DIGITAL NOTES

Computer Integrated Manufacturing

R17A0316

B.Tech –III Year – I Sem

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(An Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt.of India)
Recognizes under 2(f) and 12(B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE –Accredited by NBA & NAAC-“A” Grade-ISO 9001:2015
Certified)

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OBJECTIVES:
 This course will enable the student
 To gain knowledge about the basic fundamental of CAD.
 To gain knowledge on how computers are integrated at various levels of planning and
 Manufacturing understand computer aided planning and control and computer monitoring.

UNIT – I
Computer-Aided Programming: General information, APT programming, Examples Apt programming
problems (2D machining only). NC programming on CAD/CAM systems, the design and
implementation of post processors .Introduction to CAD/CAM software, Automatic Tool Path
generation.
UNIT - II
Tooling for CNC Machines: Interchangeable tooling system, preset and qualified tools, coolant fed
tooling system, modular featuring, quick change tooling system, automatic head changers. DNC
Systems and Adaptive Control: Introduction, type of DNC systems, advantages and disadvantages of
DNC, adaptive control with optimization, Adaptive control with constrains, Adaptive control of
machining processes like turning, grinding.
UNIT - III
Post Processors for CNC: Introduction to Post Processors: The necessity of a Post Processor, the
general structure of a Post Processor, the functions of a Post Processor, DAPP — based-Post Processor:
Communication channels and major variables in the DAPP — based Post Processor, th creation of a
DAPP — Based Post Processor.
UNIT – IV
Micro Controllers: Introduction, Hardware components, I/O pins, ports, external memory: counters,
timers and serial data I/O interrupts. Selection of Micro Controllers Embedded Controllers,
Applications and Programming of Micro Controllers. Programming Logic Controllers (PLC‘ s):
Introduction, Hardware components of PLC, System, basic structure, principle of operations,
Programming mnemonics timers, Internal relays and counters, Applications of PLC‘s in CNC
Machines.
UNIT - V
Computer Aided Process Planning: Hybrid CAAP System, Computer Aided Inspection and quality
control, Coordinate Measuring Machine, Limitations of CMM, Computer Aided Testing, Optical
Inspection Methods, Artificial Intelligence and expert system: Artificial Neural Networks, Artificial
Intelligence in CAD, Experts systems and its structures.
TEXT BOOKS
1. Computer Control of Manufacturing Systems / Yoram Koren / Mc Graw Hill. 1983.
2. Computer Aided Design Manufacturing - K. Lalit Narayan, K. Mallikarjuna Rao and M.M.M.
Sarcar, PHI, 2008.
3. CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, P.N.Rao, TMH

REFERENCES
1. CAD / CAM Theory and Practice,/ Ibrahim Zeid,TMH
2. CAD / CAM / CIM, Radhakrishnan and Subramanian, New Age
3. Principles of Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing, Farid Amirouche, Pearson
4. Computer Numerical Control Concepts and programming, Warren S Seames, Thomson.

OUTCOMES:
 Acquire knowledge on components of computer integrated manufacturing.
 Students should be able to understand business functions those influence design of a particular
product.
 Students should be able to know function of computer in design and manufacturing.

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CONTENTS
UNIT NO NAME OF THE UNIT PAGE NO

I
Computer-Aided Programming 4-11

Tooling for CNC Machines

II
12-18

Post Processors for CNC

III
19-23

Micro Controllers
IV
24-42

Computer Aided Process Planning 43-56

V

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 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
Unit – 1
Computer aided programming
Introduction to cad cam software:-
Software allows the human user to turn a hardware configuration into a powerful design and
manufacturing system. CAD/CAM software falls into two broad categories, 2-D and 3-D,based on the number of
dimensions are called 2-D representations of 3-D objectsis inherently confusing. Equally problem has been the
inability ofmanufacturing personnel to properly read and interpret complicated 2-Drepresentations of objects. 3-D
software permits the parts to be viewed withthe 3-D planes-height, width, and depth-visible. The trend in
CAD/CAM is toward3-D representation of graphic images. Such representation approximates the actual shape
and appearance of the object to be produced; therefore, they are easier to read and understand.

CNC milling machines have of course been developed based on conventional millingmachines, where the
tool is moved through the material by operating a hand wheel for each ofthe available axes (X, Y, Z,). The basis
of adding NC (Numerical Control) is very simple:replace the hand wheel by a positioning motor and add some
electronics (the NC controller) tocontrol the position. Nowadays many conversion kits are available to perform
such operation.The first NC controllers were very simple: no user-interface, just an option to read the
toolpositionsto go to from a punched tape. Very soon new controllers were introduced, includinga simple
computer with a special-purpose keyboard and a display. The operator now couldenter the sequence of
movements to make (the NC program) on the controller, which wascalled CNC (Computerized Numerical
Control). In some cases a tape puncher / reader stillwas available for external storage.Next step was of course to
use a PC for external storage, communicating with the CNCcontroller via a serial cable. This allowed the operator
to conveniently sit at his desk to enter anew NC program, while at the same time the CNC machine was executing
a previous job. Donote that for most desktop machines the situation is a bit different, as here a PC is used forthe
CNC controller (much cheaper than a special purpose control computer).In the situation just described the
operator enters the complete NC program on the computer,using a plain editor like Notepad or a special purpose
NC editor. Each movement has to beseparately entered, like "G0X10Y20Z30" for "Machine in a straight line from
the currentposition to position (10, 20, and 30)". This is of course very labor intensive, and this is where
CAMsoftware comes in to 'automatically' generate NC program files.

In order to manufacture a part, nowadays typically three different software programs are used
(See the illustration above):
 First the CAD software to make the design of the part
 Next de CAM software to calculate the toolpaths based on the design, compensating for the cutter's
geometry, adding feedrate and spindle commands, etc Third the control software to read the toolpaths and
let the machine actually move along these paths. This subdivision of tasks by three different programs is
the same for both 2D and 3D applications.

Automatic toolpath generation:-

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 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) encompasses the entire range of product
development and manufacturing activities with all the functions being carried out with the
help of dedicated software packages. The data required for various functions are passed from
one application software to another in a seamless manner. For example, the product data is
created during design. This data has to be transferred from the modeling software to
manufacturing software without any loss of data. CIM uses a common database wherever
feasible and communication technologies to integrate design, manufacturing and associated
business functions that combine the automated segments of a factory or a manufacturing
facility. CIM reduces the human component of manufacturing and thereby relieves the
process of its slow, expensive and error-prone component. CIM stands for a holistic and
methodological approach to the activities of the manufacturing enterprise in order to achieve
vast improvement in its performance.
This methodological approach is applied to all activities from the design of the product to
customer support in an integrated way, using various methods, means and techniques in order
to achieve production improvement, cost reduction, fulfillment of scheduled delivery dates,
quality improvement and total flexibility in the manufacturing system. CIM requires all those
associated with a company to involve totally in the process of product development and
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 manufacture. In such a holistic approach, economic, social and human aspects have the same
importance as technical aspects. CIM also encompasses the whole lot of enabling
technologies including total quality management, business process reengineering, concurrent
engineering, workflow automation, enterprise resource planning and flexible manufacturing.
The challenge before the manufacturing engineers is illustrated in Fig. 1

3. CIM HARDWARE AND CIM SOFTWARE

CIM Hardware comprises the following:
i. Manufacturing equipment such as CNC machines or computerized work centers,
robotic work cells, DNC/FMS systems, work handling and tool handling devices,
storage devices, sensors, shop floor data collection devices, inspection machines etc.
1. Computers, controllers, CAD/CAM systems, workstations / terminals, data entry
terminals, bar code readers, RFID tags, printers, plotters and other peripheral devices,
modems, cables, connectors etc.,
CIM software comprises computer programmes to carry out the following functions:
 Management Information System
 Sales
 Marketing
  Finance
 Database Management
 Modeling and Design
 Analysis
 Simulation
 Communications
  Monitoring
 Production Control
 Manufacturing Area Control
 Job Tracking
 Inventory Control
 Shop Floor Data Collection
  Order Entry
 Materials Handling
 Device Drivers
 Process Planning
 Manufacturing Facilities Planning
 Work Flow Automation
  Business Process Engineering

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  Network Management
 Quality Management

4. NATURE AND ROLE OF THE ELEMENTS OF CIM SYSTEM

Nine major elements of a CIM system are in Figure 2 they are,
 Marketing
 Product Design
 Planning
  Purchase
 Manufacturing Engineering
 Factory Automation Hardware
 Warehousing
 Logistics and Supply Chain Management
 Finance
 Information Management

Figure 2 Major elements of CIM systems

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 i. Marketing: The need for a product is identified by the marketing division. The
specifications of the product, the projection of manufacturing quantities and the strategy
for marketing the product are also decided by the marketing department. Marketing also
works out the manufacturing costs to assess the economic viability of the product.

2. Product Design: The design department of the company establishes the initial
database for production of a proposed product. In a CIM system this is accomplished
through activities such as geometric modeling and computer aided design while
considering the product requirements and concepts generated by the creativity of the
design engineer. Configuration management is an important activity in many designs.
Complex designs are usually carried out by several teams working simultaneously,
located often in different parts of the world. The design process is constrained by the
costs that will be incurred in actual production and by the capabilities of the available
production equipment and processes. The design process creates the database required to
manufacture the part.
3. Planning: The planning department takes the database established by the design
department and enriches it with production data and information to produce a plan for the
production of the product. Planning involves several subsystems dealing with materials,
facility, process, tools, manpower, capacity, scheduling, outsourcing, assembly,
inspection, logistics etc. In a CIM system, this planning process should be constrained by
the production costs and by the production equipment and process capability, in order to
generate an optimized plan.

4. Purchase: The purchase departments is responsible for placing the purchase orders and
follow up, ensure quality in the production process of the vendor, receive the items,
arrange for inspection and supply the items to the stores or arrange timely delivery
depending on the production schedule for eventual supply to manufacture and assembly.

Manufacturing Engineering: Manufacturing Engineering is the activity of carrying out

the production of the product, involving further enrichment of the database with
performance data and information about the production equipment and processes. In
CIM, this requires activities like CNC programming, simulation and computer aided
scheduling of the production activity. This should include online dynamic scheduling and
control based on the real time performance of the equipment and processes to assure
continuous production activity. Often, the need to meet fluctuating market demand
requires the manufacturing system flexible and agile.

