STUDY GUIDE

M AT H E M AT I C S SL
www.ib.academy
IB Academy Mathematics Study Guide
Available on learn.ib.academy

Authors: Laurence Gibbons, Robert van den Heuvel

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INTRODUCTION

Welcome to the IB.Academy Study Guide for IB Mathematics Standard Level.

We are proud to present our study guides and hope that you will find them helpful. They
are the result of a collaborative undertaking between our tutors, students and teachers
from schools across the globe. Our mission is to create the most simple yet
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any comments, feel free to contact us.

For this Mathematics SL guide, we incorporated everything you need to know for your
final exam. The guide is broken down into chapters based on the syllabus topics and they
begin with ‘cheat sheets’ that summarise the content. This will prove especially useful
when you work on the exercises. The guide then looks into the subtopics for each
chapter, followed by our step-by-step approach and a calculator section which explains
how to use the instrument for your exam.

For more information and details on our revision courses, be sure to visit our website
at ib.academy. We hope that you will enjoy our guides and best of luck with your studies.

IB.Academy Team

3
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Prior knowledge 7

2. Algebra 11

3. Functions 21

4. Vectors 29

5. Trigonometry and circular 37

functions

6. Differentiation 47

7. Integration 61

8. Probability 69

9. Statistics 79

5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

6
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE 1

Before you start make sure you have a firm grasp of the following. Many marks are lost
through errors in these fundamentals.

1.1 Number
Numbers can be grouped in to a number of sets. From the diagram you see that all
rational numbers are also real numbers; i.e. Q is a subset of R.

R real numbers
Q rational numbers

1 251 Z integers
− . . . , −4, −3, −2, −1, . . .
3 267 N naturals
. . . , 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
p
p 10
2 π
2
irrational numbers

Positive integers Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . . }

Positive integers and zero N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
Integers Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
p
Rational numbers Q = any number that can be written as the ratio
q
of any two integers, where q 6= 0

1.2 Signs
+ and − signs describe positive and negative numbers. Remember they work the
opposite way with negative intergers. In maths two wrongs do make a right.

1 − −1 = 1 + 1 = 2 −1 × −1 = 1

7
 PRIOR KNOWLEDGE BIDMAS

1.3 BIDMAS

A handy acronymn for remembering the order in which to calculate equations:

Brackets — functions within brackets

B
(these should also be calculated following BIDMAS)

I Indecies — powers

DM Division/Multiplication — working from left to right

AS Adition/Subtraction — working from left to right

Therefore in the following equation

6
42 + 5 × × (9 − 1) =
4
6
B −→ = 42 + 5 × × (8) =
4
6
I −→ = 16 + 5 × × 8 =
4
30
D/M −→ = 16 + × 8 =
4
= 16 + 7.5 × 8 =
= 16 + 60 =
A/S −→ = 76

1.4 Solving simulatenous equations

If we have two unknows, for example x and y, and two equations, then we can solve for
x and y simulateously.
(
(1) y = 3x + 1
(2) 2y = x − 1

There are 3 methods to solve simultaneous equations.

8
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE Solving simulatenous equations 1

Elimination Substitution
Multiply an equation and then sub- Rearange and then substitute one in to
tract it from the other in order to another.
eliminate one of the unknows.

3 × (2) ⇒ (3) 6y = 3x − 3 Substitute (1) into (2)

(3) − (1) ⇒ 6y − y = 3x − 3x − 3 − 1
2(3x + 1) = x − 1
5y = −4
6x + 2 = x − 1
4
y =− 5x = −3
5
3
x =−
Put y in (1) or (2) and solve for x 5
4 Put x in (1) or (2) and solve for x
− = 3x + 1
5
9 3
3x = − y = 3(− ) + 1
5 5
9 3 4
x =− =− y =−
15 5 5

Graph

Graph both lines on your gdc. Where they intersect will be the solution to the equation.

y = 3x + 1

2y = x − 1

3

x = −

5
4
y = −

5

Note that this method is also great when you have to solve more complex equations.

9
 PRIOR KNOWLEDGE Geometry

1.5 Geometry

These are given in the data booklet

Area of parallelogram A= b×h

1
Area of a triangle A = (b × h)
2
1
Area of a trapezium A = (a + b)h
2
Area of a circle A = πr2

Circumference of a circle C = 2πr

1
Volume of a pyramid V = (area base × vertical height)
3
Volume of a cuboid (rectangular prism) V =l×w×h

Volume of a cylinder V = πr2 h

Area of the curved surface of a cylinder A = 2πrh

4
Volume of a sphere V = πr3
3
1 2
Volume of a cone V = πr h
3

10
ALGEBRA 2
Table of contents & cheatsheet

2.1. Sequences 12 2.2. Exponents and logarithms 15

Arithmetic: +/− common difference Exponents

un = n th term = u1 + (n − 1)d x1 = x x0 = 1
n xm
Sn = sum of n terms = 2u1 + (n − 1)d x m · x n = x m+n = x m−n


2 xn
n n
with u1 = a = 1st term, d = common difference. (x m ) = x m·n (x · y) = x n · y n
1 1
x −1 = x −n =
x xn
Geometric: ×/÷ common ratio 1 p p p
x2 = x x· x=x
un = n th term = u1 · r n−1 p p p 1 p
xy = x · y xn = n x
u1 (1 − r n ) m p m 1
Sn = sum of n terms = n
x n = xm x− n = p
(1 − r ) n
xm
u1
S∞ = sum to infinity = , when −1 < r < 1
1− r Logarithms

with u1 = a = 1st term, r = common ratio. loga a x = x a loga b = b

Sigma notation
Let a x = b , isolate x from the exponent: loga a x = x = loga b
A shorthand to show the sum of a number of terms in a
sequence.
Let loga x = b , isolate x from the logarithm: a loga x = x = a b
Last value of n
10
Laws of logarithms
X
3n − 1 Formula
n=1
I: log A + log B = log(A · B)
First value of n
A
 
e.g. II: log A − log B = log
B
10
III: n log A = log(An )
X
3n−1 = (3 · 1) − 1 + (3 · 2) − 1 + · · ·+(3 · 10) − 1 = 155
n=1 log A
| {z } | {z } | {z }
n=1 n=2 n=10 IV: logB A =
log B

2.3. Binomial Expansion 17

Find the coefficient using either pascals triangle

n 1 n=0
In a expansion
 of  (a + b ) . Each term can be
 a binomial in theform
n n n 1 1 n=1
described as a − r b r , where is the coefficient. +
r r 1 2 1 n=2
The full expansion can be written thus + +
1 3 3 1 n=3
n n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n n
         
+ + +
(a + b )n = a + a b+ a b +· · ·+ ab n−1 + b 1 4 6 4 1 n=4
0 1 2 n −1 n + + + +
1 5 10 10 5 1 n=5

Or the nCr function on your calculator

11
 ALGEBRA Sequences

2.1 Sequences

2.1.1 Arithmetic sequence

Arithmetic sequence the next term is the previous number + the common
difference (d ).

e.g. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . . d = +2 and 2, −3, −8, −13, . . . d = −5

To find the common difference d , subtract two consecutive terms of an

arithmetic sequence from the term that follows it, i.e. u(n+1) − un .

DB 1.1 Use the following equations to calculate the n th term or the sum of n terms.
n
un = u1 + (n − 1)d Sn = 2u1 + (n − 1)d


2
with

u1 = a = 1st term d = common difference

Often the IB requires you to first find the 1st term and/or common difference.

Finding the first term u1 and the common difference d from other
terms.

In an arithmetic sequence u10 = 37 and u22 = 1. Find the common difference and the
first term.

1. Put numbers in to n th term formula 37 = u1 + 9d

1 = u1 + 21d

2. Equate formulas to find d 21d − 1 = 9d − 37

12d = −36
d = −3

3. Use d to find u1 1 − 21 · (−3) = u1

u1 = 64

12
ALGEBRA Sequences 2

2.1.2 Geometric sequence

Geometric sequence the next term is the previous number multiplied by the
common ratio (r ).

To find the common ratio, divide any term of an arithmetic sequence by the
second term (u2 )
term that precedes it, i.e. e.g. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . . r = 2
first term (u1 )
1
and 25, 5, 1, 0.2, . . . r =
5

Use the following equations to calculate the n th term, the sum of n terms or the sum to
infinity when −1 < r < 1. DB 1.1

un = n th term Sn = sum of n terms S∞ = sum to infinity

u (1 − r n ) u
= u1 · r n−1 = 1 = 1
(1 − r ) 1− r

again with

u1 = a = 1st term r = common ratio

Similar to questions on Arithmetic sequences, you are often required to find the 1st term
and/or common ratio first.

2.1.3 Sigma notation

Sigma notation is a way to represent the summation of any sequence — this means that it
can be used for both arithmetic or geometric series. The notation shows you the formula
that generates terms of a sequence and the upper and lower limits of the terms that you
want to add up in this sequence.

Last value of n
10
X
3n − 1 Formula
n=1

First value of n
10
X
e.g. 3n − 1 = (3 · 1) − 1 + (3 · 2) − 1 + (3 · 3) − 1 + · · · + (3 · 10) − 1 = 155
n=1
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
n=1 n=2 n=3 n=10

13
 ALGEBRA Sequences

Finding the first term u1 and common ratio r from other terms.

5
X ∞
X
(Geometric series) = 3798, (Geometric series) = 4374.
1 1
7
X
Find (Geometric series) =?
1

1. Interpret the question The sum of the first 5 terms of a

geometric sequence is 3798 and the sum
to infinity is 4374. Find the sum of the
first 7 terms

2. Use formula for sum of n terms 1− r5

3798 = u1
1− r
3. Use formula for sum to infinity u1
4374 =
1− r
4. Rearrange 3. for u1 4374(1 − r ) = u1

4374(1 − r ) 1 − r 5


5. Substitute in to 2.
3798 =
1− r
r 3798 = 4374 1 − r 5
€ Š
6. Solve for

3798
= 1− r5
4374
211
r5 = 1−
s 243
p5 5 32
r=
243
2
r=
3
r u1 2
 ‹
7. Use to find
u1 = 4374 1 −
3
u1 = 1458
 ‹7
8. Find sum of first 7 terms 2
1−
3
1458 = 4370
2
1−
3

14
 ALGEBRA Exponents and logarithms 2

2.2 Exponents and logarithms

2.2.1 Laws of exponents

Exponents always follow certain rules. If you are multiplying or dividing, use the
following rules to determine what happens with the powers.
.

x1 = x 61 = 6
Example

x0 = 1 70 = 1
x m · x n = x m+n 45 · 46 = 411
xm 35
= x m−n = 35−4 = 31 = 3
xn 34
€ Š2
(x m )n = x m·n 105 = 1010
(x · y)n = x n · y n (2 · 4)3 = 23 · 43 and (3x)4 = 34 x 4
1 1 3 4
 ‹−1
x −1 = 5−1 = and =
x 5 4 3
−n 1 −5 1 1
x = 3 = =
xn 35 243

2.2.2 Fractional exponents

When doing mathematical operations (+, −, × or ÷) with fractions in the exponent you
will need the following rules. These are often helpful when writing your answers in
simplest terms.

p p
.

1 1
Example

x2 = x 22 = 2
p p p p
x· x=x 3· 3=3
p p p p p p p p
xy = x · y 12 = 4 · 3 = 4 · 3 = 2 · 3
1 p 1 p
3
xn = n x 53 = 5
m p
n 2 1
x n = xm 3− 5 = p
5
32

15
 ALGEBRA Exponents and logarithms

2.2.3 Laws of logarithms

Logarithms are the inverse mathematical operation of exponents, like division is the
inverse mathematical operation of multiplication. The logarithm is often used to find the
DB 1.2 variable in an exponent.
ax = b ⇔ x = loga b

Since loga a x = x, so that x = loga b .

