ACTA UNIVERSITATIS LODZIENSIS

FOLIA ARCHAEOLOG1CA 26, 2009

A r t h u r Se g a l

University of Haifa

SPORT AND ENTERTAINMENT FACILITIES

IN THE LAND OF ISRAEL
AND IN THE GRAECO-ROMAN WORLD

Introduction

T o d ay , as in th e p ast, th e d istinction betw een sp o rt and e n te rta -

inm ent is n o t alw ays a clear o r unam b ig u o us one. T h eatrical events,
for exam ple, are classed as entertainm ent since this implies an audience
th at is seated within an area suited for this purpose, and th at views
actors presenting the play before it.1 S port activities on the o ther hand,
are related above all to the com petitors themselves. Sportsm en can carry
o u t th eir activities w itho u t an audience, b u t the G reeks, w ho were
the first to institutionalize bo th the various kinds o f theatrical events
and sp o rt events, provided them from the very o u tset w ith a well-
organized and com petitive fram ew ork. T he m ain sp o rt events in which
the G reeks engaged were not num erous: running, throw ing the discus
and javelin, long ju m p s, professional wrestling and boxing, and finally
ch ario t races.2
Sport events, like theatrical events, were conducted within a m unicipal
fram ew ork, financed by the polis for the benefit o f its citizcns. An additional
fram ew ork in which plays were perform ed or sport events were held were
the pan-H ellenic (all-G reek) festivals which usually to o k place every four

1 On the ancient theatre, see: Bieber 1961; Hartmoll 1972; Leacroft 1984.
2 On sport in the G raeco-Rom an world, see: Harris 1972; Sansone 1988; Miller 1991; Olivová
1984; Miller 2004; Auguet 1994.
years in sanctuaries in Olym pia, D elphi, N em ca, and Isthm ia. In archaic
and classical periods it was only in these fo u r sanctuaries where, within the
fram ew ork o f the various religious-cultic events, sp ort com petitions were
also held. D uring the Hellenistic and R om an periods, in ad d ition to these
fo u r festivals there were num erous other festivals th a t were celebrated
th ro u g h o u t the G raeco -R o m an w orld.3
B oth theatrical and sport events were conducted before an audience,
and it did n o t m atter w hether the events were held in the fram ew ork
o f festivals in pan-H ellcnic sanctuaries such as the ones in O lym pia or
D elphi o r within an urban fram ew ork. This m eans th a t in the G reek
w orld since earliest times even sport events were considered as a per-
form ance and com petition watched by th ou san d s o f spectators. F u rth e r-
m ore, like the theatre, sp o rt was associated from the very start with
cultic rites. T he th eatre was know n for its links with the cult o f Dionysus,
while sp o rt com petitions such as those th at to o k place in O lym pia were
an inseparable p a rt o f the Zeus cult.4 W ith the passage o f time, especially
du rin g the Hellenistic and R om an periods, the link between theatrical
events and the D ionysian cult gradually w eakened.5 T his applied to sport
events as well, for which the link between them and the cult o f the
gods grew w eaker, although it should be said th at even du rin g Hellenistic
and R om an times this link did not entirely disappear.

We have pointed out how difficult it is to m ake a distinction between

sp ort and entertainm ent. This difficulty is m ainly with regard to the type
o f events th at were held n o t in theaters or stadium s but in am phitheaters
and circuses, and this will be dealt with later. In this study we wish to
discuss the sp o rt and entertainm ent facilities in the L and o f Israel in
ancient times, i.e. in the theatres, am phitheatres, circuses and stadium s
th at have been excavated in this country. But before doing so, we m ust
define their essential n ature and cultural significance, and the way they
fu n ctioned in th e G raeco -R o m an w orld in w hich they em erged, took
shape and were defined both from a form al-ideational stan d p o in t and
from an architectu ral one.

3 On the Olympic games, see: Finley, Pleket 1976; Schobel 1966; Yalouris 1979a; Rasche 1988;
Sinn 2000.
4 On the interrelations between cult and sport in the G raeco-Rom an world, see: Andronicos
1979, p. 66-73; Yalouris 1979b, p. 88-103; Mallwitz 1972; Yalavanis 2004.
5 On the interrelations between the theatre and the cult of Dionysus, see: Pickard-Cambridge
1968; H anson 1959.
 I. Sport and Entertainment Facilities in the Graeco-Roman World

a. Theatre

T he earliest entertainm en t facility in the ancient world th a t was given an

architectural definition is the theatre (in G reek: 0éa.xpov). Even if it is
difficult to reconstruct the earliest stages in the process o f its architectural
form , it is well know n th at, already at the end o f the archaic period, plays
were perform ed in the orchestra, the circular leveled area at the centre of
the A thenian agora. A t first the spectators did n o t have fixed seating area,
but later, prob ab ly in the first half o f the fifth century BCE, theatrical
events were transferred from the agora to the foot o f the southeastern slope
o f the A cropolis, near the sanctuary o f D ionysus.6 H ere began the proccss
o f the architectural fo rm ation o f the earliest o f all th eatres in the ancient
world. Initially, it w as the orchestra th at was devised, and later stepped tiers
o f w ooden benches were set up on the n atu ral slope to seat the spectators.
These were later replaced by perm anent stepped tiers o f seats m ade o f
stone. D u ring the fifth century BCE it was the practice to set up a tem -
po rary stru ctu re (skene), initially a shed, in which the actors could rest and
changc their clothes, and which was placed beyond the circular orchestra,
facing the centre o f the seating area (koilon). T his tem p orary construction
would later on, durin g the course o f the Hellenistic period (3rd and 2nd
century BCE), turn into a perm anent structure, a stage building (skene)
built o f stone and rising to height o f two floors. T he stage (proskenion or
logeion) appears only during the Hellenistic period (late 4th, early 3rd century
BCE). It looked like long and narro w p latform , extending along the front
o f the stage building (skene) and facing the orchestra. But even at the end
o f this long and com plex process described here very briefly, the three
com ponents o f the theatre: the seating area (koilon), the orchestra and the
stage building (skene), did not have a unified fo rm .7

T he R om ans continued the developm ent o f the Hellenistic theatre. The

earliest o f the R om an theatres is th at o f P om peii.8 R om ans were the first to
com bine the seating area (cavea o r auditorium) w ith the stage building
(scaena) and by doing so, com pleted the process th a t was begun during the

