Research Article

Palaeogeographic Changes at Lake Chokrak on the Kerch

Peninsula, Ukraine, during the Mid- and Late-Holocene
Daniel Kelterbaum,1 ,* Helmut Brückner,1 ,* Vasiliy Dikarev,2 Stefanie Gerhard,1 Anna Pint,1 Alexey Porotov,2
and Victor Zin’ko3
1
Department of Geography, University of Köln (Cologne), Köln, Germany
2
Faculty of Geography, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
3
, BF Demetra Foundation, Kerch, Crimea, Ukraine

Correspondence This project has reconstructed the palaeogeographic and environmental evo-
*Corresponding author; lution of Lake Chokrak on the Kerch Peninsula, Ukraine, during the mid- and
E-mail: [email protected];
late-Holocene. This record has been evaluated in association with a regional
[email protected]
archaeological data set to explore human–environment interactions over this
Received period. The results show major changes in the palaeogeographic setting of Lake
6 July 2011 Chokrak since the 3rd millennium B.C., when the postglacial marine trans-
Accepted gression had started to fill the study area. Microfaunal analyses reveal the long
13 January 2012 persistence of an open marine embayment that only became separated from
the Sea of Azov when a sand barrier developed during the late 2nd millen-
Scientific editing by Jamie Woodward
nium B.C. When colonizing the Black Sea region after the 8th century B.C.,
Published online in Wiley Online Library the Greek settlers erected a fortification with a small settlement on a promon-
(wileyonlinelibrary.com). tory that was by then a peninsula-like headland extending into the lake. The
colonists abandoned their settlement at the end of the 1st millennium B.C.
doi 10.1002/gea.21408
when the depth of the surrounding lake decreased from 1.5 m to less than
1 m. Today, Lake Chokrak dries up completely during summer. A detailed
relative sea level (RSL) curve for the northern coast of Kerch has been estab-
lished. Sea level reached its highest position at the present day. Since the 3rd
millennium B.C., sea level continuously rose, without any of the previously
postulated regression/transgression cycles. The RSL curve indicates differential
subsidence rates within short distances in relatively stable areas, exceeding 40
cm per 1000 years.  C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

INTRODUCTION fluctuations have been published for the Mediterranean

during the last three to four decades (e.g., Kraft et al.,
About 8000 years ago, the Black Sea was reconnected 2007; Vött, 2007; Bernasconi & Stanley, 2011; Soter &
with the Mediterranean via the Bosporus to put the wa- Katsonopoulou, 2011). After the fall of the Iron Cur-
ter balance of the Black Sea in equilibrium with the tain, the coastal areas of the Black and Azov Seas in-
world ocean (Ryan et al., 1997; Ryan, 2007). Hence, creasingly became the subject of geoarchaeological re-
the worldwide Holocene sea level rise also affected the search. Since then, the few available publications on
Black Sea, where it involved massive changes to the palaeogeographical research testify to the great value
coastal configuration by (1) the flooding of the Black Sea of investigating the coastlines of the northern Black
shelf; (2) the development of new currents; and (3) the Sea area. However, they have also highlighted the lack
initiation of coastal erosion. The shallow Sea of Azov, of detailed studies (e.g., Porotov, Gorlov, & Kaitamba,
in particular—which is surrounded by unconsolidated 2003, 2004; Giosan et al., 2006; Giosan, Filip, & Con-
sediments—underwent considerable alterations in terms stantinescu, 2009; Porotov, 2007; Preoteasa et al., 2009;
of its coastal morphology. Brückner et al., 2010; Fouache et al., 2011; Kelterbaum
In contrast to the Black Sea area, numerous studies et al., 2011). In this study, we focus on the present-
of the palaeogeography, geoarchaeology, and sea level day salt lake of Chokrak (Figure 1) situated in the

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KELTERBAUM ET AL. HOLOCENE CHANGES AT LAKE CHOKRAK, UKRAINE

Figure 1 Coring sites and simplified geomorphological map of Lake Chokrak and its environs. (a) Overview of the area; (b) study site on the sand barrier;
(c) study site on the Chokrak Peninsula.