This formula shows that the variable x in the power of the exponent becomes the subject
of your log equation, while the number a becomes the base of your logarithm.

Below are the rules that you will need to use when performing calculations with
logarithms and when simplifying them. The sets of equations on the left and right are
the same; on the right we show the notation that the DB uses while the equations on the
left are easier to understand.

Laws of logarithms and change of base

DB 1.2
I: log A + log B = log(A · B) logc a + logc b = logc (a b )
A a
   ‹
II: log A − log B = log logc a − logc b = logc
B b
III: n log A = log(An ) n logc a = logc (a n )
log A logc a
IV: logB A = log b a =
log B logc b
Note

• x = loga a = 1
• With the 4th rule you can change the base of a log.
• loga 0 = x is always undefined (because a x 6= 0).
• When you see a log with no base, it is referring to a logarithm with a base of 10
(e.g. log 13 = log10 13).

Solve x in exponents using logs.

Solve 2 x = 13.

1. Take the log on both sides log 2 x = log 13

2. Use rule III to take x outside x log 2 = log 13

3. Solve log 13
x=
log 2

16
 ALGEBRA Binomial expansion 2

Expressing logs in terms of other logs

.

For the following three examples use that p = loga 5 and q = loga 2.
Example

1. Express loga 10 in terms of p and q: loga (5 × 2) = loga 5 + loga 2 = p + q

loga 23‹ = 3 loga 2 = 3q
€ Š
2. Express loga 8 in terms of p and q:
5
3. Express loga 2.5 in terms of p and q: loga = loga 5 − loga 2 = p − q
2

But what about ln and e? These work exactly the same; e is just the irrational number
2.71828 . . . (infinitely too long to write out) and ln is just loge .

ln a + ln b = ln(a · b )
a
 ‹
ln a − ln b = ln
b
n ln a = ln a n
ln e = 1
eln a = a

2.3 Binomial expansion

Binomial an expression (a + b )n which is the sum of two terms raised to the

power n.
e.g. (x + 3)2

Binomial expansion (a + b )n is expanded into a sum of terms

e.g. x 2 + 6x + 9

Binomial expansions get increasingly complex as the power increases:

binomial binomial expansion

1
(a + b ) = a + b
(a + b )2 = a 2 + 2a b + b 2
(a + b )3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3a b 2 + b 3

n n−r r
 
The general formula for each term is: a b .
r

 the full binomial expansion of a binomial, you have to determine the

In order tofind
n
coefficient and the powers for each term, n − r and r for a and b respectively, as
r
shown by the binomial expansion formula.

17
 ALGEBRA Binomial expansion

Binomial expansion formula

n n−1 n n−r r
   
n n
DB 1.3 (a + b ) = a + a b + ··· + a b + ··· + bn
1 r
n n n n−1 n n−2 2
     
= a + a b+ a b + ...
0 1 2

The powers decrease by 1 for a and increase by 1 for b for each subsequent term.

The sum of the powers of each term will always = n.

There are two ways to find the coefficients: with Pascal’s triangle or the binomial
coefficient function (nCr).

Pascal’s triangle

1 n=0

1 1 n=1
+
1 2 1 n=2
+ +
1 3 3 1 n=3
+ + +
1 4 6 4 1 n=4
+ + + +
1 5 10 10 5 1 n=5

Pascal’s triangle is an easy way to find all the coefficients for your binomial expansion. It
is particularly useful in cases where:

1. the power is not too high (because you have to write it out manually);
2. if you have to find all the terms in a binomial expansion.

Binomial coefficient functions

In the 1st term of the ex-
pansion r = 0, in the
2nd term r = 1, . . . n n!
 
=
r r !(n − r )!
Use the nCr function on your calculator!

18
ALGEBRA Binomial expansion 2

How to expand binomial expansions.

‹5
2

Find the expansion of x−
x
2
 ‹
1. Use the binomial expansion formula
(x)5 + (5C 1)(x)4 − +
a=x
‹2 x
2 2 2 3
  ‹
3 2
b =− (5C 2)(x) − +(5C 3)(x) − +
x  x‹4 ‹5 x
2 2

(5C 4)(x) − + (5C 5) −
x x
2. Find coefficients Row 0: 1
using Pascal’s triangle for low powers and
Row 1: 1 1
nCr calculator for high functions
Row 2: 1 2 1
Row 3: 1 3 3 1
Row 4: 1 4 6 4 1
Row 5: 1 5 10 10 5 1

(5C 0) = 1 (5C 2) = 10 (5C 4) = 5

(5C 1) = 5 (5C 3) = 10 (5C 5) = 1

3. Put them together 2 1 2 2

 ‹  ‹
x 5 + 5x 4 − + 10x 3 − +
‹3x ‹4 x
2 2 2 5
  ‹
2
10x − + 5x − + −
x x x
4. Simplify 80 80 32
x 5 − 10x 3 + 20x − + −
using laws of exponents x x3 x5

The IB use three different terms for these types of question which will effect the answer
you should give:

Coefficient: the number before the x value;

Term: the number and the x value;

Constant term: the number for which there is no x value (x 0 ).

19
 ALGEBRA Binomial expansion

Finding a specific term in a binomial expansion.

Find the coefficient of x 5 in the expansion (2x − 5)8

n n−r r
 
1. One term is asked, usually of a high n
power then use binomial expansion
(a + b ) = · · · + a b + ...
r
formula

r 5 5
2. Determine Since a = 2x , to find x we need a .
a 5 = a n−r = a 8−r , so that r = 3

r n n−r r 8 8−3 3 8 5 3
     
3. Plug into the general formula
a b = a b = a b
r 3 3

a and b 8
 
4. Replace
(2x)5 (−5)3
3

n 8
   
5.
Use nCr to calculate the value for = 8C 3 = 56
r 3

IB ACADEMY IB ACADEMY

Insert the values for n

Press menu
and r separated by a
5: Probability
comma
3: Combinations

6. Substitute and calculate the value 56 × 25 (x 5 ) × (−5)3 = −224000(x 5 )

20
FUNCTIONS 3
Table of contents & cheatsheet

Definitions

Function a mathematical relationship where each input has a single output. It is oft en written as f (x) where x is the input
Domain all possible x values, the input. (the domain of investigation)
Range possible y values, the output. (the range of outcomes)
Coordinates uniquely determines the position of a point, given by (x, y)

3.1. Types of functions 22 3.2. Rearranging functions 26

m is the gradient,
Linear functions y = m x + c Inverse function, f −1 (x) reflection of f (x) in y = x.
‹ c is the y intercept.
x1 + x2 y1 + y2

Midpoint: ,
2 2 y=x
(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
p
Distance: (x2 , y2 )
y2 − y1 (x , y ) f (x)
Gradient: m = 1 1
x2 − x1
f −1 (x)
Parallel lines: m1 = m2 (same gradients)
Perpendicular lines: m1 m2 = −1

Quadratic functions y = ax 2 + b x + c = 0
−b
Axis of symmetry: x-coordinate of the vertex: x =
2a
Factorized form: y = (x + p)(x + q)
a>0 a<0
y y

vertex
Composite function, ( f ◦ g )(x) is the combined
x x
function f of g of x.
axis of symetry
When f (x) and g (x) are given, replace x in f (x) by g (x).

If a = 1 use the factorization method (x + p) · (x + q)

If a 6= 1 use the quadratic formula Transforming functions

When asked excplicity complete the square

Change to f (x) Effect
Vertex form: y = a(x − h)2 + k
f (x) + a Move graph a units upwards
Vertex: (h, k)
f (x + a) Move graph a units to the left
a · f (x) Vertical stretch by factor a
Exponential Logarithmic 1
f (a · x) Horizontal stretch by factor
f (x) = a x + c g (x) = loga (x + b ) a
− f (x) Reflection in x-axis
f (−x) Reflection in y-axis
f (x) g (x)

c
−b

21
 FUNCTIONS Types of functions

3.1 Types of functions

Functions are mathematical relationships where each input has a single output. You have
probably been doing functions since you began learning maths, but they may have
looked like this:

16 +10 26 Algebraically this is:

f (x) = x + 10,
here x = 16, y = 26.

We can use graphs to show multiple outputs of y for inputs x, and therefore visualize the
relation between the two. Two common types of functions are linear functions and
quadratic functions.

3.1.1 Linear functions

Linear functions y = m x + c increases/decreases at a constant rate m,

where m is the gradient and c is the y intercept.

x1 + x2 y1 + y2 3
 ‹
Midpoint ,
2 2
Æ 2
Distance (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
y − y1 1
Gradient m= 2
x2 − x1
Parallel lines m1 = m2 (equal gradients) -1 1 2 3
Perpendicular lines m1 m2 = −1 -1
.

Determine the midpoint, distance and gradient using the two points P1 (2, 8)
Example

and P2 (6, 3)

x1 + x2 y1 + y2 2+6 8+3
 ‹  ‹
Midpoint: , = , = (4, 5.5)
2 2 2 2
p
Distance: (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 = (6 − 2)2 + (3 − 8)2 = (4)2 + (5)2 = 41
p p p

y
y2 − y1 3−8 5 9 P1 (2, 8)
Gradient: m = =m= =− 8
x2 − x1 6−2 4 7
6
5 5
Parallel line: − x + 3 4 P2 (6, 3)
4 3
4 2
Perpendicular line: − x + 7 1
5
1234567x

22
FUNCTIONS Types of functions 3

3.1.2 Quadratic functions

y y
a>0

O x O x

a<0
a > 0, positive quadratic a < 0, negative quadratic

Quadratic functions y = a x2 + b x + c = 0

Graph has a parabolic shape, increase/decrease at an increasing rate.

The roots of an equation are the x-values for which y = 0, in other words the
x-intercept(s).

To find the roots of the equation you can use

factorisation: If a = 1, use the factorization method (x + p) · (x + q)

quadratic formula: If a 6= 1, use the quadratic formula

2
The b − 4ac part of
p p the quadratic formula
−b ± b 2 − 4ac −b ± ∆
= is also known as the
2a 2a discriminant ∆. It can
be used to check how
many x -intercepts the
equation has:
Solving quadratic equations by factorisation. ∆ > 0: 2 solutions
∆ = 0: 1 solution
∆ < 0: no real solutions
Solve: x 2 − 5x + 6 = 0

p + q = −5
«
1. Set up system of equations
p+q = b and p×q =c p = −2 and q = −3
p×q =6

2. Plug the values for p and q into: (x − 2)(x − 3) = x 2 − 5x + 6

(x + p)(x + q)

0 (x − 2) = 0
«
3. Equate each part to
(x + p) = 0, (x + q) = 0, x =2 or x =3
(x − 3) = 0
and solve for x

23
 FUNCTIONS Types of functions

Solving quadratic equations using the quadratic formula.

Solve: 3x 2 − 8x + 4 = 0

1. Calculate the discriminant ∆ ∆ = (−8)2 − 4 · 3 · 4 = 16

2
∆ = b − 4ac

2. How many solutions? ∆ > 0, so 2 solutions

∆ > 0 ⇒ 2 solutions
∆ = 0 ⇒ 1 solution
∆ < 0 ⇒ no real solutions
p
3. x , use
Calculate 8 ± 16 8 ± 4
p x= =
−b ± ∆ 2·3
x=  6
2a 8 − 4 4
= = 
6 6 ⇒ x=2

or x =2
8+4 3
= =2

6


By completing the square you can find the value of the vertex (the minimum or
maximum). For the exam you will always be asked explicitly.

