Abstract Algebra

Part I: Group Theory

From last time:
Let G be a set. A binary operation on G is a function

m:G×G→G
Some examples: Some non-examples
∗ Addition and multiplication ∗ Dot and scalar products on Rn
on Z, Q, R, C, Z>0 . ∗ Subtraction on Z>0 .
∗ Division on C× .
∗ Multiplication on Mn (R).
∗ Cross products on R3 .
We get lazier and lazier as time goes on, writing binary operations
with ?, or no symbol at all:

ab = a ? b = m(a, b).

Rule to follow: Be clear!

Generically, we call binary operations “products”, i.e.
Define a product on Z by a ? b = a.
From last time:
A Group is a pair (G, ?) consisting of a set G and a binary
operation ? on G
vocab: we say “G is closed under ?.”
such that:
1. ? is associative.
2. There is an identity element e ∈ G. That is,

e?g =g =g?e for any g ∈ G.

3. Every element of G has an inverse. That is, for any g ∈ G,

there is an element g −1 such that gg −1 = e = g −1 g.
From last time:
A Group is a pair (G, ?) consisting of a set G and a binary
operation ? on G
vocab: we say “G is closed under ?.”
such that:
1. ? is associative.
2. There is an identity element e ∈ G. That is,

e?g =g =g?e for any g ∈ G.

3. Every element of G has an inverse. That is, for any g ∈ G,

there is an element g −1 such that gg −1 = e = g −1 g.
Examples:
(R× , ∗) “The non-zero real numbers form a group under multiplication”
(GLn (C), ·) “The invertible matrices form a group under multiplication”
(Z/6Z, +) “The integers modulo 6 form a group under addition”
From last time:
Theorem
Let G be a group.
1. The identity element in G is unique. We denote this element
by e.
2. For a given g ∈ G, g −1 is unique.
3. (a−1 )−1 = a.
4. For any x, y ∈ G, there is are unique elements g, g 0 ∈ G so
that
xg = y and g 0 x = y.
5. For any x, y ∈ G, (xy)−1 = (y −1 x−1 ).
From last time:
Theorem
Let G be a group. ← MORE LAZINESS!
1. The identity element in G is unique. We denote this element
by e.
2. For a given g ∈ G, g −1 is unique.
3. (a−1 )−1 = a.
4. For any x, y ∈ G, there is are unique elements g, g 0 ∈ G so
that
xg = y and g 0 x = y.
5. For any x, y ∈ G, (xy)−1 = (y −1 x−1 ).

“Let G be a group” means I have some fixed binary operation

floating around in the background. Ambiguity: what do I call the
set now??
The “underlying set” is the set of elements of G.
From last time:
Theorem
Let G be a group. ← MORE LAZINESS!
1. The identity element in G is unique. We denote this element
by e. X
2. For a given g ∈ G, g −1 is unique. X
3. (a−1 )−1 = a.
4. For any x, y ∈ G, there is are unique elements g, g 0 ∈ G so
that
xg = y and g 0 x = y.
5. For any x, y ∈ G, (xy)−1 = (y −1 x−1 ).

“Let G be a group” means I have some fixed binary operation

floating around in the background. Ambiguity: what do I call the
set now??
The “underlying set” is the set of elements of G.
Powers Still, let G be a group. . .

The associative property implies that for any x1 , . . . xn ∈ G, the

value of x1 x2 . . . xn does not depend on on the expression is
parenthesized.
Define:

xn = x · x . . . x and x−n = (xn )−1 .

Theorem
For any x ∈ G,

xm xn = xm+n for all integers m and n.

Order Still, let G be a group. . .

What are some properties of groups?

How are two groups similar or different?
Order Still, let G be a group. . .

What are some properties of groups?

How are two groups similar or different?

Definition
The order of G, denoted |G|, is the size of the underlying set.

For any element x ∈ G, if xn = e for some n ∈ Z>0 , we say the

order of x is the smallest such n.
Order Still, let G be a group. . .

What are some properties of groups?

How are two groups similar or different?

Definition
The order of G, denoted |G|, is the size of the underlying set.

For any element x ∈ G, if xn = e for some n ∈ Z>0 , we say the

order of x is the smallest such n.

