Pi; choose a finite nonempty
subset B1 of J such that U(x 1, B 1) is contained in U. Index the
elements of B1 so that
Now suppose that xk and nk are given, and that dj is defined for
j = 1,...,n k . Let Bk denote the set
Bk = ,j |1
Define a point x+l of X by setting
:+l(d;) = j for 1j<nk ,
l
and
XI+l(o) = 1 for all other ct.
Then x belongs to P1 . Cloose Bk+l so that U(xk+l,Bk+l) is contained
in U. Without loss of generality we can choose B+ 1 so that it properly
contains Bk . Index the elements of Bk+l - Bk so that
B +- -Bi =f (j nk.ij inkl .
By induction (actuall.y,recursive definition), we have defined x and a(.i
8nd ni1 for all i.
Step 2. Now, define a point y of X by setting
y(j") = j for all j ,
y( A) = 2 for all other c.
Then y belongs to P2. Choose C so that U(y,c) is contained in V.
Since C is finite, it contains dj for only finitely many j; choose
nk so that C contains no (j for which j-in
.
We shall show that U(y,C)
intersects U(xk+l,Bk+l), sO that the sets U ad V are not disjoint.
Let us define a point z of X (cleverly!) by setting
z( j) = j for 1 j n k
z(j) = 1 for nk< j $n+l, and
z(cd) = 2 for all other .
F 3
Then z(ij) equals xk+l(i) for l<jznk1, sc that z belongs
to U(xk+l,Bk+l). On the other hand, we show that z( ) = y(ot) for
el in C, so that z belongs to U(y,C); our result is then proved. It is
certainly true that z(o ) = y( o) if ot is one of the indices j:., for
in that case j<n k, so that z( j) = j = y(Olj). And it is true that
z(o ) = y( oL) if A is not one of the indices o(j; for in that case
z(,) = 2 = y(]).
Theorem F.2. There is a space that is regular but not completely regular.
Proof. The proof follows the outline given in Exercise 11 of §33.
Step 1. Given an even integer m, Let Lm denote the line segment
m [-1,0] in the plane. And given an odd integer n, and an integer k> 2,
let C denote the union of the line segments
n,k
(r -
(rL + (k-l)/k) -1,0]
(k-l)/k)X [-1,O]
(n- (k-i)/k),C-l1O0
and the semicircle
fx y I(x-n)2 + y2 = (k-1)2/k2 ard y> O0
in the plane. We call C ar '.arch" and we call: L a "pillar."
n, k m
Finally, we let X be the union of the pillars L, for all even integers
m, ard the arches Cn k for all odd integers n ar:d all integers k_>2,
along with two additional points a ard b, which we call the "points at
infinity." For each odd n and each k>2, we let Pn,k be the point
Pn,k = n (k-l)/k ;
it is the "peak" of the arch C k. See the accompanying figure.
ndk
Pl
F.4
We now topologize X in a most unusual fashion. We take as basis
elements all sets of the following five types:
(i) Each one-point set fp3, where p is a point lying on any one
of the arches Cnl that is different from the peak Pn,k of this arch.
(ii) The set formed from one of the sets Cn,k
k
by deleting finitely
many points.
(iii) Fcr each even integer m, each with 0 <E1, and each
y [-1,0], the intersection of X with the horizontal open line segment
(m - , m+ ) y.
(iv) Fcr each even integer m; te union of a} ar;d the set of points
xxy of X for which x m.
(X') For each even integer m, the union of b} ard the set of
points xXy of X for which x>m.
The basis elements of tpe (ii) are the neighborhoods of the peaks; those
of type (iii) are the neighborhoods of points lying on the pillars; and those
of types (iv) and (v) are the neighborhoods of the points at infinity. It is
easy (but boring) to check the conditions for a basis; we leave it to you.
Each of the arches C is an open set of X.
n,k
We shall call the space X "Thomas' arches," because it was invented
by the topologist John Thomas.
Step 2. It is trivial to check that X is a T-space; given two points,
each has a neighborhood that excludes the other. To check regularity,
let p be a point of X; and let U be a basis element containing p.
We consider several cases, showing there is a neighborhood V of p such
that VcU.
If U is a basis element of types (i), (ii), or (iii), then U = U,
and we are finished. So suppose that U is of type (iv), consisting of the
point a along with those points xX y of X for which xm. If p is
the point a, then we let V consist of the point a along with those points
x y of X for which x< m- 2. Then V = VU TL-_ 2 which lies in U.
If p is some other point of U, there is a basis element V of type (i),
(ii), or (iii) containing p and lying in U; then V = V ar;d we are
finished. ?Te argument when U is of type (v) is similar.
F.5
Step 3. X is not completely regular. Indeed, we show that if f
is any continuous function f:X--O[0,1], then f(a) = f(b).
Given nk, let Sk be the set of points p of the arch Cn k for
which the value of f at p is different from the value of f at the
peak Pnk Of the arch. Tlen the set Sn, k is countable: Let f(Pn) k = c.
The set f (c) is a G-set in X, since it is the intersection of the
-1 1 1
open sets f ((c - n , c + )). Each of these open sets contains all but
finitely many points of Cn. Hence their intersection contains all but
n,k'
countably many points of Cn k. Tlus Snk is countable.
It follows that the union of all the sets S is countable. Therefore
we may choose a real number d with - d O sulch that the horizontal
line R d3 intersects none of the sets Sn k. This means that for each
arch Cnki the value of f at the points where the arch intersects this
horizontal line equals the value of f at the peak of the arch.
Now for each even integer m, let cm b the point where the line IR x dl
intersects the pillar L . We assert that the values of f at the points cm
and Cm+2 are equal.
To prove this fact, set n = m+], consider the arch C ,1 and let
ak and bk denote the points of intersection of this arch with the line
JR x d . (For convenience, let ak be the one with smaller x-coordinate.) Then
as k increases, the sequence ak converges to c , wile the sequence
bk converges to c +2 . Continuity of f then implies that f(ak ) converges
to f(cm ) and f(bk ) converges to f(cm+2). But by construction,
f(a)
k = f(pnk) = f(bk)
We conclude that f(cm ) = f(cm+2)4
It follows that the values of f at the points cm are all equal . But
cm converges to the point a as; m goes to -wo, and cm converges to b
as m goes to +. It follows from continuity of f that f(a) = f(b). a
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