Generator

 A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy

into electrical energy using the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
 The operation of generators relies on the principle that
whenever there is mutual cutting between a conductor and
a magnetic field, a voltage and a resulting current will be
induced in the conductor.
 The flow of induced emf is not at random. It is governed by
the direction of motion of the conductor(s) with respect
to the field and can be found from Fleming's Right Hand
Rule.
 The magnitude of the induced voltage depends on the
strength of the magnetic field, rate of cutting and length of
the conductor.
 Emf equation.
Stator Construction
 The stator is a tube made up of silicon iron laminations
with axial slots along the inside surface in which the
conductors are laid. The importance of the iron stator
lies in its ability to strengthen the rotor magnetic fields,
which cut the conductors.
 Obviously the iron stator is also a conductor and will have, like the
conductors, voltage and current induced in it by the rotating fields. It is to
prevent circulation of unwelcome eddy currents that the stator is made up
as a laminated structure of steel stampings.
 For assembly, the slotted laminations (each insulated on one side) are built
into a pack with a number of distance pieces. Substantial steel end plates
welded to external axial bars serve to hold the laminations firmly. The
distance pieces are inserted to provide radial ventilation ducts for cooling
air.
 High conductivity copper in the form of round wire, rectangular wire or
flat bars is used for the conductors. Round or rectangular wire used in
smaller machines is coiled into semi-enclosed and insulated slots . This
type of slot improves the magnetic field.
 Rectangular sections copper bar conductors in large alternators are
Laid in open slots .The bars are insulated from each other and from
the metal slot surfaces by a mica-based paper and tape cladding.
Wedges are fitted to close the slots and retain the windings. In
some machines the wedges are of magnetic material which helps to
make the field more uniform, hence reducing pulsation and losses.

 Bonded fabric wedges are used in some alternators. Slots may be

skewed to reduce pulsation and wave form ripple. Insulating
material used in the slots and around the conductors is porous.
Hence a method of sealing is necessary to exclude moisture, which
would cause insulation breakdown.

 The sealing procedure starts with drying the stator with its
assembled conductors. The windings and insulation are then
impregnated with synthetic resin or varnish and oven-cured. The
six-conductor winding in shows the principle of three-phase
generation. The far greater number of windings in an actual machine
leads to much more complication in the winding.
 Rotor Details
 An alternator rotor has one or more pairs of magnetic poles. Residual
magnetism in the iron core is boosted by flux from direct
current(constant magnetic field) in the windings around them and this
current from the excitation system has to be adjusted to maintain
constant output voltage through load changes.
 The small value of dc needed for the magnetic field can be supplied by a
battery or a part of the alternator’s own rectified output, this is known as
excitation.
 Existing rules have made it mandatory that excitation current for
generators is to be provided by attached rotating exciters or by static
exciters deriving their source of power from the machines being
controlled.

 With the exception of brushless alternators, the direct excitation current

for the rotor is supplied through brushes and slip rings on the shaft. The
copper-nickel alloy rings must be insulated from each other and from the
shaft. They are shrunk on to a mica-insulated hub, which is keyed, to the
shaft.
 Brushes are of an appropriate graphite material and pressure is applied to
them by springs.
Important points
 An alternator has two separate coils(or windings) of wire.
 One coil will carry d.c and produce a magnetic field for use inside the
generator. This coil of wire is wrapped around an iron core(pole piece) so
as to concentrate its magnetic effects.
 This coil is always called the field and is supplied only with d.c.
 This is usually the rotor as it is smaller than the armature and thus a
lighter mechanical load for the prime mover.
 The other coil usually the stator and always called the armature, will have
an emf induced into it, when the rotors field or magnetic lines of force are
cut by its conductors.
 Alternating current flows through the electrical system connected to it
and work can be done.
 This will always be star wound so that higher line voltages can be
generated.
 The coil of wire that is rotating can be called the rotor.
 The coil of wire that is permanently fixed to the alternator housing can be
called the stator.
 The item that moves a generator coil is called prime mover.
 Types of prime movers.
Armature & field
 As long as the relative motion exists between the
magnetic field and the armature, an emf will be
produced.
 Either the stator or rotor can be armature or field.
Rotating armature alternators
 Used only in small generators.
 Output is low,
 A rotating armature alternator requires a slip rings and
brushes to connect the high output voltage and
current from the armature to the load.
 the armature, brushes and slip rings are difficult to
insulate.
 arc-over and short circuit can result at high voltages
and maintenance is costly in the long run of these
types.
Rotating field alternators
 The advantage of having a stationary armature is that
the generated emf can be connected directly and
permanently to the load.
 There is no sliding connections(slip rings and brushes)
to carry the heavy output current and hence
maintenance is reduced to a great extent.
 Modern days- brushless generator
 The rotating fields, although moving at constant speed,
will cut the conductors at a varying rate because of the
circular movement.Voltage induced at any instant is
proportional to the sine of the angle of the rotating
vector.
 Turbo Alternator
 One rotation of the single pair of poles will induce one cycle of
output in the stator windings (conductors). An alternator with one
pair of poles has to rotate at 60 times per second to develop a
frequency of 60 cycles per second. In terms of revolutions per minute,
the alternator speed must be 60 x 60 = 3600 r.p.m.
 f=60, P=2, N=?(f=P*N/120)
 Alternators with one pair of rotor
Poles Are disigned for a steam or
Gas turbine drive through reduction
Gears. For this reason they are
sometimes referred as turbo-
Alternators.