Factory Automation Hardware: Factory automation equipment further enriches the

database with equipment and process data, resident either in the operator or the
equipment to carry out the production process. In CIM system this consists of computer
controlled process machinery such as CNC machine tools, flexible manufacturing
systems (FMS), Computer controlled robots, material handling systems, computer
controlled assembly systems, flexibly automated inspection systems and so on.

vii. Warehousing: Warehousing is the function involving storage and retrieval of raw
materials, components, finished goods as well as shipment of items. In today's complex
outsourcing scenario and the need for just-in-time supply of components and subsystems,
logistics and supply chain management assume great importance.

viii. Finance: Finance deals with the resources pertaining to money. Planning of investment,
working capital, and cash flow control, realization of receipts, accounting and allocation
of funds are the major tasks of the finance departments.

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 ix. Information Management: Information Management is perhaps one of the crucial tasks in
CIM. This involves master production scheduling, database management, communication,
manufacturing systems integration and management information systems.

Definition of CIM
Joel Goldhar, Dean, Illinois Institute of Technology gives CIM as a computer system in
which the peripherals are robots, machine tools and other processing equipment.
Dan Appleton, President, DACOM, Inc. defines CIM is a management philosophy, not a
turnkey product.
Jack Conaway, CIM Marketing manager, DEC, defines CIM is nothing but a data
management and networking problem.
The computer and automated systems association of the society of Manufacturing
Engineers (CASA/SEM) defines CIM is the integration of total manufacturing enterprise
by using integrated systems and data communication coupled with new managerial
philosophies that improve organizational and personnel efficiency.
CIM is recognized as Islands of Automation. They are
1. CAD/CAM/CAE/GT
2. Manufacturing Planning and Control.
3. Factory Automation
4. General Business Management

CASA/SME’s CIM Wheel is as shown in figure 4

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 2.3 FUNCTIONS IN MANUFACTURING
For any of the three types of production, there are certain basic functions that must be
carried out to convert raw materials into finished product. For a firm engaged in making
discrete products, the functions are:
1. Processing
2. Assembly
3. Material handling and storage
4. Inspection and test
5. Control

The first four of these functions are the physical activities that "touch" the product as it is
being made. Processing and assembly are operations that add value to the product. The third
and fourth functions must be performed in a manufacturing plant, but they do not add value
to the product. The Figure 6, shows the model of the functions of manufacturing in factory .

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 Processing operations
Processing operations transform the product from one state of completion into a
more advanced state of completion. Processing operations can be classified into
one of the following four categories:
3. Basic processes
4. Secondary processes
5. Operations to enhance physical properties
6. Finishing operations

Basic processes are those which give the work material its initial form. Metal
casting and plastic molding are examples. In both cases, the raw materials are
converted into the basic geometry of the desired product.

Secondary processes follow the basic process and are performed to give the work
part its final desired geometry. Examples in this category include machining
(turning, drilling, milling, etc.) and press working operations (blanking, forming,
drawing, etc.).

Operations to enhance physical properties do not perceptibly change the physical

geometry of the work part. Instead, the physical properties of the material are
improved in some way. Heat-treating operations to strengthen metal pans and
preshrinking used in the garment industry are examples in this category.

Finishing operations are the final processes performed on the work part. Their
purpose is, for example, to improve the appearance, or to provide a protective
coating on the part. Examples in this fourth category include polishing, painting,
and chrome plating.

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 Unit – II
Tooling for CNC machines

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Preset Tools
The setting of tools in advance at a place away from the machine tool or offline, in
special holders is known as preset tools. A presetting device is used to preset axial and
radial positions of the tool tip on the tool holder. Once this is done, the tool holder is
ready to be mounted on the machine and produce a known dimension. Presetting
devices to various levels of sophistication are available like optical projector. Tool
length and tool diameter compensation facilities available in the present day CNC
machines have brought down the importance of presetting. Since the generation of
actual geometry is taken care of by the CNC part program, which is essentially the
coordinates through which the cutting tool tip moves, it is important to know the actual
dimensions of the tool when it is placed in the spindle. The relationship of the tool with
reference to the tool holding mechanism requires a special attention during CNC
machining process. The actual point to be programmed in a CNC part program is the tip
of the tool whereas the axes will be moving with respect to a known point in the
spindle, e.g. the centre of the spindle in case of machining centres. It becomes therefore
necessary to know precisely the deviation of the tool tip from the gauge point on the
spindle.

Qualified Tools

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 Tool which fits into a location on the machine, where its cutting edge is accurately
positioned within close limits relative to a specified datum on the tool holder or slide, is
known as qualified tool. The cutting tools satisfy the following requirements:
(a) Tools need not be measured individually.

(b) No presetting device is used.

(c) The dimensions of the tool holder which are fixed and known.

(d) Set up time is reduced.

(e) Control dimensions of the tool are nominal and fixed.

(f) Higher control on resharpening e.g. drills, reamers.

(g) Cutter for better size control e.g. end mills, teamers.

(h) Chip breaking facilities incorporated in tool.

(i) Impoved designs.

The qualified tool with holder shown in Figure 5.1

A modular fixturing system is composted of standardized components that allow for

flexible arrangement and interchangeability between different applications. The versatility
of the components makes it a viable alternative to traditional fixturing methods because a
single modular fixture system is capable of doing the same work as numerous dedicated
fixturing systems.
Modular Fixturing Components Tooling Plates and Blocks

As stated above, a modular fixturing system is made up of many flexible and

interchangeable components. Likely the most fundamental and important component is
the tooling plate or tooling block. These are also commonly known as fixturing plates,
tooling columns, and tombstones.

Modular tooling plates feature a grid of locating holes which are used to attach clamping

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devices, work supports, stops, and any other components necessary to correctly position the
work piece for the application. The tooling plate's multipurpose holes provide increased
flexibility for other modular components because they can be located or positioned
anywhere on the grid. This allows for many different set ups to be created on a single
fixturing plate.
Quick-Change Tooling System
Insert the collet or tool holder in the spindle. Push back on the quill handle. You’ve turned
Minutes into seconds!
Change Tools in Seconds!
Install the patented Mach-1 mechanical drawbar system in your Bridgeport or other knee
mill to reduce job setup and increase accuracy and repeatability. A ground pull stud snaps
the collet or tool holder in place with a short push of the quill handle. A collet closer will
secure the tool in the collet so that when the collet is removed from the spindle, the tool
will maintain the Z-axis position or length characteristics when needed. The Mach-1
Tooling System will pay for itself in a matter of days!

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Automatic head changers:-

An automatic tool changer in a machine tool for automatically changing a tool. The
machine tool includes a main frame, a main spindle head movably provided to the main
frame, a main spindle rotatably disposed in the main spindle head, the main spindle head
being movable in an axial direction of the main spindle, and a tool magazine provided with
a rotatable magazine base for holding a plurality of tool holders and for rotationally
indexing one of the tool holders, whereby the one of rotationally indexed tool holder is
changed by a tool holder provided at the main spindle. The automatic tool changer
comprises; a plurality of tool holder gripping means radially arranged on and pivotably
supported to the magazine base, the tool magazine being secured to a stationary portion of
the main frame, and means for pivotting one of the tool holder gripping means rotationally
indexed independent of remaining tool holder gripping means. The pivotting means moves
the one of tool holder gripping...

Claims

1. An automatic tool changer for use in a machine tool for automatically changing a tool,
the machine tool including a main frame, a main spindle head movably provided with
respect to the main frame, a main spindle rotatably disposed in the main spindle head with
the main spindle head being movable in an axial direction of the main spindle, and a tool
magazine provided with a rotatable magazine base for holding a plurality of tool holders
and for rotationally indexing one of the tool holders such that one of the rotationally
indexed tool holders may be interchanged with a tool holder provided at the main spindle,
the automatic tool changer comprising:

a plurality of tool holder gripping means radially arranged on and pivotably supported by
said magazine base, said tool magazine being secured to a stationary portion of said main
frame; and,
means for pivoting one of said tool holder gripping means independently of the remaining
tool holder gripping means, said pivoting means including a moving means for moving said
one of said tool holder gripping means toward and away from said main spindle, said
moving means being operative to move said one of said tool holder gripping means away
from said main spindle at times when said main spindle head is moved towards a work
piece for machining.

2. The automatic tool changer as defined in claim 1, wherein said tool magazine further
comprises a plurality of pivot shafts radially arranged with respect to said magazine base,
each of said plurality of tool holder gripping means being pivotally supported by a
respective one of said pivot shafts.

3. The automatic tool changer as defined in claim 1, wherein each of said tool holder
gripping means comprises a first portion, an intermediate portion, and a second portion,
said first portion being in association with said magazine base for normally urging said tool
holder gripping means toward said main spindle head, said intermediate portion being
rotatably supported by said pivot shaft, and said second portion being provided with a
bifurcated portion for gripping said tool holder.

4. The automatic tool changer as defined in claim 1, wherein said pivoting means comprises
a first cam follower provided on each of said tool holder gripping means at a position in
confrontation with said main spindle head; and a first cam surface provided on said main
spindle head and at a position in confrontation with said tool magazine, said first cam

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follower being selectively engageable with said first cam surface in response to the
movement of said main spindle head.

5. The automatic tool changer as defined in claim 4, wherein said first portion of said tool
holder gripping means comprises a biasing means for biasing said second portion toward
said main spindle head.

6. The automatic tool changer as defined in claim 4, wherein said pivoting means further
comprises a second cam follower provided at said tool holder gripping means at a position
in confrontation with said main spindle head, and a second cam surface provided at said
main spindle head and at a position in confrontation with said tool magazine, said second
cam follower being selectively engageable with said second cam surface in response to
movement of said main spindle head, said second cam surface being adapted to prevent
said tool holder gripping means from excessive pivotal movement to a direction away from
said main spindle head against biasing force of said biasing means.

7. The automatic tool changer as defined in claim 4, wherein each of said tool holder
gripping means defines a central line along longitudinal direction thereof, said first cam
follower being positioned opposite to said second cam follower with respect to said central
line.

8. The automatic tool changer as defined in claim 3, wherein said tool holder gripping
means comprises a grip arm having said first, intermediate and second portions; and
wherein each of said tool holders has a maximum diameter portion formed with annular V-
shaped groove, and wherein said bifurcated portion comprises two bifurcated members
each formed with a bore extending in a direction perpendicular to said grip arm; retractable
pins disposed in said bores, and spring means disposed in said bores for biasing said pins,
said pins being engageable with said annular V-shaped groove.