6 ° n the theatre of Dionysus in Athens, see: Bieber 1961, p. 55-68, figs. 223-224, 226-229,
237, 254-261; Travlos 1971, p. 537-552, figs. 676-690; Pickard-Cambridge 1946.
7 The theatre in Priene in Asia M inor is the best example o f a Hellenistic theatre. See: Bieber
1961, p. 108-111, figs. 416-425; Schede 1964, p. 70-79, figs. 84-92.
8 On the theatre o f Pompeii, see: Bieber 1961, p. 170-175, figs. 605-615.
Hellenistic period. T he unification o f these tw o com ponents was achieved
by m eans o f structures erected on both sides o f the stage building which arc
called the stage wings or versurae in Latin. These tw o wings connccted the
cavea with the scaena and in this way a continuous and unified architectural
spacc was form ed. This process led to changes in the shape o f the orchestra,
which was circular in the G reek theatre, while in the R om an theatre it was
sem i-circular in shape. T h e sam e applied to the seating area itself: in the
R om an th eatre it was sem i-circular, while in the G reek th eatre the seating
area extended beyond the halfw ay line o f the orchestra
T h e obvious difference between the G reek and R o m an th eatres is in the
relationship between the seating area and the stage building. In the R om an
theatre, since the stage building was connected to the seating area and
form ed one unity, both the stage building (scaena) and the seating area
(cavea) were o f the sam e height. T he front wall o f the stage building
(scaenae fro ns) facing the orchestra and the audicnce was designed as
a p erm anent d ecoration. By m eans o f a vertical supporters (colum ns, pillars
and pilasters) and horizontal beam s (entablature) placed above each other,
with niches co n tain in g statues, the scaenae fro n s was given an exceptionally
rich and spectacular ap p earan ce.10 A n oth er essential difference between the
G reek and the R o m an theatres is in their location. T he G reek theatres were
always built on a n atu ral slope in order to place the seating area on it, and
were therefore totally dependent on to p o g rap h y .11 T he R om ans, on the
o th er han d , because o f their engineering ability to create artificial slopes by
m eans o f a system o f slanting barrel vaults intersecting with large semi-
circular vaults (ambulacra), were not dependent on to p o g rap h y at all, and
could erect theatres wherever they wanted. T hus, m ost o f the R om an theatres
w ere spatially integrated w ithin the road netw ork in various cities.12

This brief survey is only m eant to indicate the m ain points in the history o f
the architectural development o f theatre structures in the G raeco-R om an world.
It is unnecessary to note th at this developm ent is the result o f far-reaching
changes th at occurred in the theatrical arts themselves. T he essential changes in
the design o f the stage in the G reek theatre and subsequently in the R om an
theatre are all spatial-architectural expressions for the ascending im portance o f
the acto r and the decline o f the choir (in G reek: chorus). A t the sam e time,
a fu rther essential change occurred in the taste and dem ands o f the audience.

9 On the design o f the R om an theatre, see: Izenour 1977; Small 1983, p. 55-68.
10 The most perfect example of a design for a stage faęade (scaenae frons) can be found in the
theatre in Sabratha in Libya, N orth Africa. See: C aputo 1959.
11 See, for example, the theatre in the sanctuary of Epidauros in the Peloponnesos: Bieber
1961, p. 71-73, figs. 271-275; Gerkan 1961.
12 See, for example, the theatre in Leptis Magna in Libya, N o rth Africa: C aputo 1987.
 Events such as the Persian wars, the em ergence o f A thenian dem ocracy,
the decline o f the polis, and the ascendancy o f th e Hellenistic kingdom s, all
these m ust have had their im press upon the theatrical arts. T he decline o f
tragedy and the rise o f the new com edy, the even greater popularity o f the
m im e and pan tom im e all these necessitated changes and ad a p ta tio n s in the
stru ctu re o f the th e a tre .13

b. Amphitheatre

In spite o f its G reek nam e, the am phitheatre was, b oth in its function as
the placc for the events th at are held there, and in its design and construc-
tion m ethods, a clearly R om an stru ctu re.14 T he am p hith eatre (in Latin:
am phitheatrum) was an oval structure in the centre o f which there was
a flat surfacc o f pressed earth (arena) surrounded by a high protective wall.
All aro u n d the arena there were tiers o f stepped seats (cavea or auditorium).
It was this shape th at was responsible for the nam e given to it by the
R om ans - the amphitheatrum, which m eans literally a double theatre.
There were tw o kinds o f events held in the am phitheatre:

1. M unera (sing, munus) which are com bats between professional gla-
d ia to rs w ho were specially trained fo r this. T hey staged battles
in which they appeared in pairs or groups, each arm ed with a dif-
ferent kind o f w eapon.
2. Venationes (sing, venatio), which are staged hunting scenes in which
various wild beasts appeared fighting against each o th er o r were
h u n te d .15

T he am p h ith eatre entertainm ents were widely enjoyed in Italy and in the
regions conquered by the R om ans th at had undergone an intensive process
° f R om anization. This explains why we find scores o f am p hitheatres scat-
tered th ro u g h o u t Italy, F rance, Spain and N o rth A frica, and only a few
isolated ones in the eastern provinces o f the R om an Em pire. T he am p hit-
heatre in Pom peii is considered as one o f the very earliest ones. It is dated
to the first q u a rte r o f the first century B C E .16 C om pared w ith the structure

“ K itto 1970; Ferguson 1972; Taplin 1978; Comford 1970; Sandback 1977.
J On the leisure and entertainm ent culture in Rome, see: Balsdon 1968; Friedlander 1968.
On the type of events th at were held in the amphitheatres, sec: Huizinga 1970; Jennison
1937; Toynbee 1973; Honle, Henze 1981; G rant 1967; Plass 1995; Golvin, Landes 1990;
Auguet 1994.
On the am phitheatre in Pompeii and other amphitheatres throughout the Roman Empire,
see the detailed and comprehensive study by Golvin 1988.
o f the theater, which had undergone a proccss o f hundreds o f years in its
fo rm ation and architectural design, the am p h ith eatre was designed from the
very start as an elliptical structure with an arena and the stepped tiers of
scats enclosing the arena on all sides. T he changes in its plan and structure
are reflected in the m ethod o f construction, th at is to say the way in which
the artificial slope th at carried the tiers o f stepped scats were created.
T he largest am p hith eatre in the R om an world is the Colosseum in
R om e (its correct nam e: Amphitheatrum Flavium).11 Its construction was
begun in 70 CE and it was inaugurated in 80 CE du rin g the reign o f Titus.
A m p hitheatres differ from each o th er in their size and degree o f sophis-
tication in their underground installations beneath the arena where the
anim als were held before being brought up in cages and sent directly into
th a t arena. These sophisticated installations were found only in the larger
am phitheatres. In a num ber o f them there was also the possibility o f flooding
the arena with w ater to turn it into an artificial lake in which staged sea
battles (naumachia in G reek) could be w aged.18

c. Ilippodromc/Circus

H orse-draw n chario t races have had a long trad itio n in the Greek
w orld, and its ro o ts are em bedded in the H om eric period. W hen the
O lym pic gam es were first held (776 BCE), ch ario t races were included
as one o f the com petitive events.19 These races were held in the hippodrom e
(in G reek: Umtoópofioę), which is a broad expanse o f pressed earth. The
hip p o d ro m e in O lym pia and in sim ilar facilities th ro u g h o u t the Greek
w orld was n o t actually defined architecturally. W hat this m eans is that
there were no existing rules th at precisely limited the m easurem ents o f
a h ip p o d ro m e and there was no division between the track, which the
G reeks called dromos and the seating area. A t the sam e time, the Greeks
installed a device to provide a uniform starting gates for the chariots
so as to ensure fair com petition. We know th a t an installation o f this
kind already existed in O lym pia in the fifth century BCE (Pausanias,
Description o f Greece, VI, 20, 14).