northern part of the Kerch Peninsula in Crimea, Ukraine. olithic and Mesolithic epochs. These small settlements are
A small peninsula stretches into the lake, which today is generally situated inland in the central area of the Kerch
totally disconnected from the open Azov Sea. At the tip Peninsula. However, further prehistoric sites may also be
of “Chokrak Peninsula,” an ancient Greek settlement was located on the Black Sea shelf, which was flooded by
founded during the 1st millennium B.C. the postglacial sea level rise. It is noteworthy that dur-
The results presented here are based on sedimento- ing the Bronze Age (4th–2nd millennium B.C.), hunt-
logical investigations of vibracorings carried out on the ing and gathering were supplemented by fishing: exca-
sand barrier separating Lake Chokrak from the Azov Sea, vations show the occurrence of sinkers, fish bones, and
and in the adjacent lagoon. This research was carried shells in the cultural layers of the settlements, which in-
out in cooperation with the archaeological research of dicate the important role of fishing and therefore the sea
the Demetra Foundation in Kerch and Professor Maslen- as a driving cultural factor (Danovskiy & Maslennikov,
nikov’s excavations in the northern part of the Kerch 2006).
Peninsula. The best historical record exists for the period of the
This study has three principal aims: (1) to reconstruct Greek colonization, which started in the 6th century
the palaeogeography of Lake Chokrak for different time B.C. Originating from the center of classical Greece, the
periods; (2) to establish a relative sea level (RSL) curve Hellenic people settled along the coasts of the Mediter-
for the northern coast of Kerch and therefore for the Sea ranean, the Marmara Sea, and the Black Sea. One ma-
of Azov; and (3) to establish the influence of any envi- jor center of this period of colonization and conquest
ronmental changes on the ancient Greek colonization of was the area of the present Strait of Kerch, formerly
the Kerch Peninsula. known as the Kimmerian Bosporus, the marine passage
separating the peninsulas of Taman (Russia) and Kerch
(Ukraine). Renowned settlements on Kerch Peninsula
are Pantikapaion, Myrmekion, Nymphaion, Tyritake, and
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Kytaia. Most of them were easy to defend, had har-
Numerous ancient and prehistoric settlements on the bor facilities, and were places of high strategic value
Kerch Peninsula show that the area has been occupied for the control of sea and land trading routes. Pantika-
and strongly influenced by humans for millennia. The paion was the most prominent city. Together with some
earliest human settlements date back to the late Palae- smaller settlements on Taman Peninsula, it formed the

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HOLOCENE CHANGES AT LAKE CHOKRAK, UKRAINE KELTERBAUM ET AL.

Figure 2 View looking to the northeast on the Lake Chokrak sand barrier. Important geomorphological features and the coring sites are highlighted.
Areas of relative uplift (+) and areas of relative subsidence (–) are shown. Photograph taken by DK in spring 2009.

Bosporan Kingdom (Gajdukevic, 1971; Fornasier & were deposited. In many places, mud volcanoes are sit-
Böttger, 2002). uated in the depocenters of the Maykop series (Herbin
This study focuses on the northern Kerch Penin- et al., 2008). Within synclinal structures, the bedrock is
sula, which was most likely the granary of Pantika- covered by colluvial material and loess with a thickness
paion (Saprykin, 2006). There, several impressive ar- of up to 10 m (Zubakov, 1988; Dodonov et al., 2000).
chaeological Greek sites are situated along the coastal The coastline around Lake Chokrak is characterized by
zone on rocky capes. In the south of Lake Chokrak, on steep cliffs and small embayments. The lake forms the
the Chokrak Peninsula, a strongly fortified administra- only large depression reaching inland. Its genesis is due
tive center was erected with a ditch and solid walls that to a large N–S striking fault line, which runs perpendicu-
served as a capital for governing the region. This place lar to the generally W–E striking Jurassic and Cretaceous
was inhabited from the late 5th to the 1st century B.C. ridges of the peninsula.
(Maslennikov, 1998). It was abandoned c. 500 years be- Figure 1b and Figure 2 show the sand barrier and the
fore the Bosporan Kingdom disappeared. The reason for core drilling sites. The surrounding highlands are mainly
this abandonment many centuries before the Kingdom’s formed in limestones and marls. The latter are strongly
doom was one of our research foci. eroded—possibly as a result of the long and intensive an-
thropogenic impact on the region’s ecosystems. The sand
GEOLOGICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL barrier, built up of sediments from adjacent cliffs, is visible
SETTING in the center of Figure 2. According to Nikonov (1995a,
1995b), the northern Kerch Peninsula is part of a neo-
In the northern Black Sea region, the Crimean Penin- tectonically active region, which is strongly influenced by
sula separates the Sea of Azov from the Black Sea. To- low magnitude earthquakes. This author also describes
day, both seas are connected only by a small opening, strong subsidence in the north of the Kerch Peninsula
the so-called Strait of Kerch (formerly the Kimmerian since this area is part of the Indolo-Kuban trough. How-
Bosporus), which is also the border between Asia and Eu- ever, in contrast to the subsidence of the Sea of Azov,
rope. The west coast of the marine passage belongs to the the Kerch Peninsula can be described as a quasi-stable or
Kerch Peninsula, which is the easternmost part of Crimea slowly rising area as shown by late Holocene marine ter-
(Figure 1). races vertically uplifted up to 3 m above the present sea
The Kerch Peninsula is mainly formed of carbonate level (asl) (Danovskiy et al., 2009). In Figure 2, the dif-
rocks of Jurassic and, in some parts, of Cretaceous age. ferential tectonics is indicated along presumed fault lines.
Both geological units are exposed due to the Alpine
orogeny that produced the Crimean Mountains and the
Caucasus. The area is situated near the Indolo-Kuban MATERIAL AND METHODS
trough, which is part of the Northern Caucasus mo- During fieldwork, several cores were collected using the
lasse basin (e.g., Ershov et al., 1999). During the Middle percussion coring device Cobra 248 (Atlas Copco Hold-
Tertiary, sandstones of the so-called Maykop Formation ing GmbH, Essen, Germany) with augerheads of 6, 5, and