Find the vertex by completing the square

4x 2 − 2x − 5 = 0

1. Move c to the other side 4x 2 − 2x = 5

2. Divide by a 1 5
x2 − x =
2 4
coeficient 2
2
3. x 1
 ‹ 
Calculate
2 −2  1
 2  = 16
 

4. Add this term to both sides 1 1 5 1

x2 − x + = +
2 16 4 16
‹2
5. Factor perfect square, bring constant 1 21

back
x− − =0
4 16
1 21
 ‹
⇒ minimum point= , −
4 16

Other forms: y = a(x − h)2 + k vertex (h, k) and y = a(x − p)(x − q), x intercepts:
( p, 0)(q, 0).

24
 FUNCTIONS Types of functions 3

3.1.3 Functions with asymptotes

Asymptote a straight line that a curve approaches, but never touches.

A single function can have multiple asymptotes: horizontal, vertical and in rare cases
diagonal. Functions that contain the variable (x) in the denominator of a fraction will
always have asymptotes, as well as exponential and logarithmic functions.

Vertical asymptotes
Vertical asymptotes occur when the denominator is zero, as dividing by zero is
undefinable. Therefore if the denominator contains x and there is a value for x for which
the denominator will be 0, we get a vertical asymptote.
x
.
Example

In the function f (x) = , when x = 4, the denominator is 0 so there is a vertical

x −4
asymptote.

Horizontal asymptotes
Horizontal asymptotes are the value that a function tends to as x become really big or
really small; technically: to the limit of infinity, x → ∞. When x is large other parts of
the function not involving x become insignificant and so can be ignored.
x
.
Example

In the function f (x) = , when x is small the 4 is important.

x −4
x = 10 10 − 4 = 6
But as x gets bigger the 4 becomes increasingly insignificant
x = 100 100 − 4 = 96
x = 10000 10000 − 4 = 9996
Therefore as we approach the limits we can ignore the 4.
x
lim f (x) = = 1
x→∞ x
So there is a horizontal asymptote at y = 1.

Exponential and logarithmic functions

Exponential functions will Exponential Logarithmic
always have a horizontal f (x) g (x)
asymptote and logarithmic
functions will always have a
vertical asymptote, due to the
nature of these functions. The c
position of the asymptote is −b
determined by constants in the
function.
f (x) = a x + c g (x) = loga (x + b )
where a is a positive number
(often e)

25
 FUNCTIONS Rearranging functions

3.2 Rearranging functions

3.2.1 Inverse functions, f −1(x)

Inverse functions are the reverse of a func- f −1 (x)

tion. Finding the input x for the output y.
You can think of it as going backwards
through the number machine

This is the same as reflecting a graph in the y = x axis.

Finding the inverse function.

f (x) = 2x 3 + 3, find f −1 (x)

1. Replace f (x) with y y = 2x 3 + 3

2. Solve for x y − 3 = 2x 3
y −3
⇒ = x3
2
3 y −3
s
⇒ =x
2
3. x f −1 (x) and y x 3 x −3
s
Replace with with
= f −1 (x)
2

3.2.2 Composite functions

Composite functions are combination of two functions.

( f ◦ g )(x) means f of g of x

To find the composite function above substitute the function of g (x) into the x of f (x).
.

Let f (x) = 2x + 3 and g (x) = x 2 . Find (f ◦ g )(x) and (g ◦ f )(x).

Example

( f ◦ g )(x): replace x in the f (x) function with the entire g (x) function

(2 g (x)) + 3 = 2x 2 + 3

(g ◦ f )(x): replace x in the g (x) function with the entire f (x) function

2
f (x) = (2x + 3)2

26
FUNCTIONS Rearranging functions 3

3.2.3 Transforming functions

Change to f (x) Effect

By adding and/or f (x) + a Move graph a units upwards
multiplying by constants f (x + a) Move graph a units to the left
we can transform a a · f (x) Vertical stretch by factor a
function into another f (a · x) Horizontal stretch by factor 1/a
function. − f (x) Reflection in x-axis
Exam hint: describe
f (−x) Reflection in y-axis the transformation with
words as well to guaran-
tee marks.
Transforming functions f (x) → a f (x + b)
1 5
Given f (x) = x 3 + x 2 − x , draw 3 f (x − 1).
4 4
1. Sketch f (x) y
f (x)
3
2
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1
−2
−3

2. Stretch the graph by the factor of a a=3 y 3 f (x)

f (x)
3
2
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1
−2
−3

3. Move graph by −b Move graph by 1 to the right

y
f (x) 3 f (x − 1)
3
2
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1
−2
−3

27
 FUNCTIONS Rearranging functions

.
 
Absolute value:  f  
Example
f (x) = x 2 − 2 ⇒  f (x) =?.

y
 f (x) f (x) = x 2 − 2
 

3
2
1

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3
.

1
Example

Reciprocal:
f (x)
1 1
f (x) = x 4 + 4x 3 so: =
f (x) x + 4x 3
4

y f (x) = x 4 + 4x 3

40

30

20

10 1
f (x)
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−10

−20

−30

−40

28
VECTORS 4
Table of contents & cheatsheet

Definitions

Vector a geometric object with magnitude (length) and

     
1 0 0
direction, represented by an arrow. Base vector i~ = 0, ~j = 1, k~ = 0.
     
Collinear points points that lie on the same line 0 0 1
Unit vector vector with magnitude 1

4.1. Working with vectors 30

3
 
~
Vector from point O to point A: OA = a~ =
2
 
~ = b~ = −1
Vector from point O to point B: OB
1 y
Canbe written in two ways: 4
3 3
3
 
a~ = 2 =
 
2 A
0 2
a~ = 3i + 2 j + 0k = 3i + 2 j B a~
1
p p
Length of a~: |~
a| = x2 + y2 =
32 + 22 = 13 b~
p

−1 1 2 3 4 x
3 3 1
         
~ −1 −2
Addition & multiplication: a~ + 2 b = +2 = + =
2 1 2 2 4
3 4
     
−1
Subtraction: a~ − b~ = − =
2 1 1

4.2. Equations of lines 32 4.3. Dot product 34

y The dot product of two vectors c~ · d~ can be
Example of a line:
5 y = x +3 used to find
  the angle
 between
 them.
0 1 c d
   
r= 4  1  1
+t 1
 
Let c~ = c2 , d~ = d2 :
3 1 3 t
  1 c3 d3
direction vector 2 0
parameter 1 3
c~ · d~ = |~
c ||d~| cos θ
position vector
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x c~ · d~ = c1 d1 + c2 d2 + c3 d3

29
 VECTORS Working with vectors

4.1 Working with vectors

Vectors are a geometric object with a magnitude (length) and direction. They are
represented by an arrow, where the arrow shows the direction and the length represents
the magnitude.

So looking at the diagram we can see that

vector u~ has a greater magnitude than v.
~
Vectors can also be described in terms of the P u~ Q
points they pass between. So
N
u~ = P~Q v~
(

v~ = P~S
S M R
with the arrow over the top showing the
direction.

You can use vectors as a geometric algebra, expressing other vectors in terms of u~ and v.
~
For example

P~R = u~ + v~ Q~S = − u~ + v~ ~ = 1 (− u~ + v)
QN ~
2
1
− u~
P u~ Q P − u~ Q P u~ 2 Q
1
v~
N N 2
v~ v~

S M R S M R S M R

This may seem slightly counter-intuitive at first. But if we add in some possible figures
you can see how it works. If u~ moves 5 units to the left and v~ moves 1 unit to the right
(−left) and 3 units down.

Then P~R = u~ + v~ = 5 units to the left −1 unit to the right and 3 units down = 4 units to
the left and 3 units down.

30
VECTORS Working with vectors 4

4.1.1 Vectors with value

Formally the value of a vector is defined by its direction and magnitude within a 2D or
3D space. You can think of this as the steps it has to take to go from its starting point to
its end, moving only in the x, y and z axis.

Vector from point O to point A: y

4
~ = a~ = 3
 
OA 3
2
A
2
Vector from point O to point B: B a~
1
 
~ −1
~
OB = b = b~
1 −1 1 2 3 4 x

Vectors can be written in two ways: Note: unless told other-

wise, answer questions
in the form used in the
question.
 
3
3
 
1. a~ = 2 = , where the top value is movement in the x-axis. Then the next is
 
2
0
movement in the y and finally in the z. Here the vector is in 2D space as there is
no value for the z-axis.
2. as the sum of the three base vectors:
     
1 0 0
i~ = 0 , ~j = 
 1 , k~ = 0 .
    
0 0 1

Here i~ is moving 1 unit in the x-axis, ~j 1 unit in the y-axis and k~ 1 unit in the z-axis.
a~ = 3i + 2 j + 0k = 3i + 2 j

When we work with vectors we carry out the mathematical operation in each axis
separately. So x-values with x-values and so on.

Addition & multiplication: y a~ + 2 b~

4 b~
3 3 1
         
~ −1 −2
a~+2 b = +2 = + = 3 b~
2 1 2 2 4
A
2 − b~
Subtraction: B a~
1 a~ − b~
3 4
     
~ −1
a~ − b = − = b~
2 1 1 −1 1 2 3 4 x

However it must be remembered that vector notation does not give us the actual length
(magnitude) of the vector. To find this we use something familiar.

31
 VECTORS Equations of lines

Length of a~:
a~ y p
a| =
|~ x2 + y2
p p
= 32 + 22 = 13
x

Sometimes you will be asked to work with unit vectors. These are vectors with a
magnitude of 1. We can convert all vectors to unit vectors.

Determine the unit vector ab in the direction of any vector a~

a~ 3 ~ 2 ~ 1 3
 
ab = =p i+p j=p
a|
|~ 13 13 13 2

4.2 Equations of lines

We can further divide vectors into two types:

position vectors vectors from the origin to a point,

 
~ −1
e.g. P = (−1, 3) ⇒ P = .
3
direction vectors vectors that define a direction.

Using both we can define lines in y

terms of vectors. 5 y = x +3
Example
  of a line: 4
0 1

1
 
r= +t 3 t
3 1   1
2 0
direction vector
1 3
parameter
position vector −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x

Note the position vector can go to any where on the line. So in this example we could
also use (−3, 0) or (1, 4). Equally the direction vector can be scaled. So we could used
(2, 2), (30, 30), . . .

Because of this parallel lines will have direction vectors with the same ratio but not
necessarily in exact numbers.
Parallel lines: direction vector of L1 = direction vector of L2 × constant

Questions often deal with points and or multiple lines. It is worth making a sketch to
help understand the question.

32
VECTORS Equations of lines 4

Finding a line passing through two points.

Find the equation of the line passing through points P = (1, 3, 2) and Q = (0, −1, 4).
Does point R = (−2, 9, 1) lie on the line?
P
Direction vector
Q Note this can go either way from Q
Position vector to P of P to Q.
Position vector

1 0
   
1. Write points as position vectors
~   ~
P = 3 , Q = −1

2 4

0−1
   
2. Direction vector −1
= vector between points −1 − 3 = −4
4−2 2

~
P~ or Q 1
   
3. −1
Choose as position vector
r = 3 + t −4
  
2 2

~ and the line r . 1

     
4.
Equate R −2 −1
If there is no contradiction,  9  = 3 + t −4
R lies on r 1 2 2
⇒ −2 = 1 − t ⇒ t = 3
⇒ 9 = 3 − 4t ⇒ 9 6= 3 − 12
⇒ R does not lie on the line.