T he R om ans, like the G reeks, were very enthusiastic ab o u t horse-draw n

ch ario t races, b u t in their typical m an n er they gave the h ippodrom e (circus

11 On the Colosseum, see: Travlos 1968, p. 17-25, figs. 5-14; Pearson 1973; Gabucci 2001.
18 On the naumachia, see: Golvin, Redde 1990, p. 165-177. In general, on water entertainments
in theatres and am phitheatres, see: Traversari 1960; G ilula 1994, p. 41-50 [Hebrew].
19 On chariot races in the Greek world, see: Palaeologos 1976. On chariot races in the Roman
world, see: Rawson 1981, p. 1-16.
 in L atin) a precise architectural definition. A typical circus was a large-sized
rectangular stru cture with an average length o f ab o u t 450 m. and ab out
70 m. in w idth. It m ainly consisted o f a track o f pressed earth bounded by
a high protective wall. T his track, which was also called an arena, had
a curvcd end, while at the oth er end there were 10 or 12 startin g gates that
were called carceres. A low wall, called the spina, ran dow n the center of
the arena, dividing it into two so as to ensure th a t the chario ts did not
clash frontally with cach other. R anged aro un d the protective wall, th at is
to say, along the entire length o f the wall and at the curved end o f the
circus were tiers o f stepped seats (cavea or auditorium).20
T he largest and m ost fam ous o f all R om an circuses was the Circus
M axim us, which is located in the heart o f Rom e, at the foot o f the Palatine
Hill (Palatinus M ons) on which the palaces o f the E m p ero rs stood. T he
origins o f this circus, which m easures 650 m. in length, are to be found in
the E truscan period, and it was built o f stone as a perm anent facility at the
end o f the fo u rth century BCE. D uring the im perial period it was restored
and renovated several times. Its m agnificent architectural decorations and
the gran d eu r o f the events th at were held there were legendary.21 T he circus
was highly p o p u lar in the R om an world, and beginning with the 2nd ccntury
CE, the chariot raccs becam e the m ost widespread o f m ass entertainm ents.
I he well-know n slogan “ bread and circuses” {panem et circenses) (Juvenalis,
Satires, 10, 81) is a faithful expression o f the popularity o f this entertainm ent
facility. A n o th er expression o f this are the “ factio n s” (factiones in Latin),
that is to say, the fan groups o r supporters, who were callcd according to
their colours - the “ greens” , the “ blues” , the “ red s” and the “ w hites” . In
the chario t com petitions, extrem e and violent expression was given to the
rivalries and social pressures th at characterized R o m an society on all levels.22

d. Stadium

T he stadium (in G reek: oriS io v, in Latin: stadium) is a m easure o f

length fo r 200 m . T h is was the nam e given by th e G reeks for the facility
>n which they conducted athletic com petitions th a t were included in the
Olym pic G am es.
T he earliest stadium in the G reek world is th at o f O lym pia. In its
Present form , as we know it today, it dates from the Hellenistic period, yet

0 On the different kinds o f circuses scattered throughout the R om an world, see Humphrey’s
detailed and comprehensive book: Humphrey 1986, p. 1-16.
On the Circus M aximus, see: Nash 1968, p. 236-240, figs. 271-279.
On the unique aspect of the circus as the main entertainm ent for the masses in Roman Italy
and in Byzantium, and on the “factions”, see: Cameron 1976.
it m ust have u ndoubtedly originated in the archaic period. In contrast to
the facilities th at were described above, the stadium is n o t an entertainm ent
facility b u t clearly one o f sport. T he stadium has a rectangular shape, with
a length o f ab o u t 200 m . and a w idth between 30 to 40 m. D uring the
archaic and classical periods the stadium did n o t actually have any architec-
tu ral definition, and it was only in the Hellenistic period th a t seating
arrangem ents were m ade for spectators, first o f wood and later o f stone.
Stepped tiers o f stone seats like those found in the stadium s (stadia) at
D elphi o r E p id au ro s, for exam ple, extended parallel to the tw o longer sides
o f the stadium . H ow ever, in O lym pia itself, no seats were ever installed and
the spectators stood o r sat on the sloping b anks th at enclosed the stadium .23
In the G reek w orld, the stadium s were associated w ith sanctuaries in
which sp o rt events were held sim ilar to those in O lym pia, D elphi or
E pidauros. A n o th er place where stadium s were set up was the gym nasium
(in G reek: yvn via io v) th at could be found in every G reek city to serve as
schools for the younger citizens o f the polis. T h e m ost attractiv e and perfect
exam ple o f a m unicipal stadium o f this kind was set up near the gym nasium
in Priene in A sia M in o r.24 H ere the gym nasium is built as a structure with
a ccntral enclosed co u rtyard surrounded by colum ns (palaistra) th at served
for various physical exercises. All around the co urtyard were room s and
halls, including the ephebeion, the central instruction hall. E xtending along-
side the gym nasium was the stadium in which athletic com petitions were
held, m ainly in running, and in discus and javelin throw ing.
F ro m w hat was said above, it appears th a t in the G reek w orld, the
stadium was linked b o th to the athletic and com petitive activities o f the
O lym pic gam es, as well as to the gym nasium , w hich was the educational
institution th at symbolized above all else the spirit o f the polis. W hen the polis
declined d uring the Hellenistic period, and m ore especially du rin g the R om an
period when the G reek w orld was entirely incorporated within the R om an
Em pire, the statu s and im portance o f the gym nasium was reduced, and the
various sport events also dim inished in value in com parison w ith the classical
and H ellenistic periods. D uring the R om an period, the m ass entertainm ent
th at was provided in the am phitheatres and circuses appears o f far greater
interest and popu larity th an the events held in stadium s. It should probably
be m entioned at this p o in t th at in all o f R om e only one stadium was built,
the Stadium Domitiani, which was erected at the end o f the first century C E .25
T his fact is enough to indicate th at, for the R om ans, athletics was never
w arm ly sponsored either as a sport-com petitive activity o r as entertainm ent.

23 On the sladia in the main sanctuaries, see: Mussche 1963, p. 28-29, figs. 92-94.
24 On the gymnasium and stadium in Priene, see: Schede 1964, p. 80-89, figs. 93-102.
25 On the Stadium Domitiani in Rome, see: N ash 1968, p. 387-390, figs. 1174-1179.
 II. Sport and Entertainment Facilities in the Land of Israel

In the follow ing discussion o f the sport and entertain m en t facilities in

the Land o f Israel du ring ancient times, we shall retain the sam e subject
divisions used for the G raeco -R o m an world. This m eans th a t we shall first
discuss the theatres, and then the am phitheatres, circuses, and finally the
stadium s.

a. Theatres

In spite o f the fact th at the Land o f Israel was, from the 6th ccntury
BCE, exposed to classical culture, and th at from the 4th century it was ruled
directly by the Hellenistic kingdom s, the first th eatre erected there was by
H erod the G reat, K ing o f Iudaea, at the end o f the first century BCE. A t
this period the Jew s constituted the m ajority o f the p op ulation in the
country, b u t it also contained N ab ataeans as well as a Hellenizcd Syrio-
Phoenician p op u latio n th at lived for the m ost p a rt in coastal cities and in
the Decapolis. It should be m entioned th at the degree o f exposure o f these
three pop u latio ns to classical culture was n o t uniform . T h e coastal cities
were the first to be exposed to it, while the Jewish p o p u latio n , especially
those living in the in terior regions o f the country, was far less exposed to it.
T h e theatres were apparently erected in Iu d aea, N a b ataea, as well as in
the Hellenizcd citics o f the Decapolis.26 Before going on to discuss the 30
theatres so far excavated on both sides o f the Jo rd a n , it should be noted
that in ad d ition to the geographical aspect, i.e. the location o f the theatres
in the different p op u latio n areas, the chronological aspect is also o f great
im portance.