9. The automatic tool changer as defined in claim 1, further comprising: clamping and
unclamping means for clamping and unclamping one of said tool holder with respect to said
main spindle synchronously with an operation of said pivotting means and with the
movement of said main spindle head.

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 Unit – III
post processors for CNC

Introduction to post processor:-

In the final phase of an NC project, the NC operation toolpaths are processed to convert
them to the NC code needed by the machine that will cut the part. This conversion process,
called post processing, is accomplished with programs called post processors. After NC
code has been created for the specific machine that will do the cutting, it must be
transmitted to that machine. One common method of doing this is to make an RS-232
connection between a computer and the NC machine and then download the NC code
directly to the machine. This process is referred to as Direct Numerical Control or DNC
communications.
SURFCAM is shipped with two post processor systems and one DNC system
Post processors are programs that take toolpath information from a file created by a CAM
program and machine information from a machine configuration file (often called a post) to
create the final NC code understood by the NC machine’s controller. Post processors
usually come in a package consisting of a processor for each general type of NC machine
(that is lathe, mill, and wire EDM) and files and/or programs that help you create machine
configuration files or posts for individual NC machines.SURFCAM is shipped with two
such post processor packages. One consists of three separate post processors called
MPOST, LPOST and EPOST. For convenience, this package is referred to as MPOST. The
other, called SPOST has more powerful post processors and a machine configuration utility
for developing posts or machine configuration files. Both packages contain a library of
existing posts for a number of NC machines.

Most CAM systems generate one or more types of neutral language files containing
instructions for a CNC machine. These are either in a binary format called CLDATA or
some ASCII readable format tailored after the APT language. APT is an acronym for
"Automatically Programmed Tools," software that accepts symbolic geometry and
manufacturing instructions, and generates CLDATA describing the manufacturing
operation in absolute terms. Some CAM systems provide a large degree of flexibility,
allowing just about anything to be included in the neutral file, others are quite strict about
what can and cannot be included.

At the other end of the equation sits the NC machine. It requires input customized
for the controller being used and arguably to a lesser extent, the operator running the
machine. Most important, the NC machine must be driven in a manner that satisfies shop
floor criteria, which are primarily based on safety, efficiency and tradition.

Between these two lies the post-processor. The post-processor is software

responsible for translating neutral instructions from the CAM system into the specific
instructions required by the NC machine (Figure 1). This software responds to the unique
requirements and limitations of the CAM system, NC machine and manufacturing
environment. Therefore, post-processing is an important part of factory automation, as is
anything that lies on the critical path between the design engineer and the shipping
department.

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 The software that converts CL-file CAD/CAM data to specific machine tool
commands is called a Post Processor. Post Processor software is an essential component of
any Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) system used to
produce machined parts.

Why do I need one and why are they important?

Your CAD/CAM system has a “natural break” at the point where it produces a GENERIC
form of Numerical Control (N/C) output called the aCL-file (Cutter Location File).

This generic intermediate output merely represents the path(s) your machine’s cutter will
take while machining your part. It does not reflect, and is not optimized for, the SPECIFIC
CNC Control and Machine Tool capabilities of the machine you will actually use to cut the
part.

At this generic “breakpoint,” the Post Processor software - sometimes called a LINK -
comes in. It takes the CL-file and processes it into the specific form of RS-274 NC data
required by your CNC and Machine Tool combination.

The quality of the final RS-274 part program (the extent to which it fully, optimally, and
accurately uses the capabilities of your machine tool) completely depends on the
sophistication and capabilities of the Post Processor software.

A poor Post Processor can mean longer cycle times. It can also produce incorrect NC data
which can scrap parts, damage equipment, or injure personnel. Inaccurate NC data output
can lower part quality and lessen cutting tool life.

In short, without the best Post Processor, you are missing out on the highest part throughput
and part quality. You are also missing out on producing parts at the lowest cost.

General structure of post processor:-

As the tie between CAD/CAM system and manufacturing, post processing is one of
the key technologies in numerical control programmed technologies, it directly influences
the result of using automatic programming system, the reliable operation of the machine
and the processing quality and efficiency of parts. Providing or developing effective post
processing programs has important significance to solve the bottleneck from design to
manufacture, increase the programming efficiency and reliability of machining. The
research results can serve as references to post processing program developing of other
types of five axis CNC machines, which also provide the thought for post processing
program developing of other CAD/CAM software.

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Overview
The entries in the configuration file fall into five main categories which are described
briefly below.
Global Statements
These determine the descriptive name for the post and its file extensions, whether the
output is in mm or inches, line numbering information, line terminators and default
formatting for numeric fields.
Start of File
This section deals with lines which must be output at the start of every program. This
information usually has the program name, commands for switching on the spindle, moves
from the home position etc.
Tool Moves
This section details how the actual tool moves are output for the machine tool. The tool
moves are sub-divided into two further categories.
Positioning Moves
These moves are used for positioning the tool while it is clear of the workpiece and are
usually
Made at the maximum speed of the machine tool.
Cutting Moves
These are moves made with the tool cutting material and are made at the speeds specified
within ArtCAM when the toolpath was created.
For both types of moves a format can optionally bespecified for the first move in the
category and a different format for all subsequent moves. This is often used when the first
move switches on a modal flag in the control (e.g. G0 to specify positioning moves) and
then subsequent moves do not need this command to be reoutput. See the fanuc.con
configuration file for an example of this behavior.

Toolchanges
If the machine tool is equipped with an automatic toolchanger, or the user wants to allow
manual toolchanges part way through an output file, the TOOLCHANGE statement can be
used to output the appropriate commands. NOTE: Toolchangers are NOT supported by

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 20

Mill Wizard.
End Of File
This section deals with lines which must be output at the end of every program. This
section usually contains commands for switching off the spindle, moving the tool back to
the home position etc.

Functions of post processors:-

Plot on arbitrary plane
and surface
Plot of entire volume
region
Geometrical data
Unfolded cylinder
handling
surface
Arbitrary scaling
Specify by value or by
picking
Mesh, Vector, Contour
Plots
Iso-surface,
Drawing scSTREAMline
functions Average and min / max values
2D graph
calculation
Displaying original analysis model
Neutral file
geometry and fan geometry
Oil flow
Texture mapping
Special effects Rotational projection Meridian plane display
Gradation, Transparency, Luster,
Realistic presentation
Water-like expression…etc.
Vector animation Motion picture of flow
Marker particle Turbulent diffusion effect
Automatic translation of
Animation
view point
Key-frame animation
Walkthrough
Mirror / Periodic copy
Math function, Variable
Optional registration
functions Integration Scalar, Vector, Volume
High resolution of data
BMP, JPG, Cradle Viewer
image output

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 21

 Superposition of text
and BMP images
Comparative
Mesh-independent comparison
visualization
Projected area
calculation
Composition of experimental
Import of CSV data
results
Multi-thread
Speed up of the plot
velocity

DAPP based post processor:-

Hunting………….?

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 22

 Unit IV
Micro Controllers
Introduction
Even at a time when Intel presented the first microprocessor with the 4004 there was
already a demand for microcontrollers: The contemporary TMS1802 from Texas
Instruments, designed for usage in calculators, was by the end of 1971 advertised for
applications in cash registers, watches and measuring instruments. The TMS 1000, which
was introduced in 1974, already included RAM, ROM, and I/O on-chip and can be seen as
one of the first microcontrollers, even though it was called a microcomputer. The first
controllers to gain really widespread use were the Intel 8048, which was integrated into PC
keyboards, and its successor, the Intel 8051, as well as the 68HCxx series of
microcontrollers from Motorola.
Today, microcontroller production counts are in the billions per year, and the controllers
are integrated into many appliances we have grown used to, like
• Household appliances (microwave, washing machine, coffee machine . . .)
• Telecommunication (mobile phones)
• Automotive industry (fuel injection, ABS . . .)
• Aerospace industry
• Industrial automation
Its development, which increases the performance demands even more. For small 8-bit
controllers, however, only the application has to be considered. Here, rough estimations can
be made for example based on previous and/or similar projects. The basic internal designs
of microcontrollers are pretty similar. Figure 1.4 shows the block diagram of a typical
microcontroller. All components are connected via an internal bus and are all integrated on
one chip. The modules are connected to the outside world via I/O pins.

Microcontroller: A microcontroller already contains all components which allow it to

operate standalone, and it has been designed in particular for monitoring and/or control
tasks. In consequence, in addition to the processor it includes memory, various interface
controllers, one or more timers, an interrupt controller, and last but definitely not least
general purpose I/O pinswhich allow it to directly interface to its environment.
Microcontrollers also include bit operations which allow you to change one bit within a
byte without touching the other bits.

Hardware components:-
Basically, hardware can be classified as input or output. Inputs range from simple
switches to complexanalog sensors which measure physical values and (ultimately) convert
them into a correspondingvoltage. Outputs encompass primitive LEDs as well as
sophisticated actuators.In the following sections, we will introduce some basic hardware
elements, most of which areused in the lab of our course. We will explain how the

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 23

hardware works, how it is controlled by themicrocontroller, and what considerations one
has to take when programming them. We are not awareof many books that tell you how to
program a matrix keypad or a display. One notable exception iswe do not concern ourselves
with more complex elements like pressure or humidity sensors; see Patzelt & Schweinzer
for a good (german) book on sensors.
Even though we do not elaborate on sensors, there is one important thing we need to
point out: Analog sensors have a certain characteristic curve which gives the input value to
a given output value.This is important for the application, which is of course not interested
in the analog value but in theoriginal physical value and hence must convert the latter into
the former. The problem is, however,that most analog sensors do not show an ideal (e.g.
linear) correlation between the measurand andthe analog sensor output. Rather, there is a
non-zero deviation from the ideal curve which you mayhave to account for before using the
sensor value. Of course, for some applications the error may bewithin tolerable bounds, and
in such cases no corrections will have to be made. Nevertheless, youmust at least verify that
the sensor’s worst case deviation from the expected output stays within theacceptable
bounds. To find out the actual characteristics of the sensor you use (apart from some
worstcase bounds the manufacturer may put into the sensor’s datasheet), you will have to
calibrate it once,that is, measure its output in response to known inputs. This will give you
a calibration table fromwhich you can then retrieve correct estimates of the measurand.