Finding the intersection of two lines.

2 3
       
−3 −1
Find the intersection for r1 = 1 + s  1  and r2 =  3  + t  0 
0 4 7 −1

2 − 3s = −1 + 3t

1. Equate
write simultaneous equations 1+ s =3

2. Solve s = 2, t = −1

Substitute back into r1 or r2 2 − 3(2)

   
3. −4
 1+2 = 3 
4(2) 8

33
 VECTORS Dot (scalar) product

If one considers two lines in a three-dimensional graph, then there are three ways in
which they can interact:

Parallel Intersecting Skew

y y y

x x x

z z z

If direction vectors defining a line aren’t multiples of one another, then the lines can
either be intersectiong or skew. One can find out if the lines intersect by equationg the
vector equations and attempting to solve the set of equations (remember: one needs as
many equations as variable to solve).

If one can’t find a point of intersection, then the lines are skew.

4.3 Dot (scalar) product

DB 4.2 The dot product of two vectors c~ · d~ can be used to find the angle between them.
Let
Learn to add the follow-
ing statement to ques-    
tions asking “are they per- c d
 1  1
pendicular?”. c~ = c2  d~ = d2 
c~·d~ = 0 therefore cos x = c3 d3
0, therefore x = 90°. Lines
are perpendicular. Of course,
when lines are not per-
pendicular replace all = c~ · d~ = |~
c ||d~| cos θ
with 6=.
c~ · d~ = c1 d1 + c2 d2 + c3 d3

34
VECTORS Dot (scalar) product 4

Finding the angle between two lines.

(Often are these two vectors perpendicular)

2 8
   

Find the angle between  3  and 1.

−1 3

c~ · d~ in terms of components c~ · d~ = 2 × 8 + 3 × 1 + (−1) × 3 = 16

1.
Find

2.
c~ · d~ in terms of magnitudes c~ · d~ = 22 + 32 + (−1)2 ×
p
Find
p p p
82 + 12 + 32 × cos θ = 14 74 cos θ
p p
3. Equate and solve for θ 16 = 14 74 cos θ
16
⇒ cos θ = p p
14 74
⇒ θ = 60.2°

Note: when θ = 90° (perpendicular vectors), cos(90°) = 0 ⇒ c~ · d~ = 0

35
 VECTORS Dot (scalar) product

36
TRIGONOMETRY AND 5

CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
Table of contents & cheatsheet

5.1. Basic trigonometry 38

π 180°
radians = × degrees degrees = × radians Non-right angle triangles
180° π
Before each question make sure calculator is in correct
setting: degrees or radians? c b
A
segment
1
chord Area of a sector = r 2 · θ B C
2
a
Arc length = r · θ a b c
sector Sine rule: = =
arc θ in radians, r = radius. sin A sin B sin C
Use this rule when you know: 2 angles and a side (not
Right-angle triangle (triangle with 90° angle) between the angles) or 2 sides and an angle (not
between the sides).
opposite
sin θ = SOH Cosine rule: c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2 ab cos C
e
us

opposite

hypotenuse
n
te

Use this rule when you know: 3 sides or 2 sides and

po

adjacent
hy

cos θ = CAH the angle between them.

θ hypotenuse
1
opposite Area of a triangle: Area = ab sin C
adjacent tan θ = TOA 2
adjacent
Use this rule when you know: 3 sides or 2 sides and
the angle between them.
Three-figure bearings
Direction given as an angle of a full circle. North is 000 and the angle is expressed in the clockwise direction from North.
So East is 090, South is 180 and West 270.

5.2. Circular functions 43

deg 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°
sin 90° = 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 5
positive angles rad 0 π π π π π π π π
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
p p p p
β 1 2 3 3 2 1
α sin θ 0 1 0
cos 0° = 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
θ p p p p
3 2 1 1 2 3
cos θ 1 0 − − − −1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 p p 1
tan θ 0 p 1 3 ∞ − 3 −1 −p 0
3 3

Trigonometric function y = a sin(b x + c) + d Trigonometric identities

Amplitude: a sin θ
tan θ =
360° 2π cos θ
Period: or
b b sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
Horizontal shift: c 2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ
Vertical shift: d cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ

37
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Basic trigonometry

5.1 Basic trigonometry

This section offers an overview of some basic trigonometry rules and values that will
recur often. It is worthwhile to know these by heart; but it is much better to understand
how to obtain these values. Like converting between Celsius and Fahrenheit; you can
remember some values that correspond to each other but if you understand how to
obtain them, you will be able to convert any temperature.

5.1.1 Converting between radians and degrees

π
2π 2 π
3π 3 90° 3
π
4 120° 60° 4
5π 135° 45° π
6 6
150° 30°
π
radians = × degrees
180° 0° 0
π 180°
360° 2π

180°
degrees = × radians
π

270°
3π
2

Table 5.1: Common radians/degrees conversions

Degrees 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 180° 270° 360°
π π π π 2π 3π 3π
Radians 0 π 2π
6 4 3 2 3 4 2

5.1.2 Circle formulas

DB 3.1
segment
1 chord
Area of a sector = r 2 · θ
2
Arc length = r · θ

sector
θ in radians, r = radius.
arc

38
TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Basic trigonometry 5

5.1.3 Right-angle triangles

a2 = b 2 + c 2 Pythagoras
opposite e
sin θ = SOH nus
hypotenuse te

opposite
po
adjacent hy
cos θ = CAH
hypotenuse
opposite θ
tan θ = TOA adjacent
adjacent

Two important triangles to memorize:

5
3 13
5

4 12

The IB loves asking questions about these special triangles which have whole numbers
for all the sides of the right triangles.

30°
2 p
3 p
2 45° 1

60°
45°
1 1

Note: these triangles can help you in finding the sin, cos and tan of the angles that you
should memorize, shown in table 5.2 at page 44. Use SOH, CAH, TOA to find the
values.

39
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Basic trigonometry

Read the question, does

it specify if you are look- 5.1.4 Non-right angle triangles
ing for an acute (less than
90°) or obtuse (more than
90°) angle. If not there To find any missing angles or side lengths in
may be 2 solutions. Exam c A b
hint: Use sketches when non-right angle triangles, use the cosine and sine
working with worded ques-
B C rule. Remember that the angles in the triangle
tions! a add up to 180°!
DB 3.6
a b c
Sine rule: = =
sin A sin B sin C
Use this rule when you know:

2 angles and a side or 2 sides and an angle

(not between the angles) (not between the sides)

a
B B
a
b
A

Cosine rule: c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2 a b cos C

Use this rule when you know:

3 sides or 2 sides and the angle between them

a
c C
b
b
a

1
Area of a triangle: Area = a b sin C
2
Use this rule when you know:

2 sides and the angle between them or 3 sides

first you need to use cosine rule
a to find an angle
C
b c
b

40
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Basic trigonometry 5

4ABC : A = 40°, B = 73°, a = 27 cm.

.
Example

Find ∠C.
∠C = 180° − 40° − 73° = 67°

Find b.
a b
=
sin A sin B
27 b
=
sin 40° sin 73°
27
b= · sin 73° = 40.169 ≈ 40.2 cm
sin 40°

Find c.
c a
=
sin C sin A
27
c= × sin 67° = 38.7 cm
sin 40°

Find the area.

1
Area = · 27 · 40 · 2 · sin 67°
2
= 499.59 ≈ 500 cm2
.
Example

m z
6k
35° x
10 km

Find z .
z 2 = 62 + 102 − 2 · 6 · 10 · cos 35°
z 2 = 37.70
z = 6.14 km

Find ∠x.
6 6.14
=
sin x sin 35°
sin x = 0.56
x = sin−1 (0.56) = 55.91°

41
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Basic trigonometry

5.1.5 Three-figure bearings

000
N Three-figure bearings can be used
to indicate compass directions on
maps. They will be given as an
angle of a full circle, so between 000
270 W E 90
and 360. North is always marked
as 000. Any direction from there
can be expressed as the angle in the
S clockwise direction from North.
In questions on three-figure 180
bearings, you are often
confronted with quite a
.

SW: 45° between South and West = 225 N40°E: 40° East of North = 040
Example

lot of text, so it is a good

idea to first make a draw-
ing. You may also need N N
to create a right angle N40°E
triangle and use your ba-
sic trigonometry. 040
W E W E
45°
225
SW
S S

A ship left port A and sailed 20 km in the direction 120.

It then sailed north for 30 km to reach point C . How far from the port is the ship?

1. Draw a sketch C
N

120
W E
A θ
B
S

2. Find an internal angle of the triangle. θ = 180° − 120° = 60° = C

Similar angles between two parallel lines

3. Use cosine or sin rule. (here cosine)

AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2 − 2 · AB · BC · cos θ
AC 2 = 202 + 302 − 2 · 20 · 30 · cos 60°
1
AC 2 = 400 + 900 − 2 · 20 · 30 ·
p p2
AC = 400 + 900 − 600 = 700

42
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Circular functions 5

5.2 Circular functions

5.2.1 Unit circle

Unit circle
sine = 1 The unit circle is a circle with a
radius of 1 drawn from the origin
of a set of axes. The y-axis
α corresponds to sine and the x-axis
cosine = −1 cosine = 1 to cosine; so at the coordinate (0, 1)
it can be said that cosine = 0 and
sine = 1, just like in the sin x and
cos x graphs when plotted.
sine = −1

The unit circle is particularly useful to find all the solutions to a trigonometric equation
within a certain domain. As you can see from their graphs, functions with sin x, cos x or
tan x repeat themselves every given period; this is why they are also called circular
functions. As a result, for each y-value there is an infinite amount of x-values that could
give you this output. This is why questions will give you a set domain that limits the
range of x-values you should consider in your calculations or represent on your sketch
(e.g. 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°).
pos
iti
v
ea
ng

Relations between sin, cos and tan:

les

β • α and β have the same sine

α
• α and θ have the same cosine
θ
• β and θ have the same tangent
.

sin 30° = sin 150° cos 30° = cos 330° tan 150° = tan 330°
Example

150° 30° 150° 30° 150° 30°

β β
α α
θ θ

−30° −30° −30°

43
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Circular functions

Table 5.2: Angles to memorize

deg 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°

1 1 1 1 2 3 5
rad 0 π π π π π π π π
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
p p
1 1 3 3 1 1
sin θ 0 p 1 p 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
p p
3 1 1 1 1 3
cos θ 1 p 0 − −p − −1
2 2 2 2 2 2

1 p p 1
tan θ 0 p 1 3 ∞ − 3 −1 −p 0
3 3

5.2.2 Graphs: trigonometric functions

sin x tan x
y −90° 90°
90° 180° 270° 360° y
1

0 x

−1
π π 3π 2π
2 2
Domain: x ∈R x
Amplitude: −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
Period: 2nπ, n · 360°, with n ∈ Z

cos x
y
90° 180° 270° 360°
1
π π
-
2 2
0 x π
Domain: x ∈ R, x 6= + kπ,
2
−1 with k ∈ Z
π π 3π 2π Amplitude: −∞ < y < ∞
2 2 Period: nπ, n · 180°, with n ∈ Z
Domain: x ∈R
Amplitude: −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
Period: 2nπ, n · 360°, with n ∈ Z

44
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Circular functions 5

5.2.3 Transformations
Besides the transformations in the functions chapter, trigonometric functions have some
transformations with their own particular names. For a trigonometric function, the
vertical stretch on a graph is determined by its amplitude, the horizontal stretch by its
period and an upward/downward shift by its axis of oscillation.