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KELTERBAUM ET AL. HOLOCENE CHANGES AT LAKE CHOKRAK, UKRAINE

Table I AMS radiocarbon dating results from Lake Chokrak. All ages are calibrated with the calibration software Calib. 6.0.1 (http://intcal.qub.ac.uk/calib/).
A marine reservoir effect of 408 years was applied (Hughen et al., 2004) with a delta R of 5 ± 35 years (Jones & Gagnon, 1994). The Libby half life of 5568
was used. M = articulated bivalve (C. glaucum, only), in situ; PR = plant remains. AMS 14 C dating was carried out by the Center for Applied Isotope Studies
(CAIS) of the University of Georgia at Athens, USA (Lab code: UGAMS).

Reconstruction of palaeo sea level band

Conventional 14 C 13 C Depth Upper limit Lower limit Palaeo mean sea Calibrated ages 2-sigma
Sample code Lab code Dated material age (ppm) (m bsl) (cm) (cm) level (m bsl) (B.C./A.D.)

CHO 2/3 7128 M 1828 ± 22 0.98 0.85 75 0 0.48 473–670 A.D.

CHO 2/4 7129 M 3003 ± 22 2.00 1.29 50 0 1.04 914–748 B.C.
CHO 4/8 7130 M 2884 ± 22 0.12 3.32 100 0 2.82 791–547 B.C.
CHO 4/9 7131 M 3202 ± 23 0.73 4.02 100 0 3.53 1195–916 B.C.
CHO 4/13 7132 M 3896 ± 23 0.96 5.37 100 0 4.87 2035–1764 B.C.
CHO 4/17 7133 M 4525 ± 24 0.69 7.02 75 0 6.65 2876–2631 B.C.
CHO 4/18 7134 M 4935 ± 24 0.70 7.22 75 0 6.85 3472–3162 B.C.
CHO 5/5 7135 PR 1320 ± 22 –28.57 1.27 0 –25 1.39 655–715 A.D.
CHO 5/8 7136 M 6531 ± 26 0.91 2.37 100 0 1.87 5208–4967 B.C.
CHO 5/14 7137 M 3794 ± 25 0.85 5.39 100 0 4.89 1907–1658 B.C.

3.6 cm in diameter. A maximum depth of 9 m below the 15 kV, Take-off Angle = 30◦ circ). Although quantitative
modern land surface (b.s.) was reached. The coring strat- EDX data may show high errors, especially concerning
egy was based on transects through nearshore sedimen- light atoms, a general trend for the abundance of heavier
tary archives, chosen by field survey, supported by satel- atoms can be followed.
lite image interpretation and former research carried out For cores CHO 2 and CHO 4 facies determination
by Nevessky (1967). The position and elevation of each was done using microfossil occurrence as an index for
coring site was measured by DGPS with a vertical resolu- palaeoenvironments and sedimentation conditions (for
tion of less than 2 cm (Leica Geosystems Co.; Leica 530 further details see Figures 2–4). The studied sediment vol-
SR). On site, the cores were studied for color (MUNSELL umes differ from 5 to 10 cm3 depending on the amount
Soil Color Charts), grain size, rounding and texture, as of available material. Each sample was washed in distilled
well as macrofaunal and macrofloral remains. water and only the 50–200 μm fraction was analyzed un-
Multiproxy geochemical analyses were carried out for der a binocular microscope. Microfossils were determined
selected samples in the laboratories of the Faculty of Ge- after Caraion (1967) and Murray (1986, 2006). The ana-
ography at the Philipps-Universität Marburg (Germany). lytical proxies represent the basis for a distinct facies dif-
Samples were air-dried and pestled by hand. CaCO3 was ferentiation. Combined with the grid of cores, the verti-
gas-volumetrically measured (Scheibler method). AMS cal and horizontal variations of the different facies (such
radiocarbon dating was used to develop a chronologi- as marine, littoral, lagoonal, limnic, or fluvial) were used
cal framework and was applied mainly on articulated for the reconstruction of the palaeogeographic evolution
bivalves at sedimentary boundaries. All ages were cali- of the research area.
brated with Calib 6.0.1 [Stuiver and Reimer (1993) and
Reimer et al. (2009); see Table I], taking also into account
a marine reservoir effect of 408 years (Hughen et al., RESULTS
2004). It is important to note however that the real palae-
Results from the Chokrak Sand Barrier
oreservoir effect is still unknown and may have varied
widely in different marine and brackish environments, Two cores were collected from the top of the Chokrak
such as lagoons, coastal swamps, or littoral zones. Ad- sand barrier, with core CHO 4 in its center and core CHO
ditionally, especially in semienclosed basins such as the 5 in its western part (Figure 1b). Both sites are located
Black and Azov Seas, the discharge of rivers and their in- close to washover structures, which reach from the bar-
put of 12 C may have to be taken into account. rier into the lake (Figure 1b & 2). In the following sec-
Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) measure- tions, the analytical results of core CHO 4 will be pre-
ments on crushed carbon coated samples were analyzed sented in detail (Figure 5). The drilling depth reached
in the laboratories of the University of Marburg using down to 8 m below the present surface (b.s.), that is,
a raster electron microscope equipped with an energy 7.67 m below the present sea level (bsl). The core shows
dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDX, PROZA correction, the sand barrier’s sedimentary architecture and reflects its

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HOLOCENE CHANGES AT LAKE CHOKRAK, UKRAINE KELTERBAUM ET AL.