Input /output pins:-

Digital I/O, or, to be more general, the ability to directly monitor and control
hardware, is the maincharacteristic of microcontrollers. As a consequence, practically all
microcontrollers have at least1-2 digital I/O pins that can be directly connected to hardware
(within the electrical limits of thecontroller). In general, you can find 8-32 pins on most
controllers, and some even have a lot morethan that (like Motorola’s HCS12 with over 90
I/O pins).I/O pins are generally grouped into ports of 8 pins, which can be accessed with a
single byteaccess. Pins can either be input only, output only, or —most commonly,—
bidirectional, that is,capable of both input and output. Apart from their digital I/O
capabilities, most pins have one ormore alternate functions to save pins and keep the chip
small. All other modules of the controllerwhich require I/O pins, like the analog module or
the timer, use in fact alternate functions of the digital I/O pins. The application programmer
can select which function should be used for the pin byenabling the functionality within the
appropriate module. Of course, if a pin is used for the analogmodule, then it is lost for
digital I/O and vice versa, so the hardware designer must choose carefullywhich pins to use
for which functions. In this section, we will concentrate on the digital I/O capabilityof pins.
Later sections will cover the alternate functions.First, let us explain what we mean by
“digital”: When we read the voltage level of a pin witha voltmeter (with respect to GND),
we will see an analog voltage. However, the microcontrollerdigitizes this voltage by
mapping it to one of two states, logical 0 or logical 1. So when we talk aboutdigital I/O, we
mean that the value of the pin, from the controller’s perspective, is either 1 or 0. Notethat in
positive-logic, 1 corresponds to the “high” state (the more positive resp. less negative
state)of the line, whereas 0 corresponds to the “low” state (the less positive resp. more
negative state). Innegative-logic, 1 corresponds to “low” and 0 to “high”. Microcontrollers
generally use positive-logic.As far as digital I/O is concerned, three registers control the
behavior of the pins.

Data Direction Register (DDR): Each bidirectional port has its own DDR, which contains
one bit for each pin of the port. The functionality of a pin (input or output) is determined by
clearing or setting its bit in the DDR. Different pins of a port may be configured differently,
so it is perfectly okay to have three pins configured to output and use the other five as
inputs. After a reset, the DDR bits are generally initialized to input. Reading the register

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 24

returns its value.

Port Register (PORT): This register is used to control the voltage level of output pins.
Assuming a pin has been configured to output, and then if its bit in the PORT register is set,
the pin will be high; if the bit is cleared, the pin will be low. To avoid overwriting the other
bits in the port when setting a particular bit, it is generally best to use the controller’s bit
operations. Otherwise, you must use a read-modify-write access and hence must ensure that
this access is not interrupted. For output pins, reading the register returns the value you
have written. For input pins, the functionality depends on the controller. Some controllers
allow you to read the state of input pins through the port register. Other controllers, e.g. the
ATmega16, use the port bits for other purposes if the corresponding pins are set to input, so
here you will read back the value you have written to the register.

Port Input Register (PIN):The PIN register is generally read-only and contains the current
state (high or low) of all pins, whether they are configured as output or as input. It is used
to read the state of input pins, but it can also be used to read the state of output pins to
verify that the output was taken over correctly. A write to this register generally has no
effect.

Digital Input
The digital input functionality is used whenever the monitored signal should be interpreted
digitally, that is, when it only changes between the two states “high” (corresponding to
logic 1) and “low” (corresponding to 0). Whether a given signal should be interpreted as
high or low depends on its voltage level, which must conform to the controller’s
specifications, which in turn depend on the operating voltage of the controller. For
example, the operating voltage VCC of the ATmega16 must be within the interval [4.5, 5.5]
V, its input low voltage must be within [-0.5, 0.2VCC] V, and its inputhigh voltage must be
within [0.6VCC, VCC+0.5] V. This leaves the interval (0.2VCC, 0.6VCC) within which
the signal is said to be undefined

Digital Output:-

The digital output functionality is used to set output pins to given voltage levels.
The levels corresponding to high and low are again specified by the controller and depend
on the controller’s operating voltage. For the ATmega16 at VCC = 5V, the maximum
output low voltage is 0.7 V, and the minimum output high voltage is 4.2 V. Whenever the
DDR of a pin is set to output, the controller drives the pin according to the valuegiven in
the PORT register. An output pin generally has to sink or source current, so we can again
distinguish between a sink output and a source output. The maximum current ratings
discussed in the previous section apply, so we are talking about 4-20 mA maximum
current5. Output pins are more critical than input pins in the sense that they heavily depend
on external current protection. After all, you could connect an output pin directly to GND

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 25

and then set it to 1, thus creating a short-circuit. Although controllers tend to tolerate such
short-circuits for a brief amount of time (generally less than a second), a short will
eventually destroy the controller. So the hardware designer must ensure that the external
hardware cannot produce a short-circuit. If it can, or if the application programmer prefers
to be on the safe side, the controller at least offers the possibility to read back the current
state of the pin via the PIN register. Of course, the PIN register suffers from the input delay,
so a short-circuit will only become visible in the PIN register d in clock cycles after the
output pin has been set. Hence, the application must wait for this amount of time before it
can check the PIN. If a mismatch is detected, the application program should set the pin to
input immediately and notify the user.

External memory:-
Data Memory: For longer term storage, generic CPUs usually employ an external memory
which is much larger than the register file. Data that is stored there may be short-lived, but
may also bevalid for as long as the CPU is running. Of course, attaching external memory
to a CPU requiressome hardware effort and thus incurs some cost. For that reason,
microcontrollers usually sport on-chip data memory.

Instruction Memory:
Like the data memory, the instruction memory is usually a relatively large external memory
(at least with general CPUs). Actually, with von-Neumann-architectures, it may even be the
same physical memory as the data memory. With microcontrollers, the instruction memory,
too, is usually integrated right into the MCU.
These are the most prominent uses of memory in or around a CPU. However, there
is more memory in a CPU than is immediately obvious. Depending on the type of CPU,
there can be pipeline registers, caches, various buffers, and so on. About memory
embedded in an MCU: Naturally, the size of such on-chip memory is limited. Even worse,
it is often not possible to expand the memory externally (in order to keep the design
simple). However, since MCUs most often are used for relatively simple tasks and hence do
not need excessive amounts of memory, it is prudent to include a small amount of data and
instruction memory on the chip. That way, total system cost is decreased considerably, and
even if the memory is not expandable, you are not necessarily stuck with it: Different
members in a MCU family usually provide different amounts of memory, so you can
choose a particular MCU which offers the appropriate memory space. Now, the functional
distinction of memory types made above is based on the way the memory is used. From a
programmer’s perspective, that makes sense. However, hardware or chip designers usually
view memory rather differently: They prefer to distinguish according to the physical
properties of the electronic parts the memory is made of. There, the most basic distinction
would be volatile versus non-volatile memory. In this context, volatile means that the
contents of the memory are lost as soon as the system’s power is switched off. Of course,
there are different ways either type of memory can be implemented. Therefore, the
distinction based on the physical properties can go into more detail. Volatile memory can
be static or dynamic, and there is quite a variety of non-volatile memory types: ROM,
PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, FLASH, and NV-RAM. Let’s examine those more closely.

Timer
The timer module, which is strictly speaking a counter module, is an important part of
every microcontroller, and most controllers provide one or more timers with 8 and/or 16 bit
resolution. Timers are used for a variety of tasks ranging from simple delays over
measurement of periods to waveform generation. The most basic use of the timer is in its
function as a counter, but timers generally also allow the user to timestamp external events,
to trigger interrupts after a certain number of clock cycles, and even to generate pulse-width
modulated signals for motor control.

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 26

Counter
Each timer is basically a counter which is either incremented or decremented upon every
clock tick. The direction (up- or down-counter) is either fixed or configurable. The current
count value can be read through a count register and can be set to a specific value by the
user. For a timer resolution of n, the count value is within [0, 2n − 1]. Care must be taken
when the timer length exceeds theword length of the controller, e.g., when using a 16-bit
timer on an 8-bit controller. In such a case,access to the 16-bit count value must be done in
two passes, which could lead to inconsistent values.Just think of a timer that is at value
0x00FF and will switch to 0x0100 in the next cycle. If you read the high byte first and the
low byte with the next instruction, you will get 0x0000. If you do it the other way round,
you will end up with 0x01FF, which is not any better. To counter such problems, the
ATmega16 controller for example uses a buffer register to store the high byte of the timer.
So whenever the program reads the low byte of the count register, the high byte is
simultaneously stored in the buffer and can then be read at the next cycle. Likewise, to
write a new count value, the high byte should be written first (and is stored in the buffer by
the controller), and as soon as the low byte is written, both high and low byte are written
into the count register in one go.
Timers can generally raise an interrupt whenever they experience an overflow of the count
value. This can be used to implement a rudimentary periodic signal by setting the count
value to a given start value and then waiting for the overflow. However, this method does
not give an accurate period because after the overflow the timer has to be set to its starting
value by the program. In consequence, the time from the overflow until the start value has
been reloaded into the timer must either be considered or incorporated into the start value,
or the period will be longer than desired. To avoid this drawback, some timers provide a
modulus mode which automatically reloads the start value when the timer overflows.
Another method for getting accurate periods is to use the PWM feature we will describe
shortly. Although the timer is generally clocked by the same source as the microcontroller
itself, this need not be the case. Microcontrollers may allow one or more of the following
sources for clocking the timer.

Input Capture
The input capture feature is used to timestamp (mostly external) events, which may
again be rising and/or falling edges, or levels. Whenever the event occurs, the timer
automatically copies its current count value to an input capture register, where it can be
read by the program. It also sets the input capture flag and can raise an interrupt to notify
the application that an input capture event has occurred. Microcontrollers may provide one
or more pins with input capture functionality.
The input capture feature may also be linked to internal event sources. The
ATmega16, for instance, can trigger an input capture from its analog comparator module,
allowing the application to timestamp changes in the comparator output. Note that enabling
the input capture feature of a pin does not necessarily cause the pin to be set to input. This
may still have to be done by the program. In fact, the ATmega16 allows you to use the pin
as output and will trigger an input capture if the program generates the appropriate event
condition. This can for example be used to measure the delay between an output event and
the reaction of the system.
Since the input capture feature is used to timestamp events, it is obvious that this timestamp
should be as accurate as possible. As we have explained in Section 2.6.1, the timer has a
certain granularity which is affected by the pre scaler, and this influences the time stamping
accuracy, leading to

clock cycles, where tev is the (real-)time the event occured, tcap is the (real-)time that
corresponds to the timestamp the event was time stamped with, dmaxin resp. dmin in is the
worst case resp. best case input delay (see Section 2.3.1), and P is the prescaler value.