A trigonometric function, given by y = a sin(b x + c) + d , has:

• an amplitude a;
360° 2π
• a period of or ;
b b
• a horizontal shift of +c to the left, in degrees or radians;

• vertical shift of +d upwards, oscillates around d .

.

Transformations of y = cos x.
Example

y 90° 180° 270° 360° y 90° 180° 270° 360°

2 2 y = 2 cos x
1 y = cos x 1
0 x 0 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
π π 3π 2π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2

y 90° 180° 270° 360° y 90° 180° 270° 360°

2 1 y = cos(4x) − 1
1 0 x
0 x
−1
−1 y = cos(x + 4) −2
−2 −3
π π 3π 2π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2

45
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Circular functions

5.2.4 Identities and equations

In order to solve trigonometric equations, you will sometimes need to use identities.
Identities allow you to rewrite your equation in a way that will make it easier to solve
DB 3.2 & 3.3 algebraically.

Trigonometric identity Popular rearrangement

sin θ sin θ
tan θ = cos θ =
cos θ tan θ
sin θ = cos θ × tan θ

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ

cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ

2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ cos 2θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ

cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1

Solving equations with trigonometric identities

Solve 2 cos2 x + sin x = 1, 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.

1. Identify which identity from the databook Here we could use either
to use. Note you are always aiming to get sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 or
an equation with just, sin, cos or tan. cos2 θ − sin2 θ = cos 2θ. We will use the
first so that we get an equation with just
sin.

2. Rearrange identity and substitute into cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ

equation.
2(1 − sin2 x) + sin x = 1
2 − 2 sin2 x + sin x = 1
−2 sin2 x + sin x + 1 = 0

3. Solve for x. Giving answers within the Substitue u for sin x :

2
stated range. Recognise that here the −2u + u + 1 = 0
eqauation looks like a quadratic equation. (−2u − 1)(u − 1) = 0
u = sin x ⇒ 1 x ⇒ 90°
u = sin x ⇒ −0.5 x ⇒ 210° or 330°

46
DIFFERENTIATION 6
Table of contents & cheatsheet

Definitions 6.2. Polynomials 48

Differentiation is a way to find the gradient of a function at any Product y = uv, then: y 0 = uv 0 + u 0 v
dy
point, written as f 0 (x), y 0 and . u v u 0 − uv 0
dx Quotient , then: y 0 =
y=
v v2
Tangent line to a point on a curve is a linear line with the same Chain y = g (u) where u = f (x), then:
gradient as that point on the curve. dy dy d u
= ·
dx du dx

6.4. Turning points 52

f (x)
6.3. Tangent and normal 51 y Local minumum
Local maximum
Tangent line with the same gradient as a point on a curve. Point of inflection

−1
Normal perpendicular to the tangent m =
slope of tangent
x
Both are linear lines with general formula: y = m x + c.

1. Use derivative to find gradient of the tangent. For normal

1
then do − . f 0 (x) f 00 (x)
slope of tangent
2. Input the x-value of the point into f (x) to find y. Local minimum 0 +
3. Input y, m and the x-value into y = m x + c to find c. Local maximum 0 −
Points of inflection 0

6.5. Sketching graphs 56

Gather information before sketching:
6.6. Applications 58
Kinematics
Intercepts x-intercept: f (x) = 0
y-intercept: f (0)
Derivative represents the rate of change, integra-
tion the reverse.
Turning points minima: f 0 (x) = 0and f 00 (x) < 0

maxima: f 0 (x) = 0 and f 00 (x) > 0

ds dv
point of inflection: f 00 (x) = 0 =v =a
dt dt
Asymptotes vertical: x-value when the function divides by 0
s v a
horizontal: y-value when x → ∞
displacement velocity acceleration

Plug the found x-values into f (x) to determine the y-values.

47
 DIFFERENTIATION Derivation from first principles

6.1 Derivation from first principles

As the derivative at a point is the gradient, differentiation can be compared to finding

y − y1
gradients of lines: m = 2 .
x2 − x1

Using the graph

f (x + h) x1 = x x2 = x + h
y1 = f (x) y2 = f (x + h)

f (x)

x x+h
h

Plugging into the equation of the gradient of a line

f (x + h) − f (x)
m=
x+h−x

Taking the limit of h going to zero, such that the distance between the points becomes
very small, one can approximate the gradient at a point of any funtion:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h

6.2 Polynomials

As you have learnt in the section on functions, a straight line graph has a gradient. This
gradient describes the rate at which the graph is changing and thanks to it we can tell
how steep the line will be. In fact gradients can be found for any function - the special
thing about linear functions is that their gradient is always the same (given by m
in y = m x + c). For polynomial functions the gradient is always changing. This is where
calculus comes in handy; we can use differentiation to derive a function using which we
can find the gradient for any value of x.

Using the following steps, you can find the derivative function ( f 0 (x)) for any
polynomial function ( f (x)).

48
DIFFERENTIATION Polynomials 6

Polynomial a mathematical expression or function that contains several

terms often raised to different powers

2 1
e.g. y = 3x 2 , y = 121x 5 + 7x 3 + x or y = 4x 3 + 2x 3

dy
Principles y = f (x) = a x n ⇒ = f 0 (x) = na x n−1 .
dx

The (original) function is described by y or f (x), the derivative

dy
(gradient) function is described by or f 0 (x).
dx

Derivative of a constant (number) 0

e.g. For f (x) = 5, f 0 (x) = 0

Derivative of a sum sum of derivatives.

If a function you are looking to differentiate is made up of several

summed parts, find the derivatives for each part separately and then
add them together again.

e.g. f (x) = a x n and g (x) = b x m

f 0 (x) + g 0 (x) = na x n−1 + m b x m−1

6.2.1 Rules

With more complicated functions, in which several functions are being multiplied or
divided by one another (rather than just added or substracted), you will need to use the
product or quotient rules. DB 6.2

Product rule

When functions are multiplied: y = u v

then: y 0 = uv 0 + u 0 v
dy dv du
which is the same as =u +v .
dx dx dx
e.g. y = x 2 cos x, then y 0 = x 2 (cos x)0 + (x 2 )0 cos x = −x 2 sin x + 2x cos x

49
 DIFFERENTIATION Polynomials

Quotient rule

u
When functions are divided: y =
v
v u0 − u v0
then: y 0 =
v2
du dv
v −u
dy dx dx .
which is the same as =
dx v2

x2 (x 2 )0 cos x − x 2 (cos x)0 2x cos x + x 2 sin x

e.g. y = , then y 0 = =
cos x (cos x)2 cos2 x

Chain rule

Function inside another function: y = g (u) where u = f (x)

dy dy du
then: = · .
dx du dx

Differentiating with the chain rule.

Let y = (cos x)2 , determine the derivative y 0

1. What is the outside function? What is the Inside function:u = cos x

2
inside function? Outside function: y = u

2. Find u 0 and y 0 du dy
u0 = = − sin x ; y0 = = 2u
dx du
3. Fill in formula dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
= 2u(− sin x)
= −2 sin x cos x

50
DIFFERENTIATION Tangent and normal equation 6

6.3 Tangent and normal equation

Tangent a straight line that touches a curve at one single point. At that
point, the gradient of the curve is equal to the gradient of the tangent.

Normal a straight line that is perpendicular to the tangent line:

−1
slope of normal =
slope of tangent

For any questions with tangent and/or normal lines, use the steps described in the
following example.

Finding the linear function of the tangent.

Let f (x) = x 3 . Find the equation of the tangent at x =2

1. Find the derivative and fill in value of x to f 0 (x) = 3x 2

determine slope of tangent Steps 1, 2 and 4 are
f 0 (2) = 3 · 22 = 12 identical for the equa-
tion of the tangent and
2. Determine the y value f (x) = 23 = 8 normal

3. Plug the slope m and the y value in 8 = 12x + c

y = mx + c

4. Fill in the value for x to find c 8 = 12(2) + c ⇒ c = −16

eq. of tangent: y = 12x − 16

Finding the linear function of the normal.

Let f (x) = x 3 . Find the equation of the normal at x =2

1. f 0 (2) = 12
Steps 1, 2 and 4 are iden-
2. f (x) = 8 tical for the equation of
the tangent and normal
3. Determine the slope of the normal −1
m=
−1 12
m= and plug it and the
slope tangent 1
8=− x+c
y -value into y = mx + c 12
4. Fill in the value for x to find c 1 49
8=− (2) + c ⇒ c =
12 6
1 49
eq. of normal: y = − x+
12 6

51
 DIFFERENTIATION Turning points

To find the gradient of a function for any value of x.

f (x) = 5x 3 − 2x 2 + x. Find the gradient of f (x) at x = 3.

IB ACADEMY IB ACADEMY IB ACADEMY

Enter the variable used in Type in your function

Press menu
your function (x) and the ≈

4: Calculus
value of x that you want to press enter
1: Numerical Derivative
find. Keep the settings on
at a Point
1st Derivative

Press OK

In this case, f 0 (3) = 124

6.4 Turning points

There are three types of turning points:

1. Local maxima

2. Local minima

3. Points of inflection

We know that when f 0 (x) = 0 there will be a maximum or a minimum. Whether it is a

maximum or minimum should be evident from looking at the graph of the original
function. If a graph is not available, we can find out by plugging in a slightly smaller and
slightly larger value than the point in question into f 0 (x). If the smaller value is negative
and the larger value positive then it is a local minimum. If the smaller value is positive
and the larger value negative then it is a local minimum.

If you take the derivative of a derivative function (one you have already derived) you get
the second derivate. In mathematical notation, the second derivative is written as y 00 ,
d2 y
f 00 (x) or . We can use this to determine whether a point on a graph is a maximum, a
dx 2
minimum or a point of inflection as demonstrated in the following Figure 6.1.

52
DIFFERENTIATION Turning points 6

Figure 6.1: Graph that shows a local maximum, a local minimum and points of inflection

f (x) y Local minumum

Notice how the points
Local maximum of inflection of f (x)
Point of inflection are minima and max-
ima in f 0 (x) and thus
equal 0 in f 00 (x)

f 0 (x) y f 0 (x) = 0
f 0 (x) = 0
f 0 (x) = anything but
is a local max/min of
f 0 (x)

f 00 (x) y f 00 (x) > 0 positive

f 00 (x) < 0 negative
f 00 (x) = 0

53
 DIFFERENTIATION Turning points

Finding turning points.

The function f (x) = x 3 + x 2 − 5x − 5 is shown. Use the first and second derivative to
find turning points: the minima, maxima and points of inflection (POI).

2.5

−5 −2.5 2.5 5
−2.5

−5

−7.5

1. Find the first and second derivative. f 0 (x) = 3x 2 + 2x − 5

f 00 (x) = 6x + 2

2. Find xmin and xmax by setting f 0 (x) = 0. 3x 2 + 2x − 5 = 0

5
GDC yields: x = 1 or x = −
3
3. Find y -coordinates by inserting the f (1) = (1)3 + (1)2 − 5(1) − 5 = −8,
x -value(s) into the original f (x). so xmin at (1, −8).
 ‹  ‹3  ‹2
5 5 5
f − = − + −
3 3 3
5
 ‹
−5 − − 5 = 1.48(3 s.f.),
3‹
5

so xmax at − , 1.48 .
3
4. Find POI by setting f 00 (x) = 0 6x + 2 = 0
 ‹  ‹3  ‹2
5. Then enter values of x into original 1 1 1 1
 ‹
function to find coordinates
f − = − + − −5 − −5
3 3 3 3
y = −3.26 (3 s.f.)
1
 ‹
so POI at − , −3.26
3

54
DIFFERENTIATION Turning points 6

To find turning points (local maximum/minimum) of a function

Find the coordinates of the local minimum for f (x) = 4x 2 − 5x + 3

IB ACADEMY IB ACADEMY IB ACADEMY

Use the cursor to set the So the coordinates of the

Press menu
bounds (the min/max minimum for f (x) are
6: Analyze graph
must be between the (0.625, 1.44)
or 2: Minimum
bounds)
or 3: Maximum

55
 DIFFERENTIATION Sketching graphs

6.5 Sketching graphs

When sketching a graph, you will need the following information:

1. Intercepts,

2. Turning points (maximums, minimums and inflection points) and

3. Asymptotes

Sketching a function.

x2
Sketch the function f (x) =
x 2 − 16
1. Note down all information:

1. Intercepts: 1. y -intercept when x = 0:

• y -intercept: f (0) 02
• x -intercept: f (x) = 0 f (0) = = 0 (0, 0)
02 − 16
x2
f (x) = =0 x =0 (same)
x 2 − 16
This is the only x -intercept.