Figure 3 View over Lake Chokrak toward the northwest. The archaeological site on the Chokrak Peninsula is indicated in the center close to the core
sites CHO 1 and 2. Photograph taken by DK in spring 2009.

evolution. Based on geochemical and microfaunal find- 4/13 MS, 5.37 m bsl: 2035–1764 cal B.C.; CHO 4/9 MS,
ings, six different sedimentary units were distinguished. 4.02 m bsl: 1195–916 cal B.C.; CHO 4/8 MS, 3.27 m bsl:
Unit F: The lowermost sediments (8.00–7.40 m b.s.) 791–547 cal B.C.). Based on the microfaunal assemblage,
consist of very homogeneous silty clay of a reddish-gray unit D can be divided into three subunits (unit D.1: 6.60–
color due to secondary oxidation processes. The unit is 5.60 m b.s.; unit D.2: 5.60–4.00 m b.s.; unit D.3: 4.00–
void of micro- and macrofossils. The calcium carbonate 2.75 m b.s.). The density of the microfauna decreases
content is low as a result of terrestrial conditions during from bottom to top, while the amount of reworked mi-
sedimentation. crofauna increases in the upper two subunits, reflecting
Unit E: Then follows a layer of gray, silty fine sand changing environmental and depositional conditions.
(7.40–6.60 m b.s.). Its lowermost part is reworked ma- Unit C: At 2.75 m b.s. (2.43 m bsl), the sediment
terial of unit 1. Several fragments, single valves, and ar- changes entirely. Unit C (2.75–1.00 m b.s., 2.43–0.67
ticulated specimens of Cerastoderma glaucum occur. One m bsl) contains several coarse, partly graded layers with
specimen of the latter was dated to 3472–3162 cal B.C. plant remains and abundant broken macrofaunal re-
(CHO 4/18 MS; 7.27 m bsl). It has to be noted that this mains, the latter causing an increased CaCO3 content of
sample was located in the pretransgressive sediment, rep- up to 60%. Electrical conductivity decreases due to the
resenting the possible penetration depth of this species. coarser grain size. The microfaunal composition is re-
Another articulated specimen from 7.02 m bsl has an age stricted to a few and mostly reworked foraminifera spec-
of 2876–2631 cal B.C. (CHO 4/17 MS). The microfau- imens of A. tepida, A. parkinsoniana and H. germanica, and
nal analysis from this unit indicates a medium abundance the ostracod C. torosa. Microfaunal remains could only be
of foraminifera, mostly Ammonia tepida and A. parkinsoni- detected in the lowermost section of this unit.
ana. A few other species such as Cribroelphidium gunteri, Unit B: Unit B is covered by gray clayey silt (1.00–0.75
Haynesina germanica, Trochamina inflata, and Porosononion m b.s.; 0.67–0.42 m bsl) showing a low calcium carbonate
sp. were detected. The ostracod spectrum includes a high content, increased electrical conductivity, and a decrease
abundance of Cyprideis torosa, Xestoleberis sp., and Loxocon- in pH. The microfauna comprise more species than before
cha pontica as well as a medium abundance of Leptocythere and, in addition to the ones mentioned above, Quinquelo-
histriana, Pontocythere sp., and Palmoconcha sp. culina sp. and L. pontica. However, the specimens are few
Unit D: While unit E is sand-dominated, unit D con- and not well preserved.
sists of gray clayey silt (6.60–2.75 m b.s.). The electrical Unit A: The uppermost unit (0.75–0.00 m b.s.; 0.42 m
conductivity is higher than in the units below, indicat- bsl to 0.33 m asl) consists of coarse sand and gravel with
ing a stronger marine influence. Below 4.55 m b.s., the abundant shell debris. In the lower part, the sediment
sediment is enriched by large mollusc fragments (mostly is of a gray color; it changes to a reddish yellow toward
C. glaucum and Abra ovata). Three AMS 14 C ages on ar- the top (see the photograph in Figure 5). No microfauna
ticulated specimens of C. glaucum were generated (CHO were detected. The geochemical fingerprint shows high