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 27

Figure 2.28 illustrates the formula

Output Compare
The output compare feature is the counterpart to the input capture. For the latter, the
timestamp gets stored whenever something interesting happens on the input line. With
output compare, something happens on an output line when a certain time is reached. To
implement this feature, the timer offers an output compare register, where you can enter the
time at which the output compare event should happen. Whenever the counter value
reaches this compare value, the output compare event is triggered. It can automatically set
or clear an output line, or even toggle its state. It can also do nothing and simply raise an
internal interrupt. Output compare often comes with a reset option, which automatically
resets the counter when the compare value is reached. This allows to set up a periodic
interrupt (or output signal) with a minimum of effort.

Selection of microcontrollers Embedded controllers:-

Microcontrollers and embedded processors

A controller is used to control (makes sense!) some process or aspectof the environment.
A typical microcontroller application is the monitoring of my house. As the temperature
rises, the controlled causes the windows to open. If the temperature goes above a certain
threshold, the air conditioner is activated. If the system detects my mother-in-law
approaching, the doors are locked and the windowsbarred. In addition, upon detecting that
my computer is turned on, the stereo turns on at a deafening volume (for more on this, see
the section on development tools).

At one time, controllers were built exclusively from logic components, and were usually
large, heavy boxes (before this, they were even bigger, more complex analog
monstrosities). Later on, microprocessors were used and the entire controller could fit on a
small circuit board. This is still common - you can find many [good]controllers powered
by one of the many common microprocessors(including Zilog Z80, Intel 8088, Motorola
6809, and others).
As the process of miniaturization continued, all of the components needed for a
controller were built right onto one chip. A one chip computer or microcontroller was
born. Microcontroller is a highly integrated chip which includes, on one chip, all or most
of the parts needed for a controller. The microcontroller could be called a "one-chip
solution". It typically includes:
 CPU (central processing unit)

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 28

  RAM (Random Access Memory)
 EPROM/PROM/ROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 I/O (input/output) - serial and parallel timers interrupt controller
By only including the features specific to the task (control), cost is relatively low. A
typical microcontroller has bit manipulation instructions, easy and direct access to I/O
(input/output), and quick and efficient interrupt processing. Microcontrollers are a "one-
chip solution" which drastically reduces parts count and design costs.
What is an embedded controller?

Simply an embedded controller is a controller that is embedded in a greater system. One

can define an embedded controller as a controller (or computer) that is embedded into some
device for some purpose other than to provide general purpose computing. Is an embedded
controller is the same as a microcontroller? The answer is definitely no. One can state
devices such as 68000, 32032, x86, Z80, and so on that are used as embedded controllers
but they aren’t microcontrollers.
We might be correct by stating that an embedded controller controls something (for
example controlling a device such as a microwave oven, car braking system or a cruise
missile). An embedded controller may also embed the on-chip resources like a
microcontroller. Microcontrollers and microprocessors are widely used in embedded
systems.Though microcontrollers are preferred over microprocessors for embedded systems
due to low power consumption.
Inputs Outputs
Microcontr
oller
(uC)

Inputs Microcontroller
Outputs
(uC)

Feedback
2.3) Applications
In addition to the above home monitoring system, embedded processors and
microcontrollers are frequently found in: appliances (microwave oven, refrigerators,
television and VCRs, stereos), computers and computer equipment (laser printers,
modems, disk drives), automobiles (engine control, diagnostics, climate control),

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 29

environmental control (greenhouse, factory, home), instrumentation, aerospace, and
thousands of other uses. In many items, more than one processor can be found.

Microcontrollers are typically used where processing power isn't so important. Although
some of you out there might find a microwave oven controlled by a UNIX system an
attractive idea, controlling a microwave oven is easily accomplished with the smallest of
microcontrollers. On the other hand, if you're putting together a cruise missile to solve the
problem of your neighbor's dog barking at 3 in the morning, you'll probably need to use
processors with a bit more computing power.

Embedded processors and microcontrollers are used extensively in robotics. In this

application, many specific tasks might be distributed among a large number of controllers
in one system. Communications between each controller and a central, possibly more
powerful controller (or micro/mini/mainframe) would enable information to be processed
by the central computer, or to be passed around to other controllers in the system.

A special application that microcontrollers are well suited for is data logging. Stick one
of these chips out in the middle of a corn field or up in a ballon, and monitor and record
environmental parameters (temperature, humidity, rain, etc.). Small size, low power
consumption, and flexibility make these devices ideal for unattended data monitoring and
recording.

Micro controllers programming:-

Microprocessors and microcontrollers work off of very specialized instructions

designed forthem. Each one has unique instructions to perform tasks such as reading from
memory, adding numbers together and manipulating data. For example, the Intel Pentium
found in IBM compatibles uses a completely different instruction set from the Motorola
PowerPC used in Macintosh computers. Programs for these processors work in what is
known as machine language. A task as simple as multiplying two numbers together may
take hundreds of machine instructions to accomplish. These programs can be very cryptic
to programmers not familiar with that processor's unique instruction set. For example code
to add 3 plus 2 and store the results may look like:
LDA #$03
STA $1B3C
LDA #$02
ADD $1B3C
STA $1B3D
High level languages such as BASIC and C use instructions that are more understandable
tousers since they use pseudo-English to program in. In addition, a version of BASIC
designed for
IBM PC's may be much like the BASIC designed for Macintoshes. A line of code to add 3
plus 2 and store the result may look like:
Sum = 3 + 2
It is the job of the high level language's interpreter or compiler to take this BASIC code and
make it understandable to the unique processor on which it is running. An interpreter
decodes to machine language at run time, a compiler decodes the program into machine
language before running it.
Let's take an example of making coffee. Simplified steps for this involve:
· Fill the maker with water.

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 30

· Insert a filter into the tray.
· Add coffee grounds into the filter.
· Put the filter tray into the maker.
· Turn on the coffee maker.
· Wait with blurry eyes.
The English language has a command to perform this task: Make Coffee. We know from
experience what this means and the actions required. If this were a command in a
programming language, here is how a compiled and interpreted language would utilize the
command (hypothetically).
A compiled language, such as C, would read our command to "Make Coffee", and
it would compile it into its individual steps and store it as Machine Code instructions. The
steps of "Fill the maker with water", "Insert….", and so one would be stored in-place of
"Make Coffee".
When the program is executed, the processor would read "Fill the maker with water",
inherently understand the instruction, and perform it. Then read "Insert a filter into tray"
and perform it, sand so on, until the coffee is made.

Applications:-
A leader in microcontroller solutions, Philips’ extensive product portfolio covers 8-, 16-
and 32-bit families and includes the industry’s broadest range of 80C51 derivatives. Our
products deliver the flexibility and performance needed for the huge variety of today’s
applications spanning across all markets, while featuring the lowest power consumption in
the Smallest packages

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 31

These are a few examples of the applications where Philips microcontrollers provide ideal
solutions, including many featured in our newly updated
Distributor Application Guide.
• Building control
- Access control
- Temperature sensing
- lighting
- fi re detection
• Industrial control
- Process control
• Instrumentation
- Industrial instrumentation
• Metering
- Handheld metering systems
• Motor speed control
- AC motor control
- DC motors
- Steppers
• Automotive
- LIN slave nodes
- Body and convenience electronics
Programmable logical controllers:-
INTRODUCTION
PLCs (programmable logic controllers) are the control hubs for a wide variety of
automated systems and processes. They contain multiple inputs and outputs that use
transistors and other circuitry to simulate switches and relays to control equipment. They
are programmable via software interfaced via standard computer interfaces and proprietary
languages and network options. The development of low cost computer has brought the
most recent revolution, the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). The advent of the PLC
began in the 1970s, and has become the most common choice for manufacturing controls.
PLCs have been gaining popularity on the factory floor and will probably remain
predominant for some time to come. Most of this is because of the advantages they offer.
Are flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily,
computational abilities allow more sophisticated control, reliable components make these
likely to operate for years before failure.
Control engineering has evolved over time. In the past humans was the main
method for controlling a system. More recently electricity has been used for control and
early electrical control was based on relays. These relays allow power to be switched on
and off without a mechanical switch. It is common to use relays to make simple logical
control decisions. The development of low cost computer has brought the most recent
revolution, the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). The advent of the PLC began in the
1970s, and has become the most common choice for manufacturing controls.PLCs have
been gaining popularity on the factory floor and will probably remain predominant for
some time to come. Most of this is because of the advantages they offer.

• Cost effective for controlling complex systems.

• Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily.
• Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
• Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.
• Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before failure
The first Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) was developed by a group of
engineers at General Motors in 1968, when the company was looking for an alternative to
replace complex relay control systems. The new control system had to meet the following

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 32

requirements: Simple programming Program changes without system intervention (no
internal rewiring) Smaller, cheaper and more reliable than corresponding relay control
systems Simple, low cost maintenance Subsequent development resulted in a system, which
enabled the simple connection of binary signals. The requirements as to how these signals
were to be connected were specified in the control program. With the new systems it
became possible for the first time to plot signals on a screen and to file these in electronic
memories. Since then, three decades have passed, during which the enormous progress
made in the development of microelectronics did not stop short of programmable logic
controllers. For instance, even if program optimisation and thus a reduction of required
memory capacity initially still represented an important key task for the programmer,
nowadays this is hardly of any significance.
PLC Hardware Components:-

Knowing about PLC hardware components is another factor we should know when
discussing about PLC. Speaking about PLCs, the first thing we should do is to understand
about PLCs and functions of PLCs. In automation industry, PLCs have changed the way we
work and run several tasks. Everything is made easier with the use of PLCs. So what should
we know about PLCs? PLC is known as a control device as it takes information from the
inputs and then makes decisions to do some tasks. All the decisions are made based on
outputs and inputs. In PLCs, ladder logic program is known as the most common
programming method used in PLCs. Before going further, let’s learn more about PLC
hardware components.