Theorem
1. An element x ∈ G has order 1 if and only if x = e.
2. xm = e iff |x| divides m.
Catalog of groups

1. Zn , Qn , Rn , Cn under addition infinite

2. Q× , R× , C× under multiplication infinite
3. Z/nZ under addition finite
4. (Z/nZ)× = {a ∈ Z/nZ | a is relatively prime to n} under
multiplication. finite
5. Mn (F ) under addition, where F = Q, R, C etc. infinite
Catalog of groups

1. Zn , Qn , Rn , Cn under addition infinite

2. Q× , R× , C× under multiplication infinite
3. Z/nZ under addition finite
4. (Z/nZ)× = {a ∈ Z/nZ | a is relatively prime to n} under
multiplication. finite
5. Mn (F ) under addition, where F = Q, R, C etc. infinite
More to come:
Catalog of groups

1. Zn , Qn , Rn , Cn under addition infinite

2. Q× , R× , C× under multiplication infinite
3. Z/nZ under addition finite
4. (Z/nZ)× = {a ∈ Z/nZ | a is relatively prime to n} under
multiplication. finite
5. Mn (F ) under addition, where F = Q, R, C etc. infinite
More to come:

6. More general linear groups GLn (F )

Catalog of groups

1. Zn , Qn , Rn , Cn under addition infinite

2. Q× , R× , C× under multiplication infinite
3. Z/nZ under addition finite
4. (Z/nZ)× = {a ∈ Z/nZ | a is relatively prime to n} under
multiplication. finite
5. Mn (F ) under addition, where F = Q, R, C etc. infinite
More to come:

6. More general linear groups GLn (F )

7. Dihedral groups D2n
Catalog of groups

1. Zn , Qn , Rn , Cn under addition infinite

2. Q× , R× , C× under multiplication infinite
3. Z/nZ under addition finite
4. (Z/nZ)× = {a ∈ Z/nZ | a is relatively prime to n} under
multiplication. finite
5. Mn (F ) under addition, where F = Q, R, C etc. infinite
More to come:

6. More general linear groups GLn (F )

7. Dihedral groups D2n
8. Symmetric groups Sn
Catalog of groups

1. Zn , Qn , Rn , Cn under addition infinite

2. Q× , R× , C× under multiplication infinite
3. Z/nZ under addition finite
4. (Z/nZ)× = {a ∈ Z/nZ | a is relatively prime to n} under
multiplication. finite
5. Mn (F ) under addition, where F = Q, R, C etc. infinite
More to come:

6. More general linear groups GLn (F )

7. Dihedral groups D2n
8. Symmetric groups Sn
9. Quaternian group Q8 .
Groups of symmetries

6 1

5 2

4 3
Groups of symmetries

6 1

5 2

4 3
Groups of symmetries

6 1 1 6

5 2 → 2 5

4 3 3 4
Groups of symmetries

6 1 1 6

5 2 2 5

4 3 3 4
Groups of symmetries

6 1 1 6

5 2 2 5

4 3 3 4
↓

5 6

4 1

3 2
 6 1 5 6 4 5 3 4 2 3 1 2
5 2 4 1 3 6 2 5 1 4 6 3
4 3 3 2 2 1 1 6 6 5 5 4

1 6 2 1 3 2 4 3 5 4 6 5
2 5 3 6 4 1 5 2 6 3 1 4
3 4 4 5 5 6 6 1 1 2 2 3
 6 1 5 6 4 5 3 4 2 3 1 2
5 2 4 1 3 6 2 5 1 4 6 3
4 3 3 2 2 1 1 6 6 5 5 4

1 6 2 1 3 2 4 3 5 4 6 5
2 5 3 6 4 1 5 2 6 3 1 4
3 4 4 5 5 6 6 1 1 2 2 3
 1 r r2 r3 r4 r5
6 1 5 6 4 5 3 4 2 3 1 2
5 2 4 1 3 6 2 5 1 4 6 3
4 3 3 2 2 1 1 6 6 5 5 4

s rs r2 s r3 s r4 s r5 s
1 6 2 1 3 2 4 3 5 4 6 5
2 5 3 6 4 1 5 2 6 3 1 4
3 4 4 5 5 6 6 1 1 2 2 3
Definition
A presentation for a group G consists of a generating set S along
with a set of relations R (equations using only the elements of
S ∪ {e} and their inverses, establishing relationships) that are
enough to completely determine the group structure of G. It is
written
hgenerators | relationsi.
Definition
A presentation for a group G consists of a generating set S along
with a set of relations R (equations using only the elements of
S ∪ {e} and their inverses, establishing relationships) that are
enough to completely determine the group structure of G. It is
written
hgenerators | relationsi.

Some examples:

D12 = hr, s|r6 = e, s2 = e, r−1 s = sri

Definition
A presentation for a group G consists of a generating set S along
with a set of relations R (equations using only the elements of
S ∪ {e} and their inverses, establishing relationships) that are
enough to completely determine the group structure of G. It is
written
hgenerators | relationsi.

Some examples:

D12 = hr, s|r6 = e, s2 = e, r−1 s = sri

Z/3Z = h1|13 = ei
Definition
A presentation for a group G consists of a generating set S along
with a set of relations R (equations using only the elements of
S ∪ {e} and their inverses, establishing relationships) that are
enough to completely determine the group structure of G. It is
written
hgenerators | relationsi.

Some examples:

D12 = hr, s|r6 = e, s2 = e, r−1 s = sri

Z/3Z = h1|13 = ei

Z = h1i