H crodian Theatres

D urin g the reign o f H erod the G reat (37-4 BCE), three theatres were
built in Iudaea: in Jerusalem , in Jericho and in C aesarea. T he one in
Jerusalem has n ot yet been locatcd. It m ay have been erected as a tem porary
structure and then dism antled, because it w ould be difficult to suppose th at

26 On the theatres in Hellenistic and Rom an Palestine, see: Frezouls 1952, p. 46-100; Frezouls
1959, p. 202-227; Segal 1989, p. 145-165; Segal 1995.
 in Jerusalem at the end o f the first century BCE there would have been an
audiencc th a t m ight enjoy theatrical events.27 T he th eatre in Jcricho was
built as p a rt o f an o utstanding and original com plex th a t included, in
add itio n to the theatre, a hippodrom e and perhaps also a gym nasium .28
I his com plcx should be seen as p art o f the palace com pound th at the
H asm oncans constructed and which was expanded by H erod. T he building
o f a th eatre in C aesarea can be explained by the political and cultural
intentions o f H erod who w anted to turn the kingdom o f Iudaca into
a Hellenistic kingdom in the fram ew ork o f the “ new o rd e r” th at was being
im posed in the M editerranean Basin during the A u gustan p erio d .29 It seems
th at the son o f H erod, A ntipas, built an additional th eatre in S cpphoris.30
P erhaps A n tipas constructed this theatre for the sam e reasons th at led his
father to co nstru ct theatres in C aesarea, Jericho and Jerusalem . W hat is
com m on am ong the theatres th a t were built by H erod and his son is th at
the initiative cam e from the rulers and therefore one can n o t suppose th at
they reflected the real cultural needs o f m ost o f the Jew ish and non-Jew ish
p op u latio n in the area ruled by H erod the G re at and A ntipas.

T heatres in the N abatacan Kingdom

D u rin g the period from the end o f the first century BCE to the end o f
the first century C E, five theatres were built in the N ab ataca n kingdom .31
T he m ost n o rtherly one o f them is found in S ahr in the T rachonitis
(S outhern Syria today), while southernm ost one is in W adi S abra south o f
P etra. T h e very presence o f theatres in N a b atacan kingdom is perhaps even
m ore surprising th an their existence in the area o f the Ilcro d ia n kingdom ,
because it is difficult to assum e th at the N a b atacan p o p u latio n o f this
period could be considered as having a classical culture. T his suggests that
the theatres o f the N ab ataean s were no t used for purely theatrical events
but for o th er purposes such as cultic cerem onies for the dead. Indeed, m ost
o f the N ab ataca n theatres were constructed in connection with sanctuaries

27 On the erection of a theatre in Jerusalem, see: A J 15: 268; in Jericho: A J 17: 161; in
Caesarea: BJ, I: 415.
28 Netzer 1980, p. 104-107 [Hebrew],
19 Segal 1992, p. 145-156 [Hebrew]; Segal 1995, p. 4-5; Frova 1966, p. 57-192; Levine 1975
p. 23-26.
Segal 1995, p. 41-43, figs. 10-14; Waterman 1937, p. 6-12, figs. 3-5; Meyers, Netzer, Meyers
1992, p. 30-33.
31 On N abataean theatres, see: Segal 1989, p. 150-151, notes 14-20. On the large theatre in
Petra, see: Hammond 1965. On the theatre in Wadi Sabra, see: Linder 1982, p. 231-242;
Negev 1981, p. 122-128 [Hebrew], On the theatre in Sahr in the Trachonitis, see: Segal
1995, p. 38-39, fig. 2; Butler 1919, p. 441-446.
 o r ccm eterics. H ow ever, one should not reject the possibility th at even the
N ab ataean kings, like H erod the G reat and his sons, w anted to dem onstrate
their enthusiasm lo r classical culture, and th at their aim was sim ilar to th at
o f H erod, to bccom c integrated with general Hellenistic culture under the
leadership o f R om e.

Theatres in Hellenizcd Cities

T he earliest am o n g the theatres in the Hellenizcd cities was the southern

th eatre in G erasa (today: Jerash in Jo rd a n ) th at was built in 92 C E .32 The
very co n stru ctio n o f this th eatre is o f great im portance to o u r discussion in
view o f the fact th at, unlike the o th er theatres th a t were built by H erod the
G reat or by the N ab ataean kings, the th eatre in G erasa was built by
m unicipal initiative, th at is to say, b oth the funding and the audience came
from the city itself. It is safe to assum e, therefore, th at the facility crectcd
by m unicipal initiative for the sake o f the citizens, faithfully reflects the true
needs o f the p op u latio n o f the area in which it was built.
T he theatres in the Hellenizcd cities were built over a long period o f
time, from the end o f the first century to the end o f the 3rd century CE.
T he greater m ajority o f the 30 theatres th at have so far been excavated in
the region under discussion were built in the Hcllcnized cities during this
period. It is w orth considering the location o f these theatres. Some o f them ,
such as the theatres in H am m at-G ad er, Shuni or in Birketein, n o rth o f
G erasa, can be defined as cultic theatres because they were n o t built within
the cities but in sanctuaries in the vicinity o f the cities, while the other
theatres were built within the cities them selves.33
All the theatres in the L and o f Israel are R o m an theatres in respect of
plan, design and architecture, and do not differ essentially from the theatres
th at were built in the first centuries o f the C hristian era in o th er provinces
o f the R o m an E m pire.34 In the theatres th at were built in the L and o f
Israel, there is evidence o f construction m ethods and architectural solutions
th at indicate a high level o f engineering and architectural skills. T he various

2 On the southern theatre in G erasa, see: Segal 1995; p. 75-77, figs. 94-103; Kraeling 1938,
м P. 19-20; Browning 1982, p. 125-131, figs. 62-66; Segal 1988, p. 23, figs. 49-51, notes 26, 27.
On the theatre in H am m at-G ader, see: Segal 1995, p. 45-46, figs. 20-22; Sukenik 1935,
P. 27-30, fig. 7. On the theatre in Shuni/Shumi, see: Shenhav 1990, p. 58-62 [Hebrew]; Segal
1995, p. 69-70, figs. 72-78. On the theatre in Birketein, see: Segal 1995, p. 71, figs. 79-83;
^ Kraeling 1938, p. 159-167, fig. 2; p. 161, pis. XXXI1I-XXXV.
On the differences between the Greek and R om an theatres regarding plans, methods of
construction and decoration, see: Bieber 1961, p. 187-189; Robertson 1974, p. 271-283;
Boethius, W ard-Perkins 1970, p. 373-378, fig. 145.
types o f building m ethods are m ainly reflected in the construction o f artificial
slopes on which the cavea was placed. As for architectural decoration, the
th eatres in th e L and o f Israel are not essentially different from those in
o th er regions o f the R om an world. M ost o f the deco ration efforts were
focuscd on the faęade o f the stage structure (scaenae frons), which faces the
stage and the audience, and is decorated with tw o or three stories o f m arble
and granite colum ns, pillar and pilasters in a variety o f colours th at support
horizontal beam s (en tablature) and statues placcd within the niches. T he
largest th eatre in o u r region is the one in P hiladelphia (to d ay A m m an,
capital o f the kingdom o f Jo rd a n ) in which there were 8000 seats, while the
sm allest one is in S ahr in trachonitis (today in so u th ern Syria) where only
400 spectators can be seated, but on average the theatres in o u r region
con tain 5000 seats.