PLC Hardware Components and Functions

Speaking about PLC hardware components, we should know that a PLC consists of some
components such as:
•Memory
•Central processing unit
•Power supply
•Input modules
•Output modules
each component in a PLC has different functions just like other computerized devices. The
main component which controls the whole system is known as central processing unit.
Speaking about functions, here are some functions from CPU:
•It performs arithmetic and logic operations
•It will update outputs and inputs
•It communicates with other component known as memory
•It will scan the application programs
•Communicating with a programming terminal

The next component is memory which will be responsible to store information,

programs and data in a PLC. ROM and RAM are the most common types of memory used
in PLCs. In a PLC, the process requires both programming software and a programming
terminal for the operation. Aside from memory and CPU, there are also PLC hardware
components we should understand.
PLC Hardware Components for the Operation:-

It is important to understand the function of PLC hardware components. As we may

already know, there are several things we should learn when it comes to discussing about
PLCs. The other components we should know are input modules, output modules, and
power supply. There are some common input devices that will be used in a PLC such as
relay contacts, limit switches, proximity switches, photo sensors, and temperature sensors.
A PLC can be used to control other devices such as fans, lights, alarms, relays, and

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 33

 motor starters. CPU, input modules, memory, output modules and power supply are some
major PLC hardware components we should know first.

 CPU – Keeps checking the PLC controller to avoid errors. They perform functions
including logic operations, arithmetic operations, computer interface and many more.
 Memory – Fixed data is used by the CPU. System (ROM) stores the data
permanently for the operating system. RAM stores the information of the status of input
and output devices, and the values of timers, counters and other internal devices.
 I/O section – Input keeps a track on field devices which includes sensors, switches.
 O/P Section - Output has a control over the other devices which includes motors,
pumps, lights and solenoids. The I/O ports are based on Reduced Instruction Set Computer
(RISC).
 Power supply – Certain PLCs have an isolated power supply. But, most of the
PLCs work at 220VAC or 24VDC.
 Programming device – This device is used to feed the program into the memory of
the processor. The program is first fed to the programming device and later it is transmitted
to the PLC’s memory.
System Buses – Buses are the paths through which the digital signal flows internally of the
PLC. The four system buses are:
· Data bus is used by the CPU to transfer data among different elements.
· Control bus transfers signals related to the action that are controlled internally.
· Address bus sends the location’s addresses to access the data.
· System bus helps the I/O port and I/O unit to communicate with each other.
Top
Working
The Programmable logic controller functions in four steps.

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 34

 Input scan: The state of the input is scanned which is connected externally. The
inputs include switches, pushbuttons, and proximity sensors, limit switches, pressure
switches. Ideally, they are transformers and not relays.
 Program scan: The loaded program is executed to carry out the function
appropriately.
 Output scan: The input sources have a control over the output ports to energize or
de-energize them. The outputs include solenoids, valves, motors, actuator, and pumps.
Depending on the model of PLC, these relays can be transistors, triacs or relays.
 Housekeeping
Top
Applications
The simple suitable application is a conveyor system. The requirements of the conveyor
systems are as follows:
 A programmable logic controller is used to start and stop the motors of the conveyor
belt.
 The conveyor system has three segmented conveyor belts. Each segment is run by a
motor.
 To detect the position of a plate, a proximity switch is positioned at the segment’s
end.
The first conveyor segment is turned ON always.
The proximity switch in the first segment detects the plate to turn ON the second conveyor
segment.
The third conveyor segment is turned ON when the proximity switch detects the plate at the
second conveyor.
As the plate comes out of the detection range, the second conveyor is stopped after 20 secs.
When the proximity switch fails to detect the plate, the third conveyor is stopped after 20
secs.
Advantages
 PLCs can be programmed easily which can be understood clearly well.
 They are fabricated to survive vibrations, noise, humidity, and temperature.
 The controller has the input and output for interfacing.
Disadvantages
 It is a tedious job when replacing or bringing any changes to it.
 Skilful work force is required to find its errors.
 Lot of effort is put to connect the wires.
 The hold up time is usually indefinite when any problem arises.

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 35

Basic structure of plc:-
The general structure of programmable logic controller is as follow:

1.1 - Power Supply Module

There are several types of power supply module:
 240V ac
 110V ac
 24V dc
Function: Provides all the voltage level needed to operate the PLC. Converts 110V ac or 240V ac into
the dc voltage required by the CPU, memory, I/O interface.

Power supply wiring/installation guide:

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Consist of:
Processor
Memory
Function: Receives information from input interface, process according to the program stored, update the

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output information.

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 37

PLC Systems
A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), is an electronic device to automate
industrial processes, including machinery controls and assembly lines. PLC systems
are designed with multiple inputs and outputs, and are built to function in extreme
temperature ranges for long periods of time. PLC systems are immune to electrical
noise, resistant to vibration and impact.

 Loop Tuning & Control

l
Logic Systems Networking (LSN)
 Wireless
 Ethernet
 Serial

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  Control Net
 Control Link
 Device Net
 OPC / DDE
Control Positioning Systems (CPS)
 Single Axis
 Multi Axis
 SERCOS

Initially, programmable logic controllers were used to replace traditional hard-wired relay
logic; however, with its ever increasing functionality it is found in many more complex
applications. PLCs are used in any industrial application where operating requirements are
complex, are constantly changing, or where high reliability is necessary.

Principles of operation:-
A programmable controller, as illustrated in Figure 1-5, consists of two basic sections:
• The central processing unit
• The input/output interface system

The central processing unit (CPU) governs all PLC activities. The following three
components, shown in Figure 1-6, form the CPU:
• The processor
• The memory system
• The system power supply

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 39

 The operation of a programmable controller is relatively simple. The input/ output
(I/O) system is physically connected to the field devices that are encountered in the
machine or that are used in the control of a process. These field devices may be discrete or
analog input/output devices, such as limit switches, pressure transducers, push buttons,
motor starters, solenoids, etc. The I/O interfaces provide the connection between the CPU
and the information providers (inputs) and controllable devices (outputs). During its
operation, the CPU completes three processes: (1) it reads, or accepts, the input data from
the field devices via the input interfaces, (2) it executes, or performs, the control program
stored in the memory system, and (3) it writes, or updates, the output devices via the output
interfaces. This process of sequentially reading the inputs, executing the program in
memory, and updating the outputs is known as scanning. Figure 1-7 illustrates a graphic
representation of a scan.

The input/output system forms the interface by which field devices are connected to
the controller (see Figure 1-8). The main purpose of the interface is to condition the various
signals received from or sent to external field devices. Incoming signals from sensors (e.g.,
push buttons, limit switches, analog sensors, selector switches, and thumbwheel switches)
are wired t terminals on the input interfaces. Devices that will be controlled, like motor
starters, solenoid valves, pilot lights, and position valves, are connected to the terminals of
the output interfaces. The system power supply provides all the voltages required for the
proper operation of the various central processing unit sections.
Programming mnemonics timers:-
Basic PLC Programming
Globally, the programming language used on the PLC there are two, namely LADDER
DIAGRAM and MNEMONIC CODE or STL (Statement List). But now, PLC already can
programmed in five programming language.
mnemonic codes

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 At the time of editing the PLC program using the Programming Console, we cannot
do it by using the Ladder diagram. The reason is because the average Programming
Console displays his view a little, so the screen is not sufficient to edit the ladder
diagram and just enough to edit using STL or mnemonic code. So this is where we
need to learn STL or mnemonic code. But there is also a Programming Console is
specifically designed to be able to directly edit the program using ladder diagrams.

Ladder diagram:-

Ladder diagram is used when we create a PLC program using the computer. Ladder
diagrams are easier to understand than the mnemonic code. This is because the Ladder
diagrams almost similar shape with the wiring diagrams. Grooves can be seen directly,
without having to understand the many codes such as program code in mnemonic code.

STL and Ladder diagram on each brand of PLC has a different symbol, although its basic
principles are the same.

Internal relays and counters:-

A switch whose operation is activated by an electromagnet is called a "relay

contact

coil

input

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Digital counters output in the form of a relay contact when a reassigned count value is
reached.
input
Register

Accumulator
reset

contact

output

A Relay consists of two parts, the coil and the contact(s).

Contacts:
a. Normally open -| |-
b. Normally closed -|/|-
c. Off-on transitional -||-
d. On-off transitional -|¯ |-
Coil:
a. Energize Coil - ( )-
b. De-energize - (/)-
c. Latch - (L)-
d. Unlatch - (U)-
Timers:
A Retentive on delay -(RTO)-
b. Retentive off delay -(RTF)-
c. Reset -(RST)-
Counter:
a. Counter up -(CTU)-
b. Counter down -(CTD)-
c. Counter reset -(CTR)-

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 UNIT-V

COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING

5.1 Need for Process Planning

This is the planning strategy for manufacturing the part. It is defined as the activity
that translates part design specifications from an engineering drawing into the
manufacturing operation instructions required to convert a part from a rough to a
finished state. It represents the link between engineering design and shop-floor
manufacturing. It is a major determinant of manufacturing cost and profitability. The
gap between CAD and CAM can be shortened considerably by developing better
systems for process planning.
There are two levels of process planning
High-level planning'■ The planner identifies the machineable features (surfaces)
of the part, groups them into set-ups, and orders these set-ups. The features to be
cut in each of the set-ups, and the tools for cutting each feature.
Low-level planning- Specifying the details of performing each step that results
from the first level such as choosing machines, cutting conditions (speed and
feed), type of fixture, cost and time estimates, etc.
5.2 Approaches of Process Planning
There are three approaches of process planning
Manual approach
Computer assisted variant approach
Computer assisted generative approach
The later two are known as Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
The following are some of the drawbacks of manual approach
The approach becomes rapidly inefficient and unmanageable
when the number of process plans and revision to those plans
increase. Consequently, inconsistent plans and large time
requirements for planning often result.
or The plans by this approach reflect the personal experiences and
preferences of the process planner.
This is considered a poor use of engineering skills because of the
high clerical content in most of its functions.
These limitations have logically lead to computerized approach to process planing.