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KELTERBAUM ET AL. HOLOCENE CHANGES AT LAKE CHOKRAK, UKRAINE

of mollusc shells (1.26–0.80 m b.s., 1.31–0.85 m bsl). In

the contact zone of the pretransgressive basement and the
marine facies, at a depth of 1.31 m bsl, a specimen of the
mollusc C. glaucum was dated to 914–748 cal B.C. (CHO
2/4 MS; 1.29 m bsl), indicating the beginning of the ma-
rine influence at the studied site. The EDX spectrum again
reveals high contents of Al and Si and, compared to unit
C, slightly higher contents of Cl, S, and Ca. Foraminifera
and ostracods are present in large numbers (A. parkinso-
niana, A. tepida, H. germanica, and C. torosa); some show
indications of reworking.
Unit A: The uppermost unit (0.85 m bsl to 0.05 m asl)
is characterized by blackish-gray silt with a minor con-
tent of sand and clay. An AMS14 C age estimate from an
articulated C. glaucum specimen (CHO 2/3 MS, at 0.85 m
bsl) dates the onset of this unit to 473–670 cal A.D. The
microfossil content decreases in this unit and it is almost
exclusively represented by reworked material. Only some
Figure 4 SEM images of microfaunal specimens (ostracods and specimens of A. tepida and A. parkinsoniana do not show
foraminifera) from the cores of Lake Chokrak. Foraminifera: (1) A. parkin- reworked tests.
soniana (d’Orbigny, 1839), (2) A. tepida (Cushman, 1926), (3) C. gunteri
(Cole, 1931), (4) Elphidium crispum (Linnacus, 1758), (5) H. germanica
(Ehrenberg, 1850), (6) Porosononion sp., (7) Rosalina sp., (8) Q. seminula
(Linnacus, 1758); other species mentioned in Figure 3: Trochammina in- DISCUSSION
flata (Montague, 1803); ostracods: (9) C. torosa (Jones, 1850), (10) Callis-
tocythere sp., (11) L. histriana (Caraion, 1964), (12) Pontocythere sp., (13) Holocene Sea Level Change
L. pontica (Klie, 1937), (14) Xestoleberis sp.; other species mentioned in
Sea level curves of the Black Sea versus the ones
Figure 3: Heterocypris salina (Brady, 1868) The white scale bar represents
100 μm. The SEM images were produced by Peter Frenzel at the University
for the Mediterranean
of Jena.
When dealing with the sea level history of the Black
Sea and the Sea of Azov, one has to bear in mind that
amounts of calcium carbonate and increased pH values, there are many contrasting opinions in the literature.
while the electrical conductivity is once more as low as in For the Black Sea, curves are published with several ma-
unit C. jor regression/transgression cycles during the Holocene
(Nevessky, 1967; Ross, Degens, & MacIlvaine, 1970; De-
gens & Ross, 1972; Fedorov, 1977; Dzhanelidze, 1980,
Cores Close to the Ancient Settlement Site
2007; Chepalyga, 1984; Balabanov & Izmailov, 1988;
Two cores were taken from the foot of the Chokrak Artyukhin et al., 1989; Izmailov et al., 1989; Izmailov,
Peninsula (Figure 1c). In the following, results of CHO 2005; Balabanov, 2007, 2009; Panin & Popescu, 2007;
2 will be described in detail, representing the stratigraphy etc.). Some of the cycles were given names, for exam-
of Lake Chokrak. The coring site was situated in the very ple, the “Phanagorian regression” (during the 1st mil-
soft sediments of Lake Chokrak, more than 200 m west of lennium B.C.) is followed by the “Nymphaean transgres-
the cliffs of the peninsula; it reached down to 3.05 m bsl sion,” which is said to have occurred over the last 2000
(Figure 6). Here, three different sedimentary units could years (Fedorov, 1982). This is surprising since none of
be determined. these fluctuations have ever been found in the Mediter-
Unit C: The sediment of unit C consists of dark gray- ranean and both seas have been connected since approx-
ish clayey silt with a very low sand content. Very fine imately 8000 years B.P.
unidentifiable gastropod fragments and abundant gyp- Bearing in mind the position of the many Greek set-
sum crystals were detected. The EDX spectrum (Figure 6) tlement sites along the shores of the shallow Sea of
shows high contents of Si and Al, while Cl, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Azov—and this holds true for the Greek settlement on
Fe, and S gave average values. Only a few foraminifera the Chokrak Peninsula as well (see Figure 3)—a ma-
species and one ostracod species were detected. jor regression of the sea in the 1st millennium B.C.
Unit B: The sediment covering unit C is characterized would have forced the settlers to shift their harbor in-
by dark gray clayey and silty sands with a high content stallations at least several hundred metres (perhaps even

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Figure 5 Core CHO 4 with a photograph of the sediments, geochemical results, microfossil content, and facies interpretation.