−32x
2. Turning points: 2. Turning point: f 0 (x) = ,
• min/max: f 0 (x) = 0 x 2 − 162
x = 0 (0, 0) (Found with quotient rule).
• inflection: f 00 (x) = 0
f 0 = 0 when x = 0.

3. Asymptotes: 3. Vertical asymptotes when

• vertical: denominator = 0, x = −b , x 2 − 16 = 0, so x = 4 and x = −4.
log(x + b )
for
Horizontal asymptote:
• horizontal: lim , y = c , for x2
x→∞ or
x→−∞ lim f (x) = = 1, so y =1
ax + c x→∞ x2

To find the y -coordinate, input the

x -value into the original f (x).

56
DIFFERENTIATION Sketching graphs 6

2. Mark out information on axis Clearly indicate them to guarantee marks

vertical asymptotes

x = −4
f (x) x =4

horizontal
asymptote y =1
1
−4 0 4 x
x and y intercept,
turning point

3. Think about where your lines are coming f (x)

from

1
−4 0 4 x

4. Join the dots f (x)

57
 DIFFERENTIATION Applications

6.6 Applications

6.6.1 Kinematics

Kinematics deals with the movement of bodies over time. When you are given one
function to calculate displacement, velocity or acceleration you can use differentiation or
integration to determine the functions for the other two.

Displacement, s
ds
Z
v dt
dt ds
Velocity, v =
dt
dv
Z
a dt
dt Acceleration,
dv d2 s
a= =
dt dt 2

The derivative represents the rate of change, i.e. the gradient of a graph. So, velocity is
the rate of change in displacement and acceleration is the rate of change in velocity.

Answering kinematics questions.

A diver jumps from a platform at time t = 0 seconds. The distance of the diver above
2
water level at time t is given by s (t ) = −4.9t + 4.9t + 10, where s is in metres.
Find when velocity equals zero. Hence find the maximum height of the diver.

1. Find an equation for velocity by v(t ) = −9.8t + 4.9

differentiating equation for distance

2. Solve for v(t ) = 0 −9.8t + 4.9 = 0, t = 0.5

3. Put value into equation for distance to s (0.5) = −4.9(0.5)2 + 4.9(0.5) + 10 =

find height above water 11.225 m

58
DIFFERENTIATION Applications 6

6.6.2 Optimization

We can use differentiation to find minimum and maximum areas/volumes of various

shapes. Often the key skill with these questions is to find an expression using simple
geometric formulas and rearranging in order to differentiate.

Finding the min/max area or volume

The sum of height and base of a triangle is 40 cm. Find an expression for its area in
terms of x , its base length. Hence find its maximum area.

1. Find expressions for relevant dimensions length of the base ( b ) = x

of the shape height + base = 40
so h + x = 40
1
area of triangle A = x h
2
2. Reduce the number of variables by h = 40 − x , substitute h into A:
Since
solving the simultaneous equations 1 1
A = x(40 − x) = − x 2 + 20x
2 2
3. Differentiate f 0 (x) = −x + 20

4. Find x when f 0 (x) = 0 −x + 20 = 0 ⇒ x = 20

5. Plug x value in f (x) 1

− 202 + 20(20) = −200 + 400 = 200 cm2
2

If an expression is given in the problem, skip to step 2 (e.g. cost/profit problems).

59
 DIFFERENTIATION Applications

60
INTEGRATION 7
Table of contents & cheatsheet

7.1. Indefinite integral 62

Integration with an internal function
Z
f (ax + b ) dx

1
x n+1 Integrate normally and multiply by
Z
n coefficient of x
x dx = +C n 6= −1
n +1
Integration by substitution
Z
f g (x) · g 0 (x) dx

7.2. Definite integral 64

Be careful, the order you substitute a and b into the
Z b Z indefinite integral is relevant for your answer:
f (x) dx = F (b ) − F (a) where F= f (x) dx Z b Z a
a
f (x) dx = − f (x) dx
a b

Area between a curve and the x-axis

By determining a definite integral for a function, you can find Note: the area below the x-axis gives a negative value
the area beneath the curve that is between the two x-values for its area. You must take that value as a positive value
indicated as its limits. to determine the area between a curve and the x-axis.
y f (x) Sketching the graph will show what part of the function
Z b lies below the x-axis.
Acurve = f (x) dx
a a b x

Area between two curves

Using definite integrals you can also find the areas enclosed With g (x) as the “top” function (furthest from the x-
between curves. axis). For the area between curves, it does not matter
y what is above/below the x-axis.
Zb f (x)
Abetween = g (x) − f (x) dx


a a x
b g (x)

Volume of revolution

Besides finding areas under and between curves, integra-

b b
tion can also be used to calculate the volume of the solid
Z Z
2 2
V =π y dx = πy dx
a a
that a curve would make if it were rotated 360° around
its axis - this is called the volume of revolution.

61
 INTEGRATION Indefinite integral and boundary condition

7.1 Indefinite integral and boundary

condition

Integration is essentially the opposite of derivation. The following equation shows how
to integrate a function:

x n+1
Z
x n dx = +C, n 6= −1
n +1

As you can see, every time you integrate the power on your variable will increase by 1
(this is opposite of what happens when you derive, then it always decreases). Whenever
you integrate you also always add +C to this function. This accounts for any constant
that may have been lost while deriving. As you may have noticed, whenever you do
derivation any constants that were in the original function, f (x), become 0 in the
derivative function, f 0 (x). In order to determine the value of C , you need to fill in a
point that lies on the curve to set up an equation in which you can solve for C .
(Note: this is the same thing you need to do when finding the y-intercept, C , for a linear
function – see Functions: Linear functions).

Standard integration.

Let f 0 (x) = 12x 2 − 2

Given that f (−1) = 1, find f (x).

Z Z Z
1. Separate summed parts 2 2
(optional)
12x − 2 dx = 12x dx + −2 dx

Z Z
2. Integrate 2
f (x) = 12x dx + −2 dx =
12 3
x − 2x + C
3
3. Fill in values of x and f (x) to find C Since f (−1) = 1,
3
4(−1) − 2(−1) + C = 1
C =3

So: f (x) = 4x 3 − 2x + 3

62
 INTEGRATION Indefinite integral and boundary condition 7

7.1.1 Integration with an internal function

1
Z
f (ax + b ) dx integrate normally and multiply by
coefficient of x
.

Find the following integrals:

Example

Z Z
e3x−4 dx cos(5x − 2) dx

Coefficient of x = 3, so Coefficient of x = 5, so
R 3x−4 1 1
e dx = e3x−4 + C cos(5x − 2) dx = sin(5x − 2) + C
R
3 5

7.1.2 Integration by substitution

Z
f g (x) · g 0 (x) dx

Integration by substitution: usually these questions will be the most

complicated-looking integrals you will have to solve. So if an integration question looks
complicated, try to look for a function and its derivative inside the function you are
looking to integrate; it is likely to be a question where you have to use the substitution
method! Study the example to see how it’s done.

Integrate by substitution
Z
3
Find 3x 2 e x dx

1. Identify the inside function u , this is the g (x) = u = x 3

function whose derivative is also inside
f (x).

2. du du
Find the derivative u0 = = 3x 2
dx dx
du u du
Z Z
3.
Substitute u and into the integral e dx = e u du = e u + C
dx dx
(this way dx cancels out)

u x
Z
4. Substitute back to get a function with 3
eu + C = ex + C

63
 INTEGRATION Definite integral

7.2 Definite integral

If there are limit values indicated on your integral, you are looking to find a definite
integral. This means that these values will be used to find a numeric answer rather than a
function.

This is done in the following way, where the values for a and b are substituted as x-values
into your indefinite integral:

Z b Z
f (x) dx = F (b ) − F (a) where F= f (x) dx
a

Be careful, the order you substitute a and b into the indefinite integral is relevant for
your answer:
Zb Za
f (x) dx = − f (x) dx
a b

Solving definite integrals.

Z 7
Find 12x 2 − 2 dx , knowing that F (x) = 4x 3 − 2x
3

1. Find the indefinite integral

Z 7 —7
12x 2 − 2 dx = 4x 3 − 2x
”
(without +C ) 3
3

F (b ) − F (a) = 4(7)3 − 2(7) − 4(3)3 − 2(3)

” — ” —
2. Fill in:
(integral x = b ) − (integral x = a)
= 1256

64
INTEGRATION Definite integral 7

7.2.1 Area

Area between a curve and the x -axis

y
By determining a definite integral for a DB 6.5
function, you can find the area beneath
f (x)
the curve that is between the two
x-values indicated as its limits.
a b x
Z b
Acurve = f (x) dx
a

Note: the area below the x-axis gives a

negative value for its area. You must
y take that value as a positive value to
determine the area between a curve and
the x-axis. Sketching the graph will
f (x) show what part of the function lies
c below the x-axis. So
a b x Zb  c
Z 

Acurve = f (x) dx +  f (x) dx 
 
a b
 

or
Z c
Acurve =  f (x) dx
 
a

Area between two curves

y Using definite integrals you can also

find the areas enclosed between curves:
f (x)
Zb
Abetween = g (x) − f (x) dx


a

With g (x) as the “top” function

a b x (furthest from the x-axis). For the area
between curves, it does not matter what
g (x) is above/below the x-axis.

65
 INTEGRATION Definite integral

Finding areas with definite integrals.

Let y = x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x
Find the area from x = 0 to x = 3.