The C ultural Aspect

Very little is know n to us on w hat to o k placc at the scorcs o f theatres

in the L and o f Israel. F ro m the small am o u n t o f inform ation gleaned from
Josephus, T alm udic literature and church sources we learn th a t m im e and
p antom im e perform ances were the m ore com m on form s o f en tertainm ent in
the th eatres o f this region.35 Even events o f an o th er type, such as acrobatic
perform ances and boxing m atches were presented at the theatres, and in
som e th eatres such as the one in C aesarea, it was possible to flood the
orchestra with w ater and to present “ w ater-theatre” , a type o f entertrainm ent
th a t was highly d u b io u s.36 All this shows th at it is difficult to assum e that
classical d ra m a was presented in the theatres o f the L and o f Israel. The
substance and im p o rt o f the w orks o f Aeschylos, Sophocles, Euripides or
A ristophanes th a t were m eant for the A thenian audience were not apparently
tran sm itted within the com pass o f the theatre in o u r region. T he contcnt,
ideas and language o f the classical G reek plays in all th eir various forms
were alien to the local audience which was ap p aren tly satisfied with light
and sim ple entertain m en t generously provided by m im e, pantom im e and
“ w ater-th eatre” .

35 On leisure culture in the Land of Israel in ancient times, see: Weiss 1995, p. 2-19 [Hebrew].
On mime and pantom im e in the ancient theatre, see: Segal 1989, p. 145-165. On the
position o f the C hurch regarding various theatrical events, see: Ashkenazi 1994, p. 95-102
[Hebrew]. On Talm udic sources regarding various theatrical events, see: Dvorjetski 1994,
p. 51-68 [Hebrew].
3e On water theatre in the Land of Israel and the classical world, see: G ilula 1994, p. 41-50
[Hebrew].
 b. Am phitheatres

We have already noted the essential difference in the character o f events

held in theatres as com pared with those held in am p h ith eatres.37 G ladiatorial
com bats and h u n tin g scenes did not appeal to Sem itic audiences in the
R om an E ast, and am phitheatres arc rarely found even in A sia M ino r and
in G reece.38 In the Land o f Israel, four am p hitheatres have so far been
found, all o f them west o f Jo rd an : Beth-Shean (Scythopolis), B eth-G uvrin
(E leutheropolis), Shcchem (N capolis) and C aesarea. T h e last o f these has
not yet been investigated but the o th er three am p h ith eatres have been
excavated to som e degree over the last tw o decades.39
It seems likely th a t the very existence o f am p hitheatres in this region o f
the R o m an world m ust be seen in connection with the presence o f the
legionnaires w ho, together with their families, constituted the m ain clients
ol am p h ith eatre entertain m ents.40 Indeed, if we consider the d istribution of
am phitheatres in the R om an world, we see th at com pared with m ore than
a hundred am p hith eatres know n to us in Italy and in the western provinces,
and m ore th an 40 am phitheatres in N o rth A frica, they are extrem ely rare in
Greece, A sia M in o r and in the R om an East. T he existence o f fou r am p h it-
heatres in the L and o f Israel, within a relatively sm all area west o f the
Jo rd a n River, indicates a considerable con centration o f people by whom
this type o f am usem ent was favored. As we have said, it is quite probable
th at it was m ainly the soldiers o f the R om an legions who were com prised
the m ain audience for this kind o f entertainm ent.
We should, how ever, take into account o th er factors th at m ight have led
the cities to the decision to build am phitheatres in their areas. T he const-
ruction o f the am p h ith eatre in C aesarea by H erod the G re at was an integral
Part o f a whole com plex o f buildings, including en tertain m en t facilities th at
the king h ad erected in his kingdom and outside it.41 O n the o ther hand,

in ^ am P h^heatre entertainments, see above, notes 15-18.

On the location and status of the am phitheatre in the Hellenistic-Roman East in general
3e and am ong the Jewish population in particular, see: R obert 1940.
It is possible that the structure located nearby, to the west of the circus in Bosra (the
capital o f Provincia Arabia, today Southern Syria), is actually an amphitheatre. Its location
m the capita] o f the province which was also the perm anent base o f the Legio Tertia
Cyrenaica, indicates that, like the am phitheatre in Beth-Guvrin, it was primarily used for
w the legionnaires. See: M ougdad, Blanc, Dentzer 1990, p. 201-204.
See, lor example, the am phitheatre in D ura-Europos on the Euphrates (today in Syria),
which in the third century CE was an im portant military base o f the Romans. This small
am phitheatre was built by the soldiers that were stationed there within a bathhouse that
^ was no longer in use. See: Rostovtzeff et al. 1936.
On the am phitheatre in Caesarea, see: Levine 1975, p. 27-29; Reifenberg 1951, p. 20-32,
fig. 1. The am phitheatre in Caesarea, located in the north p art of the city, has not yet been
researched, and it should be mentioned that at this stage there is no evidence for the date
o f its construction.
the co n stru ctio n o f am phitheatres in cities such as B cth-Shean, B eth-G uvrin
and Shcchcm , seem to imply th at these cities, which nourished in the 2nd
and 3rd centuries C E, wished to dem onstrate their w ealth and loyalty to
R om an provincial authorities by erecting facilities th at best expressed the
cu ltu ral trad itio n s o f Rom e.
T he am p h itheatres o f Shcchcm and Bcth-Shean are w orth special atten -
tion because they were actually constructed within circuses when these were
no longer in use.42
W e arc faced with a phenom enon which is n o t unique to the Land of
Israel but which is well know n to us in the R om an Em pire as a whole. In
fact, in the 3rd and 4th ccnturies C E, theatres and stadium s, and even a few
circuses, had their original function altered and were adapted for the purpose
o f conducting am p h ith eatre events. T his process took placc in m ost o f the
theatres, in which the stage and lower level tiers o f seats were elim inated, and
a protective wall was crcctcd around the orchestra, tu rn in g it into an arena.
In this way the conditions for holding gladiatorial com bats o r staged hunting
gam es were created .43 In o rder to ad ap t the stadium s and circuscs for
am p h ith eatre events, a m uch larger investm ent o f effort was necessary. T he
circular area opposite the starting gates in the circus, o r the startin g line
(meta) in the stadium were utilized for creating the arena. In this area,
a sem i-circular wall was built facing the curved end which disconnected th at
area from the rest o f the stadium or circus.** Every visitor to the am phitheat-
res o f Shcchcm o r Bcth-Shean will easily notice those added constructions.
I he am p h ith eatre o f C aesarea has not yet been excavatcd, although its
existence is know n to researchers by the analysis o f aerial p h o to g rap h s.45
But there is no d o u b t th at we have here an am p h ith eatre th at was erected
from the very start as an am phitheatre. T he am p h ith eatre in B eth-G uvrin,
the excavation and the partial reconstruction o f which has recently been
com pleted, was also originally built as such.46
It is quite probable th at the structure th at was located by G. Schum acher
in Legio, a cam p city th at was set up for the soldiers o f the Sixth Legion in
the first q u a rte r o f the 2nd century C E, served as an am p h ith eatre.47

42 On the am phitheatre of Beth-Shean (Scythopolis), see: Tsafrir, Foerster 1990, p. 7-45; Tsafrir,
Foerster 1993, p. 3-32; Tsafrir, Foerster 1997, p. 85-146. O n the am phitheatre in Shechem,
see: Magen 1994, p. 1357-1358.
43 See, for example, the theatre in Aphrodisias in Caria, W estern Turkey today: Smith, Erim
1991, p. 31-39, fig. 1, p. 30.
44 See, for example, the stadium in Aphrodisias: Erim 1992, p. 27-29, figs. 31-32.
45 See above, note 41.
46 On the am phitheatre o f Beth-Guvrin, see: KJoner 1988, p. 15-24; K loner, H übsch 1996,
p. 85-106.
47 On the theatre/am phitheatre in Legio (today, in the area o f K ibbutz M egiddo), see: Segal
1995, p. 52-53, figs. 35-37; Schumacher 1908, p. 173-177, plate 1.
S chum achcr defines it as a theatre, but because o f the unusual shape o f the
stru ctu re (n o t yet excavated), it would n o t be w rong to assum e th at it may
have also served as an am phitheatre. A m algam ated stru ctu res such as these,
in which th eatre and am p h ith eatre arc com bined, are well know n to us
th ro u g h o u t the R om an E m pire.4“

c. Circuses

T h e horse-draw n ch ario t races have a long trad itio n in G reek culture.