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KELTERBAUM ET AL. HOLOCENE CHANGES AT LAKE CHOKRAK, UKRAINE

Figure 6 Core CHO 2 with a photograph of the sediments and example EDX spectra, grain size analysis, and facies interpretation.

kilometres) seawards due to the extremely shallow shelf level changes, the studied area is of special interest since
of the Sea of Azov. This has never been evidenced in ar- it is only 50 km away from the eponymous site of the
chaeological excavations or surveys nor has it been re- “Phanagorian Regression” on the Taman Peninsula (SW
ported in historical accounts (for a detailed discussion, see Russia).
Fouache et al., 2011 as well as Brückner et al., 2010). Phanagoria is an ancient Greek settlement founded in
In addition, local tectonic processes have not been con- the 8th/7th century B.C. Its lower city is now partly sub-
sidered. Tectonic processes have recently been shown to merged by 1–2 m in the Gulf of Taman. This observation
contribute to local differences in sea level changes in was first described by Blavatsky (1961) who attributed
the Mediterranean (Sivan et al., 2004; Morhange, 2005; it to a temporary fluctuation in sea level. His opinion
Marriner et al., 2006; Vött, 2007) and the Black Sea still prevails in the literature. There are also other areas
(Giosan et al., 2006; Giosan, Filip, & Constantinescu, along the Black Sea coastline where temporary sea level
2009; Brückner et al., 2010; Fouache et al., 2011; Kelter- changes can be observed. However, they cannot be used
baum et al., 2011). Considering the postulated rapid sea to establish a general sea level curve for the Black Sea

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Figure 7 Sea level curve in the vicinity of Lake Chokrak for the last six millennia. The length of the arrow equates to the vertical offset of the dated material
caused by the tectonic subsidence (∼0.4 m/ka) in the area of Lake Chokrak’s sand barrier.

region since every single area shows different fluctuation unfortunately, no peat layers occur, which are much
patterns. One has to consider various local factors that more reliable sea level indicators (e.g., Allen, 1990; Pi-
influence sea level. Brückner et al. (2010) and Fouache razzoli, 1991, 1996, 2005; Morhange, 2005; Brückner
et al. (2011) strongly oppose the concept of the major et al., 2010; Fouache et al., 2011). However, we recently
Holocene regression/transgression cycles postulated for showed that molluscs at stratigraphic boundaries can also
the Black Sea with arguments based on sedimentology, be used for a sea level reconstruction (Kelterbaum et al.,
hydrodynamics, archaeology, and historical accounts. In 2011). Considering the fact that the living habitat of C.
contrast to curves from the Black Sea given by Balabanov glaucum extends to 1 m bsl at sedimentary boundaries
(2009) and others, our studies could not verify any pro- (e.g., shallow marine to beach barrier sedimentation; cf.
longed period of significant regression (>1 m) in sea level Vött, 2007), a relative palaeo-sea level envelope of c. 1
for the last five millennia, which would have been repre- m has to be estimated. Yet the sea level curve presented
sented by erosional disconformities or palaeosols in the here should only be regarded as a first approximation for
sediment columns. the study area.
As can be stated so far from the coring results, around
3000 B.C. sea level was approximately 7 m lower than
A sea level curve for the study area today at the Chokrak sand barrier (based on the dating
In the study region, recent investigations on sea level results for CHO 4/18 and CHO 4/17). Cores CHO 4/13
changes have focused mainly on the Taman Peninsula, (2035–1764 cal B.C.) and CHO 5/14 (1907–1658 cal B.C.)
that is, the eastern side of the Strait of Kerch. Sea level document that the water table rose by 1.50 m to a level of
evolution around the Kerch Peninsula was investigated 5.30 bsl during the following millennium. By then, shal-
by Porotov (2007) and Danovskiy et al. (2009), but only low marine conditions prevailed that lasted until the be-
to a limited extent. A RSL curve can now be recon- ginning of the 1st millennium B.C. Thereafter, the sand
structed based on the results of the core sediment records barrier formation was initiated, most probably during the
from Lake Chokrak. The curve includes nine AMS 14 C 8th century B.C. (sample CHO 4/8); it ended during the
ages for sea level markers (Figure 7 and Table I). Only 5th century A.D. (sample CHO 5/5). Thus, the evolution
sample CHO 5/8, a single valve, had to be rejected due to of this coastal feature took 1500 or so years.
reworking. In most cases, in situ finds of articulated speci- The estimated sea level envelope for the Chokrak Lake
mens of C. glaucum, found at facies changes, were used; sand barrier—which can be refined as new data be-