1. Find the x -intercepts: f (x) = 0 x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x = 0, using the GDC:

x = 0 or x = 1 or x = 3

2. If any of the x -intercepts lie within the y

range, sketch the function to see which
parts lie above and below the x -axis. 1

1 2 3 x
−1
−2

3. Setup integrals and integrate

Z 1
Left: x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x dx =
0
˜1
1 4 3
•
= x4 − x3 + x2
4 3 2 0
1 4 3
 ‹
= − + − (0)
4 3 2
5
=
12

Z 3
Right: x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x dx =
1
1 4 4 3 3 2 3
• ˜
= x − x + x
4 3 2 1
1 4 4 3 3 2
 ‹
= (3) − (3) + (3)
4 3 2
1 4 4 3 3 2
 ‹
− (1) − (1) + (1)
4 3 2
8
=−
3

4. Add up the areas (and remember areas 5 8 37

+ =
are never negative!) 12 3 12

66
INTEGRATION Definite integral 7

Alternatively, use the calculator to find areas

Z 3
Calculate the area between x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x and the x-axis
0

IB ACADEMY IB ACADEMY IB ACADEMY

Enter the boundaries and Enter the function and

Press menu
before putting the place the variable
4: Calculus
function. (usually x) after d
2: Numerical integral ∞β ◦

Press , choose
‘abs(’

In this case, the area is 3.083

7.2.2 Volume of revolution

Besides finding areas under and between curves, integration can also be used to calculate
the volume of the solid that a curve would make if it were rotated 360° around its axis
— this is called the volume of revolution. DB 6.5

Z b Z b
2
V =π y dx ≡ V= πy 2 dx
a a

y y

f (x)

a b x a b x

rotate around x-axis

67
 INTEGRATION Definite integral

.
Find the area from x = 1 to x = 4 for the function y =
Example
x.
4p ˜4
2 3 2 3 2 3 14
Z • • ˜ • ˜
A= x dx = x 2 = (4) − (1) =
2 2
1 3 1 3 3 3

This area is rotated 360° (= 2π) around the x-axis. Find the volume of the solid.
4p 4 ˜4
1 1 2 1 2 15π
Z Z • • ˜ • ˜
2
V =π x dx = π x dx = π x 2 =π (4) − (1) =
1 1 2 1 2 2 2

68
PROBABILITY 8
Table of contents & cheatsheet

Definitions 8.1. Single events 70

Sample space the list of all possible outcomes. A B

Event the outcomes that meet the requirement.
Number of ways A can happen
Probability for event A, P (A) = .
all outcomes in the sample space

8.2. Multiple events 72

Probabilities for successive events can be expressed through tree diagrams.
In general, if you are dealing with a question that asks for the probability of:
• one event and another, you multiply
• one event or another, you add

Conditional probability used for successive events that come one after another (as in tree diagrams).

P (A ∩ B)
The probability of A, given that B has happened: P (A|B) = .
P (B)

8.3. Distributions 74
Expected values
X
E(X ) = x P (X = x)
On calculator:
Binomial distribution with parameters n and p it should
be used for situations with only 2 outcomes and lots of • Binompdf(n,p,r) P (X = r )
trials • Binomcdf(n,p,r) P (x ≤ r )
n r
 

n−r
P (X = x) = p 1− p • Mean np
r
• Varience npq
n n!
 
where = nCr = , n = number of trials,
r r !(n − r )!
p = probability of success, r = number of success.

total area under the curve = 1

mean St. dv. x 0 1 z

x −µ
Notation: X ∼ N (µ, σ 2 ) Transform to standardised normal distribution: Z =
σ
On calculator: normal cdf (lower bound, upper bound, mean (= µ), standard deviation (= σ))

69
 PROBABILITY Single events (Venn diagrams)

8.1 Single events (Venn diagrams)

Probability for single events can be expressed through venn diagrams.

Sample space the list of all possible outcomes.

Event the outcomes that meet the require-
A B ment.
Probability for event A,

Number of ways A can happen

0 P (A) =
all outcomes in the sample space

Here the shaded circle.

Imagine I have a fruit bowl containing 6 apples and 4 bananas.

.

I pick a piece of fruit.

Example

What is the probability of picking each fruit?

Apple = 0.6 Banana = 0.4

In independent events As apples cannot be bananas this is mutually exclusive, therefore P (A∪ B) = P (A) + P (B)
P (A∩B) = P (A)×P (B).
It will often be stated in
and P (A ∩ B) = 0. It is also an exhaustive event as there is no other options apart from
questions if events are apples and bananas. If I bought some oranges the same diagram would then be not
independent. exhaustive (oranges will lie in the Sample Space).
.

Of the apples 2 are red, 2 are green and 2 are yellow.

Example

What is the probability of picking a yellow apple?

Yellow apples
A B
A: apples

B: yellow fruit

70
 PROBABILITY Single events (Venn diagrams) 8

This is not mutually exclusive as both apples and bananas are yellow fruits. Here we are
interested in the intersect P (A ∩ B) of apples and yellow fruit, as a yellow apple is in both
sets P (A ∩ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∪ B).

What is the probability of picking an apple or a yellow fruit?

.
Example

A B
A: apples

B: yellow fruit

This is a union of two sets: apple and yellow fruit.

When an event is exhaus-
tive the probability of the
The union of events A and B is: union is 1.

• when A happens;
• when B happens;
• when both A and B happen P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B).

What is the probability of not picking a yellow fruit?

.
Example

A B
A: apples

B: yellow fruit

This is known as the compliment of B or B 0 . B 0 = 1 − B.

Here we are interested in everything but the yellow fruit.

What is the probability of picking an apple given I pick a yellow fruit?

.
Example

Yellow apples
A B
A: apples

B: yellow fruit

71
 PROBABILITY Multiple events (tree Diagrams)

This is “conditional” probability in a single event. Do not use the formula in the
0.2 1
formula booklet. Here we are effectively narrowing the sample space = = .
(0.2 + 0.4) 3

You can think of it like removing the non yellow apples from the fruit bowl before
choosing.

P (A ∩ B)
Conditional probability P (A|B) = .
P (B)

8.2 Multiple events (tree Diagrams)

Dependent events two events are dependent if the outcome of event A

affects the outcome of event B so that the probability is changed.
Questions involving
dependent events will
often involve elements
that are drawn “without Independent events two events are independent if the fact that A occurs
replacement”. does not affect the probability of B occurring.
Remember that the
probabilities will be
changing with each new Conditional probability used for successive events that come one after
set of branches. another (as in tree diagrams). The probability of A, given that B has
P (A ∩ B)
happened: P (A|B) = .
P (B)

Probabilities for successive events can be expressed through tree diagrams. In general, if
you are dealing with a question that asks for the probability of:

• one event and another, you multiply

• one event or another, you add

72
. PROBABILITY Multiple events (tree Diagrams) 8

Two disks are randomly drawn without replacement from a stack of 4 red and 5
Example

blue disks. Draw a tree diagram for all outcomes.

The probability of drawingtwo red‹ disks can be found by multiplying both

4 3
probabilities of getting red × .
9 8

1st draw 2nd draw The probabilities for

each event should
3 4 3 12 always add up to 1. The
8 R R and R: × = probabilities describing
9 8 72 all the possible
4 R outcomes should also
equal 1 (that is, the
9 5 4 5 20 probabilities that we
B R and B: × =
8 9 8 72 found by multiplying
along the individual
branches).
4 5 4 20
8 R B and R: × =
5 9 8 72
9 B
4 5 4 20
B B and B: × =
8 9 8 72

What is the probability to draw one red and one blue disk?
P (one red and one blue)
P (R) and P (B) or P (B) and P (R)

P (R) × P (B) P (B) × P (R)

It is common for condi-
20 20 40 5 tional probability questions
+ = =
72 72 72 9 to relate to previous an-
swers.
What is the probability to draw at least one red disk?
P (at least one red)
P (R and R) + P (B and R) + P (R and B) = 1 − P (B and B)
12 20 20 20 52 13
+ + = 1− = =
72 72 72 72 72 18

What is the probability of picking a blue disc given that at least one red disk is
picked?
5
P (a blue disk) 10
P (blue disk | at least one red disk) = = 9 =
P (at least one red disk) 13 13
18

Another way of dealing with multiple events is with a sample space diagram or a
probability distribution.

73
 PROBABILITY Distributions

Probability distributions.

A fair coin is tossed twice, X is the number of heads obtained.

1. Draw a sample space diagram H T

H H, H H, T
T T, H T, T

2. Tabulate the probability distribution

x 0 1 2
1 1 1
P (X = x)
4 2 4

(The sum of P (X = x) always equals 1)

X : E(X )
X
3. Find the expected value of E(X ) = xP (X = x)
1 1 1
=0· +1· +2· =1
4 2 4
So if you toss a coin twice, you expect to
get heads once.

8.3 Distributions

Probability distribution a list of each possible value and their respective

probabilities.

8.3.1 Distribution by function

A probability distribution can also be given by a function.

Probability distribution by function.

 ‹ x−1
1
P (X = x) = k for x = 1, 2, 3. Find constant k.
3
 ‹1−1  ‹2−1  ‹3−1
1 1 1
X
1. Use the fact that P (X = x) = 1
k +k +k =1
3 3 3
2. Simplify and solve for k 1 1 13 9
k + k + k = k = 1. So, k= .
3 9 9 13

74
PROBABILITY Distributions 8

8.3.2 Binomial distribution

Binomial distribution with parameters n and p it should be used for

situations with only 2 outcomes and lots of trials
n n!
 
where = nCr =
r r !(n − r )!
n r n = number of trials
 
n−r
P (X = x) = p 1− p


r p = probability of success
r = number of success

8.3.3 Normal distribution

A normal distribution is one type of probability distribution which gives a bell-shape

curve if all the values and their corresponding probabilities are plotted.

We can use normal distributions to find the probability of obtaining a certain value or a
range of values. This can be found using the area under the curve; the area under the
bell-curve between two x-values always corresponds to the probability for getting an
x-value in this range. The total area under the normal distribution is always 1; this is
because the total probability of getting any x-value adds up to 1 (or, in other words, you
are 100% certain that your x-value will lie somewhere on the x-axis below the bell-curve).

total area under the curve = 1

mean St. dv. x 0 1 z

Even though you will be

using your GDC to find
probabilities for normal
Notation: X ∼ N (µ, σ 2 ) distributions, it’s always
very useful to draw a di-
x −µ
Transform to standard N: Z = agram to indicate for your-
σ self (and the examiner)
what area or x -value you
On calculator: normal cdf (lower bound, upper bound, mean (= µ), standard are looking for.
deviation (= σ))

75
 PROBABILITY Distributions

Finding mean and standard deviation of a normal distribution.

All nails longer than 2.4 cm (5.5%) and shorter than 1.8 cm (8%) are rejected. What is
the mean and standard deviation length?

1. Write down equations P (L < 1.8) = 0.08

P (L > 2.4) = 0.055

2. Draw a sketch!

1.8 2.4 x

1.8 − µ
‚ Œ
3. Write standardized equation of the form
P (Z < . . .) P Z< = 0.08
σ
2.4 − µ
‚ Œ
P Z> = 0.055
σ
2.4 − µ
‚ Œ
P Z< = 1 − 0.055 = 0.945
σ

4. Use “inVnorm” on calculator inVnorm (0.08, 0, 1) = −1.4051

inVnorm (0.945, 0, 1) = 1.5982

1.8 − µ

5. Equate and solve 
 = −1.4051
σ

2.4 − µ

 = 1.5982
σ


µ = 2.08


σ = 0.200

76
PROBABILITY Distributions 8

To find a probability or percentage of a whole (the area under a

normal distribution curve)

The weights of pears are normally distributed with mean = 110 g and
standard deviation = 8 g.
Find the percentage of pears that weigh between 100 g and 130 g

Sketch!
Indicate:
• The mean = 110 g
• Lower bound = 100 g
• Upper bound = 130 g
• And shade the area you are looking to
find.

100 110 130 weight (g)

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Enter lower and upper Press OK

Press menu , choose
boundaries, mean (µ) and
5: Probability
standard deviation (σ).
5: Distributions
For lower bound = −∞,
2: Normal Cdf
set lower: -1E99
For upper bound = ∞,
set upper: 1E99

So 88.8% of the pears weigh between 100 g and 130 g.

77
 PROBABILITY Distributions

To find an x -value when the probability is given

The weights of pears are normally distributed with mean = 110 g and
standard deviation = 8 g. 8% of the pears weigh more than m grams. Find m.

Sketch!

8% = 0.08

110 m weight (g)

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Enter probability (Area), Press OK

Press menu
mean (µ) and standard
5: Probability
deviation (σ).
5: Distributions
The calculator assumes the
3: Inverse Normal
area is to the left of the
x-value you are looking
for.
So in this case:
area = 1 − 0.08 = 0.92

So m = 121, which means that 8% of the pears weigh more than 121 g.