1 hey were a p a rt o f the O lym pic G am es and were frequently m entioned in
the H om eric epics.49
H ow ever, the G reeks never form ulated an architectural definition for
w hat they used to call a h ippodrom e (in G reek: 1т ло0роцод), although
ch ario t races com petitions in the G reek w orld d u rin g the archaic and
classical periods, and even in the Hellenistic one, were held in wide expanses
°f pressed earth. 1 he R om ans called the h ippodrom e a circus, and by the
4"' century BCE, had already given it a precise architectural d efin ition.50
1 he circus (the heir o f the G reek hippodrom e) was a large and impressive
facility th a t was usually set up outside the city area. So far, seven circuses
have been located in the cities o f Southern Syria and the Land o f Israel:
B osra, G a d a ra , B cth-Shean, C aesarea (tw o), and Shechem. O th er circuses
have been found in T yre, Beirut (today in L ebanon) and L ata k ia (today in
S yria).51 A facility o f a unique kind was excavated in H ero d ian Jericho, and
it m ay be the only one o f those we m entioned earlier th a t could be called

4" See, for example, the theatre/am phitheatre in Verulamium (today, St. A lbans) in England:
K enyon 1935, p. 213-261.
” See above, notes 2-3, 19-20.
On the hippodrom e and on the history o f the architectural form ation o f the circus, see:
H um phrey 1986, p. 1-24.
On circuses in the eastern provinces o f the R om an Empire, see the book by Humphrey
1986, p. 438-539. On the circus in Bosra (Southern Syria), see: Butler 1914, p. 275-276.
{Our knowledge of the circus in Bosra is based on a survey only. The facility has not yet
been excavated].
On the circus in G adara, see: Wagner-Lux et al. 1978, p. 135-144, pis. 11-17; Wagner-Lux,
Vriezen 1980, p. 157-161; W eber 1989, p. 597-611.
On the circus in G erasa, see: Kraeling 1938, p. 85-100; Ostrasz 1989, p. 329-336, fig. 4.
On the ctt-cur/amphitheatre in Bcth-Shean, see above, note 42.
On the circus in Shechem, see above, note 42.
On the circus in Tyre, see: Boutros 1981, p. 103-115, figs. 219-235.
On the circus in Beirut, see: H um phrey 1986, p. 491-492, notes 69-72.
On the circus in L atakia (which is Hellenistic and R om an Laodicca) in N orthern Syria, see:
H um phrey 1986, p. 492, notes 73-74. I heard from D r. M . H artal that the remains of
a large circus have recently been located in Tiberias.
 a hip p od ro m e and n o t a circus.52 T he earliest circus th at was built in
Iu d aca is the one th a t was recently excavated in C aesarea.53 In his desc-
ription o f the founding o f C aesarea by H erod the G reat, Josephus m en-
tions the am p h ith eatre th a t was built “ south o f the p o rt” {A J 17: 341,
BJ, I, 21: 8). It appears th at Josephus confused the circus with the am-
phitheatrum (and he was not the only historian o f th a t period who con-
fuscd the various en tertainm ent facilities), because w hat was found near
the shores o f C aesarea, south o f the p o rt and n o rth o f the theatre, was
not an am phitheatre but a circus, an unm istakable R om an facility intended
for horse-draw n ch ario t races.54 T he circus o f H erod the G re at has the
typical U shape, w ith long walls parallel to the line o f the shore, and
with its curvcd end tow ards the south. T he m easurem ents o f the arena
were: 300 x 50 m.
AU the o ther circuses th at were built in the cities o f S outhern Syria
and the L and o f Israel were constructed in the 2nd and 3rd ccnturies
C E, du rin g the reign o f the A ntoninę and Severan em perors. Tw o of
them : the ones in G crasa and G ad ara, are the sm allest o f all th at were
ever built. T h eir length was less th an 250 m. while the circuses o f Bosra,
C aesarea (the eastern circus), like those o f Tyre, B eirut and L atakia,
had an average length o f m ore than 400 m. T he latter belong to a group
o f large circuses th a t, in their design and p ro p o rtio n s, resem ble those
in Italy and N o rth Africa.

In co n tra st with the shows o f the am p h ith eatre, the ch ario t raccs won
great popu larity in the R om an East. A t the end o f the R o m an period and
during the B yzantine era, when the popularity o f am p h ith eatre shows was
in declinc, the ch ario t races bccam e the m ost favored form o f m ass en ter-
tainm ent. Ju st as in R om e and C onstantinople, we find th a t even in the
Land o f Israel there were fights, occasionally violent ones, between rival
circus factions (factiones), m ainly between the “ blues” and the “ greens” ,
which testifies to the great popularity o f chario t races in o u r reg io n .55

52 On the hippodrom e in Jericho, see: Netzer 1980, p. 104-107 [Hebrew], The structure that
was excavated by Prof. E. Netzer in Jericho lacks a seating system and also has no starting
gates (carceres) or a central dividing wall (spina), and therefore, unlike the other facilities
that have so far been excavated in the Land o f Israel, it can be defined as a hippodrome
and not a circus.
53 The circus of Herod was excavated by a team o f the Antiquities A uthority headed by
D r. J. Porath (with the exception o f the northern end, the area o f the carceres, which was
excavated by team headed by Prof. J. Patrich), between the years 1992-2002 See- Porath
2003, p. 451-455.
54 Porath 2004, p. 63-67.
 d. Stadiums

As already m entioned above, the stadium (pi. stadia) is an o utstanding

sp o rt facility th a t is found in sanctuaries such as O lym pia, D elphi or
H pidauros, but they are also to be found in gym nasium s.56 C om petitive
activities are held in stadium s in the fram ew ork o f the O lym pic G am es as
well as train ing in various athletic professions. T he stadium is a G reek
facility and is rarely found in the R om an world, since as we have already
em phasized, athletic com petitions were n o t favored by the R om ans, who
preferred w atching entertaining spectacles displayed in am p hitheaters and
circuses.57 T he stadium s found in gym nasium s were an integral p a rt o f
those ed u cational institutions th at characterized above all the spirit o f the
polis. All citizens were required to send their children to the gym nasium in
which theoretical studies were com bined w ith a variety o f bodily activities.
So far only one stadium has been excavated in the L and o f Israel, the
stadium in S am aria (Sebaste).58 This stadium was erected in the northeast
area o f the city, near the wall, utilizing the convenient valley th at runs to the
n o rth o f the forum . T he stadium , which m easures 230 x 60 m ., is rectangular
in shape and is surrounded by walls on all fo u r sides. Parallel to these walls
there arc porticos th at apparently bore single-sloped roofs to provide shade
all along the walls. It is safe to assum e th at the stadium o f Sam aria served
the local gym nasium , which has n o t yet been discovered. T he very existence
o f a stadium in a city such as S am aria (Sebaste) sheds light on the cultural
character o f the city and on the com position o f its popu latio n .

