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The document discusses key aspects of the scientific research process, including defining science as objective and relying on systematic methods rather than opinions. It contrasts scientific and non-scientific approaches, and covers formulating hypotheses, research design, data collection and analysis methods, reliability and validity, literature reviews, and writing research reports.

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Maryflor Pango
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34 views

Link Click

The document discusses key aspects of the scientific research process, including defining science as objective and relying on systematic methods rather than opinions. It contrasts scientific and non-scientific approaches, and covers formulating hypotheses, research design, data collection and analysis methods, reliability and validity, literature reviews, and writing research reports.

Uploaded by

Maryflor Pango
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Dr Roy Ramphal (UNISA)

 It is a process that involves obtaining


scientific knowledge by means of various
objective methods and procedures.
 Objective means that these methods and
procedures do not rely on personal
feelings and opinions.
Non – Scientific Scientific

• Authority • Systematic observation


• Opinions of peers • Control
• Traditions • Replication
• Debating • Validity
• Accidental observation • Reliability
 This is the logic and theory that explains the
research techniques and methods for a
specific research problem.
 Includes problem statement, research
question, research objectives, literature
reviews, research design, data analyses,
result discussion, conclusions, validity,
reliability and repeatability,
Formulating
research
hypothesis

Writing report Designing a


and review research
strategy

Analysis and Collecting


interpretation data
Qualitative •Observing

Quantitative •Experience

•Uniqueness
Case study
• the purpose of the research is to describe and explain, explore
and interpret, and build theory;
• the nature of the research process is more holistic and
“emergent”, starts with unknown variables, uses flexible
guidelines, leads to “context-bound” information, and
incorporates personal views;
• the data collection is dependent on personal involvement with
a small sample size, using loosely structured or non
standardised observations and interviews;
• the data analyses search for themes and categories, inductive
reasoning, and the analyses may be subjective and potentially
biased; and
• the reports on findings are highly structured with words,
narratives or individual quotes, with a more personal literary
style.
• the purpose of the research is to explain and predict,
confirm and validate, and test theory;
• the nature of the research process is focused, with
known variables, established guidelines, using
predetermined methods, leading to “context-free”
and “detached view” information;
• the data collection is numeric from large samples
using well – designed questionnaires or instruments;
• the data analyses incorporates statistical analyses
leading to objective and deductive reasoning; and
• the reporting findings includes summarized statistics
with numbers in and employs a formal scientific style
using passive voice and impersonal language.
 This refers to some difficulty that the
researcher experiences in the context of a
either a theoretical or practical situation and
to which the researcher wants to obtain a
solution.
 Sources: readings, experienced problems,
previous research, theories
Problem Problem
1 2

Research
statement

Research question
BARRIERS
SCOPE OF
RESEARCH
DELIMITATION
SCOPE OF
RESEARCH
 This reflects on what will be the product of
the research:
 A model
 A framework
 Relationships between factors and/or
variables
 Confirmation/ rejection of theory
 This should cover what exactly will be done to
answer the research question. Should be
written in terms of “SMART” principles
 Action research. This is the type of applied
research conducted to find effective ways of
bringing about operational changes in
organisations. An example would be the
improvement of communications in an
organisation. The researcher is expected to
produce usable knowledge that can be
applied and validated in action.
 Case study research. This method is an
empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon in its real-life
context, especially when the boundaries
between the phenomenon and context are
not evident. This is used in areas in which
there are few theories or a deficient body of
knowledge.
 Field experiments. These are controlled
studies which permit causal relationships to
be identified, the aim being to manipulate
the independent variable in order to observe
the effect on the dependent variable.
 Longitudinal studies. A distinctive feature of
this approach is a chain of studies, investigating
the same situation over different periods of
time. In other words, it involves observing the
change of a characteristic of a single group over
time. For example, a researcher may study the
behaviour of a group of students at a particular
university over a four-year period, where the
data are collected on a year-to-year basis.

 This is the process of enriching the
researcher’s knowledge in the field of the
research topic.
 Plan the review on: What, when, who, where,
why, how,
 Gather information to be tested with
respondents
 Focus group for additional information
 Peer reviewed journal articles
 Peer reviewed books …. Normally a chapter
by a different author
 Professional Books on the subject
 Text Books
 Magazines
 Newspaper articles
 www articles
 Survey questionnaires
 Interviews – personal/telephonic
 Researcher participation
 Existing data [secondary]
 Observations
Probability Non Probability

Simple random sampling Accidental samples


Stratified sampling Quota samples
Systematic sampling Purposive samples
Cluster samples Snowball samples
Self-selection samples
Convenience samples
 Data description: graphs and tables
 Analyses – mean, median, mode, standard
deviation, linear regression, variance, factor
analyses, cluster analyses,
 Inference – t test, z test, F test, cronbach test,
chi test,
POPULATION SAMPLE
result
s
 Reliability: the extend to which the results are
genuine and can be generalised. if two/or more
researchers conduct the same research and if
the results are similar then it is termed reliable.
 Validity – is the degree to which a piece of
research meets what it was intended for.
 Repeatability : the extend to which the research
can be redone using the same method and
producing the same results.
× ×
YYY
×
∴

× = invalid and unreliable


Y = Reliable and invalid
∴= reliable and valid
 "taking over the ideas, methods, or written
words of another, without acknowledgment
and with the intention that they be taken as
the work of the deceiver.”
 When an investigator’s relationship to an
organization affects, or gives the appearance
of affecting, his/her objectivity in the conduct
of scholarly or scientific research, a conflict of
interest is said to occur.
 www.lib.uct.ac.za/infolit/bibharvard.htm
 Introduction
 Literature review
 Research methodology
 Data analyses and discussion
 Conclusions and recommendations
 Peer reviews
 Senior reviews
 Critical readers
 Language editors
 Journal editors

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