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 5.2.1 Conventional Process Planning
Traditionally, skilled planners perform process planning. Planning is based on
planner’s decisions. The quality of the plan highly depends on individual skill,
knowledge and experience. Planning is very time consuming, because of voluminous
routine work and calculations. Only little time is left for creative work and updating
planner’s knowledge. The functions of process planning in the conventional
manufacturing industry are shown.
5.3 Importance of Computer Aided Process Planning

The importance of CAPP has already been identified by industries. Many companies
in manufacturing sector have started developing CAPP for their internal use. The aim
of Computer Aided Process Planning is to eliminate or at least reduce the manual
intervention in process planning. The role of Process Planning from design to part is
shown in Fig. 2.2.
It is also found that there is generally a lack of consistency among process plans
prepared by different individuals with varying manufacturing backgrounds and levels
of skill. It is therefore imperative to automate the process planning function and this

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 44

 makes CAPP important even in the absence of CAD and CAM. By using a computer,
the tedious and repetitive aspects of process planning can be speeded up and this helps
to optimise the total manufacturing function by releasing the experienced planners and
enabling them to concentrate on those aspects outside the scope of a computer. At the
same time, more consistent process plans can be obtained by applying a standard set
of rules, which increases confidence in the system and helps in the rationalisation of
production. To automate process planning, the logic, judgement and experience
required for process planning must be captured and incorporated into a computer
program.

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 45

5.4 Conventional Process Planning versus CAPP
To manually plan processes for complicated parts, the process planners must be quite
experienced persons. A Process planner usually spends considerable time to plan a
process and complete the process documents depending the complexity of the part. It
is thus evident that the development of a CAPP for the prismatic components is even
more meaningful. The aim of Computer Aided Process Planning is to eliminate or at
least reduce the manual intervention in process planning.
The advantage of CAPP over conventional process planning is manifold.
2. It improves the quality and consistency of process plans.
3. Savings in lead time: In today’s concepts of TQM and batch
manufacturing lead time seriously effects the delivery time of the product
which plays a major role in deciding the market share of any company.
4. Process rationalisation: CAPP generated process plan is more likely to be
consistent (because the use of same software for all plants), logical and
optimal (because the company has presumably incorporated the experience
and judgement of its best manufacturing people into process planning
software and computer can evaluate more number of alternatives in a less
time).
5. Integration with manufacturing support functions: These functions involve
NC part program generation, computerised work standards etc., If done
independently these functions involve duplication of clerical work.
Increases the efficiency of process planning.
Decreases the variety of tooling.
Error reduction: Helps in overcoming the casual errors committed by
human process planners. If the error goes unnoticed, it penalises heavily
from the cost point of view.
It can reduce the skill required by planners.
It can increase productivity.
It can consider all available equipment while process planning.
Nobel (1965) first discussed the use of computers in process planning. Early
investigation of automated process planning was done at Purdue University by Scheck
(1966) and by Berra and Barash (1969). Many investigations were updated in the late
seventies, and research work gained momentum in eighties. CAPP is the application

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 46

 of computers to assist the human process planner in process planning function. In its
lowest form it will reduce the time and effort required for preparing process plans and
providing more consistent process plan. An advanced CAPP will provide the
automated interface between CAD and CAM.
Automated process planning makes use of CAD model as input to the system. The
subject of features and their role in product design, process planning and many other
activities spanning the product life cycle is playing a vital role in today's technology.
Already work has been carried out on Feature Extraction using Attribute Adjacency
Graph (AAG) method at PSG College of Technology. This method extracts simple
polyhedral features like slot, step, etc. But it fails to extracts V slots, T slots, curved
features and complex features.
One of the widely used CAD/CAM packages, CADDS5, has been used in the
development of this package. Even if the component is modeled in other modeling
packages, we can use this software by adding a simple routine which will convert the
part internal representation in that package into linked lists of Faces, Edges and
Vertices whose structures are defined in the software.
5.5 Emergence of CAPP
Design, planning, manufacturing, assembly, inspection and testing are major stages of
product development. Computer based technologies are available today to carryout
most of these activities except process planning. Process planning is a heuristic and
knowledge based activity and is one of the missing elements in the integration of CAD
and CAM. Though process planning covers a wide spectrum of manufacturing
operations like machining of components, sheet metal processing, and other secondary
manufacturing operations, machining offers considerable challenge for
computerization. Flere too, process planning of prismatic component is more involved
than rotational component. Processing of prismatic components requires the use of
several machines like precision milling, boring, drilling and tapping and these
operations can also be performed in a CNC machining center. Proper sequencing of
operations, selection of right cutting conditions and tools, proper filtering etc. are
necessary for satisfactory realization of the components, meeting the high level of
precision, and accuracy required for application in missiles. Many researchers have
attempted this problem.

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 47

 Process Planning establishes the methods and means of converting the raw material
into a finished part. The planning function interacts with the manufacturing system
through
a. The design specifications, b. Manufacturing resources, c. The process plan.

Its basic task is to determine by what means and how a product is to be manufactured
economically and competitively.
Process planning involves, according to the part specification, determination of
processes, machine tools, cutting tools, operation sequences, machineability data and
calculations of time and costs. The results obtained must be reflected in
documentation.
Computer aided process planning should diminish as much as possible deficiencies in
traditional process planning.
A set of process plans would include,

Design input

Material selection

Process sequence

Machine and tool selection

Fixture selection

Machining parameter selection

Cost/time estimation

Clear-cut pictures about the necessities have to be formed before starting the
development of a project. George P. Sutton [16] had done a survey for CAM-I
(Computer Aided Manufacturing - International) on CAPP practices, plans and future
needs in 1987. Fifty companies participated in this survey and it was found that there
were no fully automated CAPP systems and almost all of them required extensive
manual operations. However benefits that accrued to those companies that had a semi-
manual CAPP system were substantial. The survey indicated a user desire for
standardizing the interfaces of CAD with CAM, as well as with other manufacturing
oriented systems (like scheduling, inventory control, cost estimating, etc.). There
seems to be agreement that CAPP is an essential element of future CIM systems.

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 48

 The first CAPP system was developed under the direction and sponsorship of CAM-I
(Computer aided manufacturing - International) and was presented at the "1976 NC
conference". In the same year MIPLAN was developed by the OIR (Organization of
Industrial research) since then CAPP has begin to be widely addressed. Meanwhile,
due to the increase in competition, companies started implementing integrated
manufacturing. CAPP as a main element in the integration of design and
manufacturing has not kept pace with the development of CAD and CAM. This
situation made the process planning, a bottleneck in the implementation of integrated
manufacturing. Thus more and more effort has been applied in the CAPP area and
numerous CAPP systems have been reported.

5.6 CAPP systems

Some prominent computer aided process planning systems are discussed in the
following section.

ASCAPP
ASCAPP is a generative CAPP system for process planning of aircraft
structural parts. This has been developed at Nanjing University of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Peoples Republic of China. In the
developed CAPP system a 6- orientation, multi level feature oriented
method is adopted for part description. The technological decision
module of the ASCAPP system is an expert system that is composed of
a knowledge base, a inference engine and a data base for storing part
information and interim decision results.
APSS (Automated Process selection and sequencing)

In APSS, the 'bottom-up' or backward planning approaches have been

adopted. APSS has been written in PROLOG and has been
implemented in the prototype knowledge based CAPP systems,
ACES (a CAPP expert system), which is an automated process
planning system for the manufacture of complex prismatic machined
parts.

OPPS-ROT:
OPPS-ROT is generative CAPP system for rotational parts. This has
been developed at university of Gazintep, Turkey. The sequential

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 49

 operational planning method is used and it is based on the
assumption that a single feature on a component usually considered as a

single operation. It is implemented with C++ on a personal computer.

APPAS, CADCAM AND TIPPS

APPAS is one of the first generative CAPP systems. Wysk developed it
in FORTRAN. Process planning logic has been implemented using the
decision tree approach. The input to the system is text input in the form
of special codes. CADCAM is an extension of APPAS, developed by
Chang and Wysk, which links APPAS with interactive computer
graphics terminal. TIPPS is new generation of APPAS and CADCAM,
once again developed by Chang and Wysk. It is one of the first systems
that integrate CAD and generative process planning into unified system
utilizing the AI and decision tree approaches.

AUTAP and AUTAP-NC

AUTAP is one of the complete generative process planning systems
developed in the early stages. AUTAP is capable of determination of
raw material, operation sequence, selection of machine, calculation
of estimated time. AUTAP-NC is similar to AUTAP but aimed for
doing real time work. Apart from the above works AUTAP-NC does
lathe chuck selection, determination of manufacturing segments and
generation of part program

CMPP
CMPP is a generative system developed in FORTRAN 77, aimed at
high technology machined cylindrical parts. Parts characterized by
expensive material, tight tolerances and complex machining
processes are most suitable for this system. CMPP is interfaced to
many CAD/CAM systems in American aircraft companies.

EXCAP AND ICAPP

EXCAP is an expert system aimed at machining of rotational parts.
Rule based technique with backward planning mechanism is
implemented in this system. ICAPP is a variant system
developed in FORTRAN for prismatic parts. ICAPP is feature

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 50

 oriented interactive system, capable of eight basic machining
processes.

GENPLAN
GENPLAN is generative system developed in 1981. It uses a GT
based coding system that covers part geometry and process variables
to generate comprehensive operations sequence. GENPLAN can
be interfaced with management decision support systems, automatic
shop loading and scheduling, tool order processing systems.

GIFTS
GIFTS is a generative interactive feature-based system for process
planning of rotational components. This was developed at IIT Delhi.
GIFTS selects the operations, machines, tools, cutting parameters for
each feature by taking the relevant data from the data base and finally
sequences the operation.
Part of the slow progress in this area is due to the complex and dynamic nature of the
planning domain which posses a great challenge to the research community. Because
our present understanding of process planning activities is limited to local micros, we
can attain some success in programming specific kinds of process planning activities
(e.g., to machine a cylindrical part), but are unable to automate the whole process
which would require a much broader understanding of the necessary tasks. Currently,
the variant and semi-generative approaches seem to be the most practical ones, and
these systems are readily amenable to certain real-world applications.
5.7 Objectives of Process Planning Systems
Notable requirements for process planning systems are consistency, accuracy, and
ease of application and completeness. These are explained below.

5.7.1 Consistency
One of the most common problems of manual process planning is the existence of
inconsistent process plans. Consistency is essential not only in the application of data
and knowledge to generate process plan, but also in the acquisition and presentation of
manufacturing information. Process plans prepared by different process planners will
vary depending on the variations in their knowledge, process logic and

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 51

 experience etc., A good process planning system should provide consistently same
process plan for same set of input data.

5.7.2 Accuracy
Accuracy is another important objective to maintain in any process planning system.
Inaccuracies in process plans and corresponding information in them can greatly
undermine the integrity of the system.