c. Conclusions

1 he L and o f Israel with its different areas and variety o f p op u lation was
already been exposed to classical culture in the 6lh century BCE. Beginning
with the 4th century it cam e under the direct rule o f the Hellenistic kingdom s,
first by the Ptolem ies and then by the Seleucids. T h e degree o f exposure for
the in h ab itan ts o f the coastal cities was certainly m uch greater th an those
living in the rural hinterland. In addition, the d ep th to which classical
culture had penetrated was dependent to some extent on the readiness o f
the various p o p u latio n s to accept it. F o r the Syrio-Phoenician inhabitants

56 See above, notes 2-3, 23-25.

1 See above, note 2.
On the stadium in Samaria (Sebaste), see: Crowfoot, Kenyon, Sukenik 1942, p. 41-50. I was
told by word o f m outh by the excavation team at Beth-Shean, that a Greek inscription was
recently found on site in which the municipal gymnasium is mentioned, but the building
itself has not yet been located. This inscription has not yet been published.
 who then com prised the m ajority o f the pop u latio n living in the coastal
cities, the en co u n ter with the G reek language, religion and literature was
m ore n atu ra l and easy th an for the Jews o r the N ab ataean s. T he proccss o f
H ellcnization was com plex and n o t a uniform one for the different kinds of
p op u lation living in the Land o f Israel.
In the history o f the country, there were periods in which the ruling
authorities encouraged and prom oted those strata o f society th at were intere-
sted in ad op ting the m unicipal style o f life as conductcd in a G reek polis.
Sclcucid rule or the overt policy o f K ing H erod the G reat show how
com plex and com plicated these processes actually were. R om an provincial
rule cncouragcd the process o f urbanization and th us exposed ever larger
num bers o f inhabitants, both Jews and non-Jews, to the fram ew ork characte-
ristic o f a G reek polis, and for m any o f them during the 2nd and 3rd ccnturies
CE, this becam c their preferred style o f life. In these cities, with their
institutions and facilities, the pattern o f life th at gradually to o k shape hardly
differed from th at o f the inhabitants in o th er provincial cities th roug h out the
R om an Em pire.
H ere it should be m entioned th at w hat was m ost typical o f the R om an
Em pire at the height o f its powers in the 2nd and 3rd century CE was its
cultural uniform ity. T he long period o f pcacc and stability b ro ught ab o u t
unprecedented econom ic prosperity as well as trad e and cultural ties, open
borders and the to tal freedom o f m ovem ent. T he E m pire was ruled at th at
time by wise and efficient im perial and provincial adm inistration. This period
o f prosperity crcated a cultural uniform ity b o th the L atin west and the
G reek east, where the citizens o f the cities enjoyed a fram ew ork o f life that
seemed n atu ra l to any civilized person wherever he m ight be.
The various entertainm ent facilities were an inseparable p a rt o f the various
public institutions, and there was hardly a city in the Land o f Israel in that
period which did not have at least one such facility. In m any cities, besides the
theatre as the m ost com m on o f such entertainm ent facilities, there were also
am phitheatres an d /o r circuses. T he proliferation o f such facilities at the end o f
the Second Tem ple period, and m ainly d uring the M ishnaic and Talm udic
periods (З ^ -б 111 с. C E), ensured th at theatrical events o f all kinds, as well as
chariot races, though to a lesser extent munera and venationes, were acccptable
form s o f entertain m en t th at were favored by the u rb an p op u latio n in the
Land o f Israel. T he censures against these am usem ents, b oth in Talm udic
literature and in the writings o f the C hurch F athers, are evidence o f how deep
an influence they h ad on the urb an population. M im e, pantom im e and
w ater-theatre, as well as o f chariot races, were highly pop u lar am ong Jews and
non-Jew s alike. These form s o f simple, sp o n tan eo u s folk entertainm ent
faithfully reflected the real cultural needs o f m ost o f the u rb an p op ulation in
the b o th the w estern and eastern provinces o f the R o m an Em pire.
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Crowfoot, Kenyon, Sukcnik 1942 = J. Crowfoot, K. Kenyon, E. Sukenik, The Buildings at
Samaria, London.
Ovorjetski 1994 = E. Dvorjetski, “The Theatre in Rabbinic Literature” , [in:] A. Segal (ed.),
Aspects o f Theatre and Culture in the Graeco-Roman World, Haifa.
Lrim 1992 = K. Erim, Aphrodisias, Istanbul.
I'crguson 1972 = J. Ferguson, A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Austin.
Finley, I*lekct 1976 = M. Finley, H. Pleket, The Olympic Games: The First Thousand
Years, London.
Frezouls 1952 = E. Frezouls, “ Les Theatres de Syrie”, Les Anna/es Archeologiques de
Syrie, II.
Frezouls 1959 = E. Frezouls, “ Recherches sur les Theatres de l’O rient Syrin”, Syria, 36.
l'ricdlander 1968 = R. Friedlander, Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire,
New York.
Frova 1966 = A. Frova, Scavi di Caesarea Maritima, Rome.
Gabucci 2001 = A. Gabucci (ed.), The Colosseum, Los Angeles.
Gcrkan 1961 = A. von G erkan, Das Theater von Epidauros, Stuttgart.
Gilula 1994 = D . Gilula, “Ancient A quatic Theatre”, [in:] A. Segal (ed.), Aspects o f Theatre
and Culture in the Graeco-Roman World, Haifa.
Golvin 1988 = J.-C. Golvin, L'amphithéätre romain: Essai sur la theorization de sa form e et
de ses functions, Paris.
Golvin, Landes 1990 = J.-C. Golvin and Ch. Landes, Amphitheatres et gladiateurs, Paris.
Colvin, Redde 1990 = J.-C. Golvin and M. Redde, “ N aumachies jeux nautiques et am phit-
heaters”, [in:] C. D omergue (ed.), Spectacula I: Gladiateurs et amphitheaters, Lattes.
Grant 1967 = M. G rant, Gladiators, London.
Hammond 1965 = Ph. H am m ond, The Excavations o f the Main Theater at Petra 1961-1962,
Final Report, London.
who then com prised the m ajority o f the p op ulatio n living in the coastal
cities, the en co u n ter with the G reek language, religion and literature was
m ore n atu ra l and easy than for the Jews or the N ab ataeans. T he proccss o f
H ellcnization was com plex and not a uniform one for the different kinds of
p op ulation living in the Land o f Israel.
In the history o f the country, there were periods in which the ruling
authorities encouraged and prom oted those strata o f society th at were intere-
sted in ad o p tin g the m unicipal style o f life as conducted in a G reek polis.
Selcucid rule or the overt policy o f K ing Ilcro d the G reat show how
com plex and com plicated these processes actually were. R om an provincial
rule encouragcd the process o f urbanization and th us exposed ever larger
num bers o f inhabitants, both Jews and non-Jews, to the fram ew ork characte-
ristic o f a G reek polis, and for m any o f them during the 2nd and 3rd ccnturies
C E, this bccam e their preferred style o f life. In these cities, with their
institutions and facilities, the p attern o f life th at gradually to o k shape hardly
differed from th a t o f the inhabitants in o ther provincial cities th rou gh ou t the
R om an Em pire.
H ere it should be m entioned th at w hat was m ost typical o f the R om an
Em pire at the height o f its powers in the 2nd and 3"1 century C E was its
cultural uniform ity. T he long period o f peace and stability b ro ught ab o u t
unprecedented econom ic prosperity as well as trad e and cultural ties, open
borders and the to tal freedom o f m ovem ent. T he E m pire was ruled at th at
time by wise and efficient im perial and provincial adm inistration. This period
o f prosperity created a cultural uniform ity b o th the L atin west and the
G reek east, where the citizens o f the cities enjoyed a fram ew ork o f life that
seemed n atu ral to any civilized person wherever he m ight be.
T he various entertainm ent facilities were an inseparable p a rt o f the various
public institutions, an d there was hardly a city in the L and o f Israel in th at
period which did n o t have at least one such facility. In m any cities, besides the
th eatre as the m ost com m on o f such en tertainm ent facilities, there were also
am phitheatres an d /o r circuses. T he proliferation o f such facilities at the end of
the Second Tem ple period, and m ainly d urin g th e M ishnaic and Talm udic
periods (3Ы- 5 1Ь с. C E), ensured th at theatrical events o f all kinds, as well as
chariot races, though to a lesser extent munera and venationes, were acceptable
form s o f entertain m en t th a t were favored by the u rb a n p o p u latio n in the
Land o f Israel. T h e censures against these am usem ents, b o th in T alm udic
literature and in the writings o f the C hurch F athers, are evidence o f how deep
an influence they h ad on the urb an p op ulation. M im e, pantom im e and
w ater-theatre, as well as o f chariot races, were highly p o p u lar am ong Jews and
non-Jew s alike. These form s o f simple, sp on tan eo us folk entertainm ent
faithfully reflected the real cultural needs o f m ost o f the urb an p opulation in
the b o th the w estern and eastern provinces o f the R o m an Em pire.
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 Obiekty sportowe i rozrywkowe na terenie Izraela
i w pozostałych częściach świata grecko-rzymskiego
Streszczenie