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KELTERBAUM ET AL. HOLOCENE CHANGES AT LAKE CHOKRAK, UKRAINE

come available—shows a quasi-linear progression with of the tectonic subsidence of the area, which is part of
differing rates of sea level rise (Figure 7): for the period the Indolo-Kuban and Kerch-Taman troughs (cf. Figure
3000 B.C. to 500 A.D., sea level rose c. 1.5 m/ka, slowing 1; Nikonov, 1995b; Ershov et al., 1999; Saintot & Ange-
down to a rate of 1 m/ka during the last 1500 years. These lier, 2000).
findings correlate well with a sea level rise of 0.7 m during The sea level curve shows a gradual postglacial sea
the last 1000 years in the area of the city of Kerch, which level rise over the last five millennia including a deceler-
Boguslavsky et al. (1998) postulated for this geosynclinal ation since c. 1000 B.C. for the Lake Chokrak region. The
structure. Since Lake Chokrak is also situated in such a general trend of this curve supports the sea level curves
structure, it may be influenced by the same tectonic ef- reconstructed for the Taman Peninsula by Brückner
fects. et al. (2010), Fouache et al. (2011), and Kelterbaum et al.
Kelterbaum et al. (2011) have demonstrated that in the (2011) and for the Kerch Peninsula by Porotov (2007).
synclines of the Taman Peninsula subsidence is the driv- The curve presented here is also similar to curves from
ing factor for the local sea level rise. Tectonics is also likely the Mediterranean (Morhange, 2005; Müllenhoff, 2005;
to be the important factor in the area of the Chokrak sand Brückner et al., 2006; Marriner et al., 2006; Vött, 2007;
barrier. Compaction can be neglected due to the sandy Engel et al., 2009) and the Black Sea region (Giosan et al.,
environment and the lack of organic layers. Therefore, 2006; Giosan, Filip, & Constantinescu, 2009; Brückner et
tectonic movements, plus the glacioeustatic sea level rise al., 2010; Fouache et al., 2011; Kelterbaum et al., 2011).
due to the postglacial warming, are the key processes that
influenced the postglacial sea level rise in the study area.
Palaeogeographical Scenarios for Lake Chokrak
As an indicator of differential tectonics, one can com-
pare the 14 C ages of the sand barrier with those around Summarizing the results from the sediment cores, we are
the Chokrak Peninsula (Figure 7). It is noteworthy that able to reconstruct palaeogeographic maps for four time
the Chokrak Peninsula samples (CHO 2/4 and 2/3) dif- slices: 3000 cal B.C., 1500 cal B.C., 500 cal B.C., and 500
fer significantly in their vertical position from the sand cal A.D. (Figure 8).
barrier samples (CHO 4/8, 4/9, and 5/5), although they Around 3000 cal B.C., the postglacial marine transgres-
date back to the same period. This might be due to the sion reached the area of Lake Chokrak. The former syn-
vertical habitat of the dated specimens (Vött, 2007) or to clinal structure with its small river valleys was inundated
vertical tectonic movements and compaction. However, by the sea. Thus, pretransgressive colluvial deposits were
nearly stable tectonics can be estimated for the whole covered by marine sediments. The ancient coastline was
hard rock structures of the study area and the north- situated somewhere between the Chokrak Peninsula and
ern Kerch Peninsula as a whole, since no generations of the (later) sand barrier, adapted to the palaeotopography.
notches are visible bsl and asl apart from the recent one. After 2000 cal B.C., the decelerating sea level rise led to
Therefore, the two radiocarbon dates obtained from in situ the establishment of strong coastal long-shore currents,
molluscs from coring site CHO 2 (CHO 2/4 and 2/3) may which became the dominant factor shaping the coast-
reflect the palaeo sea level very well. CHO 2/4 dates the line. While cliff erosion of the nearby soft rock (marls)
contact from terrestrial to marine environments, while provided the material, sand spits and bars formed to the
CHO 2/3 dates the last influence of lagoonal sedimenta- north of the marine embayment. Around 1000 cal B.C.,
tion. the ongoing transgression reached the area of the later
The vertical discrepancy between the peninsula and the Chokrak Peninsula. Cliff erosion of the Pleistocene soft
adjacent sand barrier may therefore be interpreted as the rock led to the formation of the peninsula. When the
rate of subsidence of the Chokrak sand barrier, which can Greeks erected their settlement in the middle of the 1st
be estimated to ∼0.4 m/ka. One has to bear in mind that millennium B.C., the peninsula was surrounded by the
the lake forms a large depression reaching inland, its gen- sea. The water depth did not exceed 1.5 m. The sand bar-
esis being due to a N–S striking fault line. rier was still accessible by boat via small channels, like
These results document the influence of local tecton- those visible today in the western part of the sand barrier
ics on the sea level evolution. Since earthquakes have after heavy rainfall.
taken place on the Kerch peninsula and in the whole re- However, as today, the marine inundation of Lake
gion during historical times (e.g., Nikonov, 1994, 1995b; Chokrak was not permanent. The small navigable con-
Dotsenko & Ingerov, 2007; see also USGS marks in nections to the Sea of Azov were closed rapidly by the
GoogleEARTH), they must also have influenced the re- sediment supplied by the coastal long-shore drift. This is
gion of Lake Chokrak. There has been a continuous trans- in contrast to the Taman Peninsula, where the continu-
gression, which is first and foremost an effect of the gen- ous water supply of the Kuban River has kept these con-
eral glacioeustatic sea level rise, but also an expression nections open until today (Kelterbaum et al., 2011). In

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C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 215
HOLOCENE CHANGES AT LAKE CHOKRAK, UKRAINE KELTERBAUM ET AL.