78
STATISTICS 9
Table of contents & cheatsheet

Definitions 9.2. Statistical graphs 82

Population the entire group from which statistical data is Frequency the number of times an event occurs in an
drawn (and which the statistics obtained represent). experiment
Sample the observations actually selected from the popu- Cumulative frequency the sum of the frequency for a
lation for a statistical test. particular class and the frequencies for all the classes
Random Sample a sample that is selected from the below it
population with no bias or criteria; the observations Histogram Cumulative frequency
are made at random.
Discrete finite or countable number of possible values
(e.g. money, number of people)
Continuous infinite amount of increments
(e.g. time, weight)
Note: continuous data can be presented as discrete data,
e.g. if you round time to the nearest minute or weight to Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Box and whisker plot
the nearest kilogram.

9.1. Descriptive statistics 80 lowest value highest value

Q1 Q3
Mean the average value, mean, Q2
the sum of the data
x̄ =
no. of data points
Mode the value that occurs most often 9.3. Bi-variate analysis 86
Median when the data set is ordered low to high and the
number of data points is: Interpretation of r -values Scatter diagrams
• odd, then the median is the middle value; r -value correlation Perfect positive
y
• even, then the median is the average of the two 0.00 ≤ |r | ≤ 0.25 very weak
middle values. 0.25 ≤ |r | ≤ 0.50 weak
Range largest x-value − smallest x-value 0.50 ≤ |r | ≤ 0.75 moderate
0.75 ≤ |r | ≤ 1.00 strong
f (x − x̄ 2 )
P
2
Variance σ = calculator only
n x
p Correlation does not mean
Standard deviation σ = variance calculator only No correlation
causation. y
Grouped data: data presented as an interval.
Use the midpoint as the x-value in all calculations.
Q1 first quartile = 25th percentile.
Q2 median = 50th percentile x
Q3 third quartile = 75th percentile
Weak negative
Q3 − Q1 interquartile range (IQR) = middle 50 percent
y

79
 STATISTICS Descriptive statistics

9.1 Descriptive statistics

The mean, mode and median, are all ways of measuring “averages”. Depending on the
distribution of the data, the values for the mean, mode and median can differ slightly or a
lot. Therefore, the mean, mode and median are all useful for understanding your data set.

x 3 6 7 13
Example data set: 6, 3, 6, 13, 7, 7 in a table:
frequency 1 2 2 1

the sum of the data x fx

P P
Mean the average value, x̄ = = = P
no. of data points n f
3 + 6 + 6 + 7 + 7 + 13 1 · 3 + 2 · 6 + 2 · 7 + 1 · 13
e.g. x̄ = = =7
6 1+2+2+1

Mode the value that occurs most often (highest frequency)

e.g. The example data set has 2 modes: 6 and 7

Median the middle value when the data set is ordered low to high. Even
number of values: the median is the average of the two middle values.
1
Find for larger values as n + .
2
e.g. data set from low to high: 3, 6, 6, 7, 7, 13
6+7
median = = 6.5
2

Range largest x-value − smallest x-value

e.g. range = 13 − 3 = 10

f (x − x̄ 2 )
P
Variance σ 2 = calculator only
n
p
Standard deviation σ= variance calculator only

Note on grouped data: data presented as an interval; e.g. 10–20 cm.

• Use the midpoint as the x-value in all calculations. So for 10–20 cm use
15 cm.

• For 10–20 cm, 10 is the lower boundary, 20 is the upper boundary and
the width is 20 − 10 = 10.

80
 STATISTICS Descriptive statistics 9

Adding a constant to all the values in a data set or multiplying the entire data set by a
constant influences the mean and standard deviation values in the following way:

Table 9.1: Adding or multiplying by a constant

adding constant k multiplying by k

mean x̄ + k k × x̄
standard deviation σ k ×σ

Q1 first quartile = 25th percentile.

The value for x so that 25% of all the data values are ≤ to it.

Q2 median = 50th percentile

Q3 third quartile = 75th percentile

Q3 − Q1 interquartile range (IQR) = middle 50 percent

.

Snow depth is measured in centimeters:

Example

30, 75, 125, 55, 60, 75, 65, 65, 45, 120, 70, 110.
Find the range, the median, the lower quartile, the upper quartile and the
interquartile range.

First always rearrange data into ascending order: 30, 45, 55, 60, 65, 65, 70, 75, 75, 110, 120, 125

1. The range:
125 − 30 = 95 cm
2. The median: there are 12 values so the median is between the 6th and 7th value.

65 + 70
= 67.5 cm
2
3. The lower quartile: there are 12 values so the lower quartile is between the 3rd
and 4th value.
55 + 60
= 57.5 cm
2
4. The upper quartile: there are 12 values so the lower quartile is between the 9th
and 10th value.
75 + 110
= 92.5 cm
2
5. The IQR
92.5 − 57.5 = 35 cm

81
 STATISTICS Statistical graphs

9.2 Statistical graphs

Frequency the number of times an event occurs in an experiment

Cumulative frequency the sum of the frequency for a particular class and
the frequencies for all the classes below it

Age 17 18 19 20 21
No. of students 21 45 93 61 20
Cumulative freq. 21 66 159 220 240

f
100
90 A histogram is used to display the frequency for a specific
80
70 condition. The frequencies (here: # of students) are
60 displayed on the y-axis, and the different classes of the
50
40 sample (here: age) are displayed on the x-axis. As such,
30 the differences in frequency between the different classes
20 assumed in the sample can easily be compared.
10
17 18 19 20 21 Age

cf
250 The cumulative frequency graph is used to display the
development of the frequencies as the classes of the event
200 increase. The graph is plotted by using the sum of all
frequencies for a particular class, added to the frequencies
150
for all the classes below it. The classes of the event (age)
100 are displayed on the x-axis, and the frequency is
displayed on the y-axis. The cumulative frequency graph
50 always goes upwards, because the cumulative frequency
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
increases as you include more classes.

17 18 19 20 21 Age

Box and whisker plots neatly summarize

the distribution of the data. It gives
information about the range, the median
and the quartiles of the data. The first
and third quartiles are at the ends of the
lowest value highest value box, the median is indicated with a
Q1 Q2 Q3 vertical line in the interior of the box,
and the maximum and minimum points
are at the ends of the whiskers.

82
 STATISTICS Statistical graphs 9

Outliers will be any points lower than Q1 − 1.5 × IQR and larger than
Q3 + 1.5 × IQR (IQR =interquartile range)

To identify the value of Q1 , Q2 and Q3 , it is easiest to use the cumulative frequency

graph. First, determine the percentage of the quartile in question. Second, divide the
total cumulative frequency of the graph (i.e. the total sample size) by 100 and multiply by
the corresponding percentage. Then, you will have found the frequency (y-value) at
which 25% for Q1 / 50% for Q2 / 75% for Q3 of the sample is represented. To find the
x-value, find the corresponding x-value for the previously identified y-value.
.

Using the histogram, create a cumulative frequency graph and use it to

Example

construct a box and whisker diagram.

12

10
Length (cm)

20 40 60 80 100 120
Number of fish

Write out the table for frequency and cumulative frequency.

Frequency of fish 20–30 30–40 40–50 50–60 60–70 70–80 80–90 90–100 100–110 110–120
Length of fish 2 3 5 7 11 5 6 9 1 1
Cumulative f. 2 5 10 17 28 33 39 48 49 50

83
 STATISTICS Statistical graphs

Plot on cumulative frequency chart. Remember to use the midpoint of the date, e.g.,

.
Example
25 for 20–30.

55
50
45
Cumulative frequency

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5

0 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115
Frequency of fish

Use graph to find Q1 , Q2 and Q3 .

55
50
45
Cumulative frequency

40
35
30 Q1 25% of 50 = 12.5 → 48
25 Q2 50% of 50 = 25 → 62
20
15 Q3 75% of 50 = 37.5 → 83
10
5
Q1 Q2 Q3

0 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115
Frequency of fish

Plot box and whiskers.

20 48 62 83 120

84
STATISTICS Statistical graphs 9

GDC

To find mean, standard deviation and quartiles etc.

For the data used in the previous example showing the ages of students

IB ACADEMY IB ACADEMY IB ACADEMY

off

1: One-Variable Statistics
Press on , go to Press menu , choose
Lists and Spreadsheets. 4: Statistics
Enter x-values in L1 and, 1: Stat Calculations
if applicable, frequencies
in L2
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Enter Num of lists: 1. Enter names of columns mean = 19.06;

Press OK you used to enter your standard deviation = 1.06
x-list and frequency list etc.
and column where you
would like the solutions to
appear: a[], b[] and c[].
Press OK

85
 STATISTICS Bi-variate analysis

9.3 Bi-variate analysis

Bi-variate analysis is a method of assessing how two (bi) sets of data (variables) correlate
to one another. We use Pearson’s correlation to put a number to this relationship

Pearson’s correlation r is a measure to assess the linear correlation between

two variables, where 1 is total positive correlation, 0 is no correlation,
and −1 is total negative correlation.

Interpretation of r -values:
r -value 0 ≤ |r | ≤ 0.25 0.25 ≤ |r | ≤ 0.50 0.50 ≤ |r | ≤ 0.75 0.75 ≤ |r | ≤ 1
correlation very weak weak moderate strong

Scatter diagrams

Perfect positive correlation r = 1

y

However it is important to
remember this maxim:
Correlation does not mean
x causation.

No correlation r = 0
y Just because two variables have a
relationship it does not mean they
cause one another. For example Ice
cream sales show a strong
correlation to the number deaths
by drowning. Therefore we might
falsely state ice cream consumption
x causes drowning. But it is more
Weak negative correlation plausible that both are caused by
−0.5 < r < −0.25 warm weather leading to more
y desire for ice cream and swimming
and are just correlated.

86
STATISTICS Bi-variate analysis 9

Using GDC

Calculate by finding the regression equation on your GDC: make sure STAT DIAGNOSTICS
is turned ON (can be found when pressing MODE).

Bivariate statistics can also be used to predict a mathematical model that would best
describe the relationship between the two measured variables; this is called regression.
Here you will only have to focus on linear relationships, so only straight line graphs and
equations.

Your ‘comment’ on Pearson’s correlation always has to include two things:

1. Positive / negative and

2. Stong / moderate / weak / very weak

Find Pearson’s correlation r and comment on it

The height of a plant was measured the first 8 weeks

Week x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Height (cm) y 23.5 25 26.5 27 28.5 31.5 34.5 36 37.5

1. Plot a scatter diagram

mean point

2. Use the mean point to draw a best fit line 0 + 1 + 2 + ... + 8

x̄ = = 3.56
9
23.5 + 25 + . . . + 37.5
ȳ = = 30
9

87
 STATISTICS Bi-variate analysis

3. Find the equation of the regression line y = 1.83x + 22.7

Using GDC

IB ACADEMY IB ACADEMY IB ACADEMY

off

Press , got to Enter

on
Press menu
X list: A [];
“Lists and 4: Statistics
Y list: B[];
Spreadsheets” 1: Stat Calculations
1st Result Column: C[]
3: Linear Regression (mx+b)
Enter x-values in one
column (e.g A) and Press OK

y-values in another
column (e.g. B)
IB ACADEMY

So, equation of regression

line is y = 1.83x + 22.7
and Pearson’s correlation
(r -value) = 0.986
4. Comment on the result. Pearson’s correlation is r = 0.986, which
is a strong positive correlation.

88