Wpływy kultury klasycznej obserwujemy na terytorium starożytnego Izraela już w VI w.

p.n.e., lecz dopiero w okresie hellenistycznym, kiedy to obszary te stanowiły część monarchii
Ptolemeuszy, a potem Seleukidów, wpływy te są lepiej dostrzegalne. Są one wyraźne w strefie
nadbrzeżnej, mniej silne - n a terenach śródlądowych. Proces helenizacji najwyraźniej uzależniony
był od faktorów socjoekonomicznych. W pewnych okresach władza wspierała miejski styl
życia, lecz - jak wskazują dane z okresu Seleukidów i panow ania H eroda Wielkiego - działania
te nie były łatwe.
N atom iast w okresie II i III w. n.e. życie miejskie jest sposobem życia preferowanym przez
większość obywateli. Pax R om ana wprowadził prosperitę ekonomiczną, otw arte granice umoż-
liwiły przepływ ludności. Imperium było rządzone przez kom petentną administrację, która
wprowadzała zasadę jedności kulturowej. Rozmaite formy ludyczne były ważną częścią programu
n a polu kultury, a w Izraelu nie było chyba m iasta, które nie posiadałoby chociaż jednego
obiektu służącego temu celowi. W wielu miastach oprócz teatru znajdował się amfiteatr i cyrk.
Fundacja takich budowli w okresie Drugiej Świątyni, a głównie Miszny i Talmudu
(III—V w. n.e.), sprawiła, że wydarzenia teatralne, wyścigi rydwanów, a także w mniejszym
stopniu m unera i venationes stały się powszechnie dostępne. W ystąpienia przeciwko takim
rozrywkom w literaturze talmudycznej i w pismach Ojców Kościoła wskazują na to, że
mieszkańcy miast byli głęboko zaangażowani w tego typu rozrywkę. Widowiska mimiczne,
szczególnie pantonim a, spektakle na wodzie, jak i wyścigi rydwanów były wysoce popularne
wśród pogan, chrześcijan i żydów.
Te formy prostej, spontanicznej rozrywki wiernie odzwierciedlają potrzeby kulturalne
głównie miejskiej ludności omawianych okresów.
1. Epidauros, theatre, late 4Л с. ВСЕ. General view o f the koilon and the orchestra
(From: author’s collection)

2. Priene, theatre, suggested reconstruction, у л-2"й с. ВСЕ

(From: Leacroft 1984, p. 24, fig. 47)
3. Rome, theatre o f Marcellus, late ľ ' с. ВСЕ
(From: Nash 1968, vol. II, p. 419, fig. 211)
4- Sabratha, theatre, last quarter of the 2nd c. CE. Note the partially reconstructed scaenae frons
(From: W ard-Perkins 1981, p. 380, fig. 249)
5. Pompeii, amphitheatre, first quarter o f the 1st с. BCE. Note the massive pilasters and vaults
supporting the cavea
(From: author’s collection)

6. Olympia, stadium, 4(h с. BCE

(From: author’s collection)
7. Caesarea, theatre, late I"' с. BCE. General view before the restoration
(From: author's collection)

8. Perge [Pamphylia], Stadium late 2nd c. CE

(From: author’s collection)
 ___ 1
0 У) а

9. Jericho, theatre combined with hippodrome, late 1“ с. BCE. Plan and suggested reconstruction
(From: Netzer 1980, p. 105)

10. Sepphoris, theatre, P' c. CE, following the excavation and partial restoration, aerial view
I Phot. Mr. M. Eisenbergl
(From: author's collection)
 11. Petra, theatre, early I“ с. СЕ. Note the partially reconstructed scaena building.
IPhot. Dr. H. Dodge]
(From: author’s collection)

^2. Gerasa [Jerashl, south theatre, late Г1 c. CE. View from the east towards the partially
reconstructed proscaenium, pulpitum and the scaenae frons. [Phot. W. Jerke]
(From: author's collection)
13. Southern part of Bosra (Bostra), schematic plan. Note of location of the theatre the amphitheatre
and the circus
(From: author’s collection)

14. Bosra [BostraI, theatre, early 2nd c. CE. General view from the cavea towards the partially
restored scaenae frons. [Phot. W. Jerke)
(From: author’s collection)
 15. Bosra [Bostra], theatre, early 21"1 с. СЕ, aerial photograph
(From: author’s collection)

'6- Philadelphia [Amman], the large theatre, second half of the 2nd c. CE. General view after the
restoration. [Phot. Dr. M. Luz]
(From: author’s collection)
17. Philadelphia [Amman), the small theatre [odeum!], second half of the 2n<l c. CE. Note the
recently reconstructed cavea and one o f the aditus maximi. [Phot. Mr. H. Panetj
(From: author’s collection)

18. Samaria [Sebaste], theatre, 2*л-?>'л с. CE. General view from the orchestra towards the cavea
(From: author’s collection)
 19. Beth-Shean [Scythopolis], theatre, late 2ni) - early З"1 с. СЕ, aerial photograph
(From: author's collection)

Ir„

20. Antipatris [Aphek], theatre, late 3td c. CE. General view towards the partially preserved scaena,
the orchestra and the cavea. [Phot. Mr. M. Weinberg]
(From: Institute of Archaeology, Tel-Aviv University; with kind permission of Prof. M. Kochavi)