5.7.3 Ease of application

This is another important trait, which determines how quickly a response can be made
to generate a new process plan or make revision to an existing process plan. This is of
particular importance in today's short lead-time environment

5.7.4 Completeness
Information about manufacturing processes, machines, tools, cutting parameters etc.,
must be completely known while decisions about process planning g are made. If
complete data is not provided, then the choice can easily lead to inconsistency in
processing methods and corresponding inconsistencies in part quality and costs.

5.8 Challenges in the area of CAPP

The complexity of manufacturing activities makes it impossible to generate an ideal
plan in the first time. In practice, it usually takes much iteration based on feedback
from the plan execution stage to gradually refine a pfen into its optimal form. Most
current planning activities are mainly concerned with the plan generation phase; no
major effort has been made to link plan generation with its execution and monitoring
activities. But since the execution of a manufacturing plan normally spans a period of
time with the involvement of multiple departments, this manual monitoring and
feedback task is difficult to accomplish effectively in practice. The lack of this self-
improving ability due to the open-loop nature is one of the reasons why most CAPP
systems are not up to the mark.
Current research efforts tend to focus on a specific kind of planning function for a
specific type of part. These micro-view point planning approaches produce computer
systems that perform individual tasks in isolation from other planning activities. They
result in many small, and still isolated, islands between the islands of design and
manufacturing.

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 52

 Due to this micro-view point of planning activities and the lack of an overall planning
structure, most planning systems developed to date focus on a narrow range of
activities, which severely limits their applicability in practice. For example, most
efforts in current generative CAPP systems are aimed at generating machining
sequences of certain limited part shapes. Since they are based on machining
handbooks and databases, decisions made at the operation-planning level are treated as
a black box, without detailing how each sequence will be carried out in actual
operation.
There is no single best approach that can handle all the functions required in an
integrated planning system. Hybrid approaches, which logically combine the strength
from several different techniques, should be devised and used. For example, various
techniques from optimization and operation research should be incorporated into plan
sequence generation and mathematical models of processes should be part of the
operation planning systems.
Process planning systems, in order to provide integration, automation and flexibility
should
25. be generative

26. be technology based

27. use features as a technological and communicational interface between design

and process planning
28. be able to extract automatically all product data

29. use a supervisory control system to ensure user-friendliness and flexibility in

use
30. integrally support all planning tasks, including capacity planning and scheduling

31. take decisions based on optimization techniques

32. be fit for close-loop planning

5.9. Approaches to CAPP

Traditionally two approaches are recognized for computer aided process planning, the
variant approach and generative approach. In variant approach the GT principles are
used. Further making use of the similarity in design or manufacturing of the parts are
used in producing the new process plans. In generative CAPP the process plan is

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 53

 generated automatically, the input being the details from CAD drawing. However with
the rapid development of new techniques, many CAPP systems do not exactly fit into
this classification and combines both approaches.

5.9.1 Variant approach

The variant approach is comparable with the traditional manual approach where a
process plan for a new part is created by recalling, identifying, and retrieving an
existing process plan for similar part, and making necessary modification making it
suitable for the new part. In general this system has two operational stages.
11. Preparatory stage: in this stage the parts are coded and families are
formed based on group technology (GT) principles. Standard process
plans are prepared for each family and stored in database.
1. Production stage: Process plan for a new part can be made in this stage.
Whenever a new part comes for process planning, it’s code and family
will be identified and the standard processing plane for that family is
retrieved. Necessary modifications are made by the process planner to
satisfy the component design.
The CAPP system may be either semiautomatic or automatic. In the semiautomatic
there is a need for manual input of the required data. Inputting the feature details,
finished material details and raw material details to the computer is time consuming
and tedious. This is a form of under utilization of manpower and here are also chances
that the user may input the data wrongly. These drawbacks can be avoided by
providing a bridge between the generated automatically from CAD model or
drawings. This will also help in enhancing the role of computers in industry. This
helps to move towards computer integrated manufacturing whose is a paper less
industry.
The majority of existing CAPP systems is of variant approach. Some of the process
planning systems that follow this approach are CAM-I CAPP, MIPLAN, MITURN,
MIAPP, ACUDATA. The disadvantages of this approach are that the quality of
process plan still depends on the knowledge of process planner because of editing.
Process planning for an entirely new type of component is not possible.

Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 54

 5.9.2 The Generative approach:
Generative process planning synthesizes process information in order to create process
plans for a new component automatically. The input of such systems may be either
CAD drawing or models or text input. Knowledge of process planning is captured and
implemented in software using different techniques. The process logic can be
implemented in the system by means of decision tables, decision trees, axiomatic, rule
based or constraint based. The decision logic consists of checking for some
conditional requirements of the component and selects the processes. Other planning
functions like machine selection, tool selection, process parameters selection etc., can
also be automated using the generative process planning techniques.
The biggest advantage of this approach is that process plan developed is consistent,
and fully automated. This is especially useful for product mix of number of products
with small lot sizes. APPAS, TIPPS, AUTAP, GENPLAN, TURBO-CAPP, TOM and
ICAPP are some of the generative process planning systems.

5.9.3 Semi-generative approach

This approach is the combination of variant and generative approaches. However,
compared with the variant systems, editing work is less. The advantage of using such
systems is reduced time for preparation of process plans; modifications of generated
process plans are necessary in order to implement in the real work.

5.10 Implementation Techniques

Various techniques can be followed in the implementation of CAPP systems.
Notables of them are discussed in the following sections.

5.10.1 Group technology

The typical utilization of GT is in the part family concept where coding and
classifying of the part are done. The GT principles are mainly used in the variant
process planning systems. CAPP-I, SAPT, TOJICAP, WICAPP are some of the
systems which are implemented using the GT principles.

5.10.2 The Bottom-up approach

This approach develops the CAPP systems by filling in materials to convert a finished
part back to the initial blank.

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 This is similar to conventional computer assisted process planning method oriented
towards the variant approach.

5.10.3 The Top-Down approach

This approach develops the CAPP system by means of tracing the task of process
planning from top to bottom i.e. from raw material to finished part. This is an
automated computer aided process planning method oriented towards the generative
approach. This requires the general rules of manufacturing strategy to be built into
algorithms which can operate on brief input data describing the geometric features and
engineering requirements of part.

5.10.4 AI & Expert system techniques

An expert system can be defined as a tool that has the capability to understand the
problem specific knowledge and use the domain knowledge intelligently to suggest
alternative paths of action. CAPP systems using this technique are called as either
expert system (ES) or knowledge based system (KBS). The decision logic is
implemented using the IF.... THEN.... rules are frame-based rules. TOM,
GARI,EXCAP, KAPPS, XPLAN are some of the CAPP systems in which these
techniques are implemented.

Assignment No.56
1) What is CAM? What are the Objectives of it?
2) Explain the types of Manufacturing System in CAM.
3) What are the Scope & Benefits of CAM?
4) What is CIM? What are the Objectives & Benefits of it?
5) Elaborate the role of elements of CIM with the help of CIM wheel.
6) Explain Role of Management and Manufacturing engineers in CIM & CAM.

Assignment No.56
1) Differentiate between NC and CNC. List their advantages and limitations.
2) What are the basic components of numerical control system. Draw and discuss
function of each components.
3) Classification of Numerical Control System.
4) Explain the axis designation rules for machine tools employing rotating tools.
Sketch a vertical machining centre and designate its axes.
5) Write a short note on recirculating ball screw used in CNC machines with sketch.
6) Explain geometrical, motion and auxiliary statements used in APT with
illustration.
7) Explain with illustration; i) Drilling canned cycle (ii) Parametric subroutine
(iii) Fixed zero and floating zero.

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 Assignment No.57
1) What is Relay Device Component? Explain in detail.
2) Explain Programmable Controller Architecture.
3) Explain Programming a Programmable Logic Controller.

Assignment No.4
1) Explain part family in brief.
2) What is Group Technology (GT)? Explain Opitz classification and coding
system in brief.
3) Explain (I) Coding Structure & (II) Composite Part with reference to
Group Technology.
4) Explain types of GT machine cells.
5) What are the major functions of process planning? What are the main
problems associated with manual process planning?
6) Explain with neat diagram retrieval type CAPP.
7) Explain with neat diagram generative type CAPP.

Questions

1. Describe the different manufacturing systems along with their relevance in

terms of productivity using a sketch.
2. What is CIM? Draw a neat sketch of CIM wheel. State various benefits of
CIM.
3. What are the objectives of CIM? Which major functional areas of the
manufacturing enterprise considered for achieving CIM objectives?
4. What is CIM? Explain Components of CIM.
5. What are the different types of manufacturing? Make an assessment of the
extent of computer control in specific cases of each types of
manufacturing.
6. Justify the need of CAM in today’s era.
7. What are the basic components of CNC system? Briefly discuss each of
them.
8. How the axes are designated in CNC m/c tools? Sketch and designate the
axes of CNC vertical milling machine.
9. State various compensations used in CNC machines. Explain tool length
compensation with neat sketch.
10. Explain the linear and circular interpolations used in turning stating
illustrations. Draw a neat sketch for circular interpolation without radius
value also.
11. Classify CNC machines tools on the basis of :
 Types of motion control
 According to programming Method
 Control System

12. Explain the types of manufacturing systems. Justify: “CNC machines are more
suitable for job-shop and batch production”.
13. Compare CNC machines with conventional machines in regard to hardware

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 used in them.
14. State various automated programmed tools language. List various statements
used in APT. Explain geometric statements of APT.
15. Explain clearly the difference between NC, CNC and DNC machine.
16. What is modal and non-modal code? Give example of each.
17. List various feedback devices used in CNC machine. Explain working principle
of Rotary encoder with neat sketch.
18. Define PLC. Discuss the relay device components used in it.
19. Draw and explain PLC architecture
20. What are the essential elements of a PLC system?
21. Explain the variant type CAPP system. State the benefits and limitations of
variant type CAPP systems.
22. What are the steps involved in APT program? What is part, drive and check
surface? Draw a neat sketch showing all surfaces.
23. What are the major functions of process planning? What are the main
problems associated with manual process planning?
24. What is computer integrated production management system? Explain with
neat sketch.
25. Explain about artificial intelligence
26. Explain about neural networks in AI.
27. Write short note on Artificial Intelligence in CAD

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Dept Of Mechanical Engineering MRCET 59