Figure 8 Palaeogeographic reconstruction for the Lake Chokrak area at 3000 cal B.C., 1500 cal B.C., 500 cal B.C., and 500 cal A.D. For the last
reconstruction, the drying out of the lake during the summer has to be considered.

the following millennium, until the 5th century A.D., the i. A marine embayment evolved in the area of the
water depth became more and more shallow; during the present Lake Chokrak in the 5th millennium B.C. due
summer it probably dried out—as it does today. Torrential to the continued postglacial transgression.
rains triggered erosion that supplied the lake with sedi- ii. Fully marine conditions terminated in the 3rd mil-
ments, which led—and still does so today—to siltation. lennium B.C. when a sand spit started to form in
This evolution explains the abandonment of the settle- the north of the study area. This was induced by the
ment on the Chokrak Peninsula. Due to the ongoing sil- slow down in sea level rise, allowing for long-shore
tation process, the site lost its initial strategic advantage. currents to become the driving factor in shaping the
Other settlements along the northern coastline (e.g., at coastal configuration.
Cape Zuk) took over its function. iii. The enclosure of the former marine embayment took
place in the 2nd/1st millennium B.C., when the sand
barrier of Lake Chokrak had become fully developed.
iv. During the time of the Greek colonization in the
Black Sea region, a fortified settlement was erected
CONCLUSIONS on the Chokrak Peninsula in the middle of the 1st
For the first time, geoarchaeological and palaeogeograph- millennium B.C.—by this time the peninsula was sur-
ical research was carried out on the northern coastline of rounded by a lagoon.
the Kerch Peninsula on Crimea, Ukraine. The major find- v. A local sea level curve has been reconstructed for the
ings may be summarized as follows: area of Lake Chokrak using 14 C-dated sea level indi-

216 Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 27 (2012) 206–219 Copyright 

C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
KELTERBAUM ET AL. HOLOCENE CHANGES AT LAKE CHOKRAK, UKRAINE

cators. It reflects the continued glacioeustatic sea level Locri-Epizephiri, Calabria, Italy. Geoarchaeology, 26,
rise, plus a local subsidence trend at the sand barrier 33–60.
of several tens of cm per 1000 years. However, it also Blavatsky, V.D. (1961). Podvodnye raskopki Fanagorii v 1959
reflects a stable situation near the previously settled g (Underwater Excavations of Phanagoria in 1959).
Chokrak Peninsula. Thus, the study shows the im- Sovietskaya arkheologia, 1, 277–279 (in Russian).
portance of local tectonics. Boguslavsky, S.G., Kubryakov, A.I., & Ivaschenko, I.K.
vi. The RSL curve does not show any major or minor (1998). Variations of the Black Sea level. Physical
transgression/regression cycles for the last five mil- Oceanography, 9(3), 199–208.
lennia. This is another piece of evidence that chal- Brückner, H., Müllenhoff, M., Gehrels, R., Herda, A.,
Knipping, M., & Vött, A. (2006). From archipelago to
lenges the existence of an oscillating Black Sea level
floodplain — geographical and ecological changes in
during mid- and late-Holocene times.
Miletus and its environs during the past six millennia
(Western Anatolia, Turkey). Zeitschrift für
Finally, it should be stated that it would be worth tak- Geomorphologie N.F., 142(Suppl.), 63–83.
ing a closer look at the wash-over fans situated behind the Brückner, H., Kelterbaum, D., Marunchak, O., Porotov, A., &
recent beach barrier (Figure 2) as they can be good indi- Vött, A. (2010). The Holocene sea level story since 7500 BP
cators of high energy wave events, triggered by storms or — lessons from the Eastern Mediterranean, the Black and
tsunamis. the Azov Seas. Quaternary International, 255, 160–179.
Caraion, F.E. (1967). Fauna Republicii Socialiste Romania. —
Funding of this research by the Fritz Thyssen Foundation (Ger- Crustacea (Ostracoda) 4. Fascicula, 10. Editura Academiei
many) is gratefully acknowledged (AZ 20.08.0.010). We thank Republicii Socialiste Romania, Bucuresti.
the Demetra Foundation (Kerch) for logistic support on Kerch Chepalyga, A.L. (1984). Inlandseabasins. In A.A. Velichko,
peninsula. Special thanks go to the journal reviewers Ron Mar- H.E. Wright, Jr., & C.W. Barnowsky (Eds.), Late quaternary
tin (University of Delaware), an anonymous reviewer, and Jamie environments of the Soviet Union (English edition; pp.
Woodward (The University of Manchester) for helpful com-
229–247). Minnesota, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
ments and further suggestions to improve the paper. The SEM
images of the microfauna were provided by Peter Frenzel (Uni- Danovskiy, A.A., & Maslennikov, A.A. (2006). Poselenie
versity of Jena). Kirstin Jacobson is thanked for polishing the epokhi bronzi Generalskoe-Zapadnoe (yugo-zapadny
English. sklon) (Bronze epoch settlement “Generalskoe-zapadnoe”
(south western slope) — preliminary study results) Ancient
Bosporus, T. 9, Moscow, 77–89 (in Russian).
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