 ALTERNATOR FREQUENCY depends upon the speed of

rotation and the number of pairs of rotor poles
 Brushless alternator
 In this machine slip rings, brushes are eliminated and excitation is
provided not by a conventional direct current exciter but by a
small alternator within the set itself.
 There are no direct electrical connections between the rotating
and stationary windings of the generator.
 The AC exciter has the unusual arrangement of 3 phase output
windings on the rotor and magnetic poles fixed in the casings.
 The casing pole coils are supplied with d.c from AVR .
 3 phase current generated in the winding on the exciter rotor
passes through a rectifier assembly on the shaft and then to the
main alternator poles. No slip rings are needed.
 The silicon rectifiers fitted in the housing at the end of the shaft are
assessable for replacement and their rotation assists cooling. The
six rectifiers give full wave rectification of the 3 phase supply.
Outline of operation of a brushless
alternator
Shaft-driven Alternators
 Shaft-driven alternators on board ships are
alternators driven by the main engine to supply
power to the mains. They are also known as
'Shaft Alternators'. The mains must be supplied
with constant voltage and frequency by the shaft
alternator even at changing speeds of the main
engine.
Advantages
 Lowering of fuel cost by lowering diesel oil and
better efficiency of main engine.
 Reduction of maintenance and lubricant cost by
reduction of operating time of auxiliary
alternator sets.
 Saving of operating personal
 Low noise level of engine room
 Smaller diesel alternator set.
Disadvantages
 No power production in harbour.
 Increased load on the main engine.
 More complex shaft arrangement
Excitation Methods
 The two factors essential for the production of a
generated emf in an a.c. generator are rotational
speed (n) and magnetic flux (phi).
 Field windings on the rotor create strong
magnetic field poles when direct current is passed
through them.
 Various methods have been devised to supply the
correct d.c. field (excitation) current to produce
the required a.c. output voltage from the stator
terminals. The excitation must be continually
regulated to maintain the generator output
voltage as the load power demand fluctuates.
 Broadly, the excitation methods are either rotary or
static. A rotary method utilises an a.c. or d.c. exciter
which is shaft-mounted and rotates with the main
generator rotor.
 Traditionally, rotary exciters were d.c. generators with
stationary field poles, rotating armature, commutator
and brushgear.
 The most common arrangement is to use a shaft
mounted a.c. exciter.
 The absence of brushes, brushgear and carbon dust
improves reliability and considerably reduces
maintenance.
 Rectification of the a.c. exciter voltage is achieved by
six shaft-mounted silicon diodes.
 Although diode failures are rare, some generator field
systems are fitted with an electronic detector relay to
give an alarm and/or trip signal should such a fault
occur.
 The transient voltage response of a
generator can be improved by eliminating the
rotary exciter in favour of a static excitation
method.
 In this arrangement, the generator field
draws its d.c. current via a static excitation
transformer/rectifier unit fed directly from
the generator voltage and current output.
 This arrangement is known as compounding
and it is controlled by voltage (shunt effect)
and current (series effect) feedback.
 Automatic Voltage
Regulation
 fluctuating load demand.
 Automatic voltage regulation (AVR) equipment is
necessary to rapidly correct such voltage changes.
 The AVR senses the generator output voltage and acts
to alter the field current to maintain the voltage at its
set value.
 The control circuit for a modern AVR consists of
transformers, rectifiers, zener diodes, transistors and
thyristors.
 These are mounted on one of more circuit cards fitted
either within the switchboard or local to the
generator.
 The voltage sensing unit transforms down,
rectifies and smooths the generator output
voltage. This produces a low voltage d.c. signal
that is proportional to the a.c. generator voltage.
 This actual d.c. signal is compared with a set d.c.
value produced by a reference circuit of zener
diodes and resistors.
 An error signal output from the comparator is
then amplified and made suitable for driving the
field circuit regulating thyristor(s).
 A thyristor is a fast-acting electronic switch
controlled by a voltage signal at its gate terminal.
This device rectifies and regulates the generator
field current.