VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOE SEPARATION

Skin Friction – Air resistance and it is the tangential component of force on the surface
of a body due to the friction between the two particles.

Stream line and Turbulent flow – A stream line flow may be defined as a smooth non
turbulent flow. A turbulent flow is defined as a flow characterized by turbulence, that is,
a flow in which the velocity varies erratically in both magnitude and direction with time.

Laminar flow – The word laminar is derived from the latin word “lamina” meaning a
thin plate of metal or some other material. Laminar flows employs, the concept that air
is flowing in thin sheets or layers close to the surface of a wing with no disturbance
between the layers of air.

Boundary Layer – A boundary layer is that layer of air adjacent to the airfoil surface. The
cause of the boundary layer is the friction between the surface of the wing and the air.

Laminar Boundary Layer – Is the laminar boundary layers the flow is steady and
smooth. As a result, the layer is very thin and so the form drag is very small. Also, the
velocity gradient at the walls through large enough to give significant viscous stress is
yet only moderate, so that the skin friction, though not negligible, is also very small.
The rubbing of the boundary layer on the flat plate gives rise to friction forces of:
friction drag. The skin friction drag coefficient for one side of a plate in laminar flow is
given by:
Turbulent Boundary Layer – In a turbulent boundary layer, the flow is unsteady and not
smooth, but eddying.
When the flow is transitioned to turbulent flow, the boundary layer thickness will be
increased. In fact, this phenomenon is often used to determine the location of the
transition region. The boundary layer thickness can be determined by:

The skin friction drag coefficient for a flat plate can be calculated with formula:
Critical Raynolds Number – Experimentally value for which when the values of R.N. less
than critical, the flow is smooth or laminar; for values greater than the critical R.N., the
flow is turbulent.
Transition takes place on a flat plate at point x determined by:
For air µ increases with temperature and can be calculated by the following
approximate formula for the standard atmosphere.

Or
Example # 1: Two plates, one having 6 ft span and 3 ft chord, the other having 9ft
span and 6ft chord are placed in different airstream. The free stream velocity for the
smaller plate is 100ft per sec. It is found that the total skin friction drag for the two
plate is the same. Find the airspeed for the larger plate. Assume the laminar flow at
standard sea level conditions.

Large plate

Small plate
Example # 2: An airplane is flying at a density altitude of 15,000ft. At an ambient
temperature a -39ᵒF. If the wing chord is 6ft and the equivalent airspeed is 200knots.
What is the overall Raynolds number of the wing?
 WIND TUNNEL

A device for testing aircraft and its force components in a controlled airstream under
laboratory conditions.

TYPES OF LOW-SPEED WIND TUNNELS

OPEN-CIRCUIT WIND TUNNELS

CLOSED CIRCUIT TUNNEL
 Advantages of Closed circuit with comparison with Open Circuit Tunnels

1.) Power Requirement for a given speed is lower.

2.) Particulate matter can be contained within the circuit.

3.) Noise is significantly lower.

4.) Laboratory air movement (air vents, doors, windows, etc.) does not
affect wind tunnel flow.

5.) Air entering the test section is free of laboratory dust.

6.) Fan blades are not as vulnerable to damage from model failure.
 Disadvantages of Closed circuit with Open Circuit Tunnels

1.) Cost is generally three times greater for a given test section size.

2.) Air supply is recycled which can be prohibitive when working with combustion engines.

3.) Footprint is much larger and requires more overall space.

4.) Increasing air temperature can become an issue during prolonged use.
 FORCES AND MOTION OF AIRPLANE UNDER TESTING

1.) Lift

2.) Drag

3.) Side Force

4.) Pitching Moment

5.) Yawing Movement

6.) Rolling Movement

Used in comparison on flow pattern of on theorem bodies which are geometrically
similar but not in dimension.

Flow pattern similarity at a particular point

1.) Magnitude of velocity at constant proportion.

2.) Direction of flow is the same.

3.) Both bodies must be oriented or positioned in similar altitudes.

4.) Both bodies must be positioned at the same angle of attack.

Example # 1: Find the Raynold Number for an airplane wing 4ft chord, moving at
130mph through standard atmosphere.
Example # 2: Find the Raynold Number for an airplane wing with 3ft 6inches chord
moving at 180mph through standard air.
Example # 3: Find the Raynold Number for an airplane wing, 4ft chord, moving at
150mph. Air is +40°C, barometer,21in Hg.
Example # 4: Find the velocity at which test should be run in a wind tunnel on a model
wing of 4in chord in order that the Raynold Number shall be the same as for a wing with
4 ft chord at 100mph. Air under standard conditions in both cases.
Example # 5: In a variable density wind tunnel, what pressure should test be run on a
model with a 3in. chord, air velocity being 60mph in order that the Raynold Number
shall be the same as for the full size wing of 4ft chord, moving at 100mph through the
air? Air temperatures are the same in each case.
 Variable Density Wind Tunnel

A wind tunnel in which the air density can be increased by means of compressed air.

Flat Plates

Flat plates perpendicular to the airstream

Example# 1: What is the total force of a 45mph wind on a hangar door 40ft by 25ft?
Example # 2: What is the force against the side of the building 70ft long and 40ft high
in a 90mph wind?
Example # 3: What force is required to push a flat plate, 3ft by 2ft at a speed of 35 fps
in a direction perpendicular to its surface?
Example # 4: An auto windshield is 40in wide by 15in high and is vertical. What is the
force against the windshield at 60mph?
 Curved Deflecting Surfaces

The Resultant of these two components is

Example # 3: A stream of air 60ft wide and 8ft high is moving horizontally at a speed of
75mph. What force is required to deflect it downward 8deg?
Example # 4: A stream of air 100sq.ft. in cross section is moving horizontally at a speed
of 150mph. It strikes tangentially against the interior wall of semi-circular cylinder so
that it is deflected through 180°. What is total force against the cylinder?
 AIRFOIL THEORY

Airfoil-is a streamline body which when set at a suitable angle of attack produces
more lift than drag. Any surface such as an airplane wing, aileron, elevator.
DEFINITION OF AIRFOIL GEOMETRY

Mean Camber Line – is the line joining the midpoints

between the upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil and
measured normal to the mean camber line.

Chord Line – Is the line joining the end points of the

mean camber line.
Thickness – Is the height of profile measured normal to
the chordline.

Camber – Is the maximum distance of the mean camber

line from the chordline.

Leading Edge Radius – Is the radius of a circle tangent

to the upper and lower surfaces, with its center located
on a tangent to the mean camber line drawn through
the leading edge of this line.
 DEFINITION OF SECTION FORCES AND MOMENT

FACTORS AFFECTING THE AERODYNAMIC FORCES

1.) Velocity of air, V

2.) Air density, ρ

3.) Characteristic area or size, S

4.) Coefficient of dynamic viscosity, 𝜇

 FORMULAS

Lift Force Where:

Drag Force

Pitching Moment
 Important Airfoil Characteristics

The following relationship are of fundamental importance to airplane design and

airplane analysis.

The linear portion of the lift curve can be represented mathematically by the
equation.
 AIRFOIL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

At low speeds, according to the incompressible Bernoulli Equation,

 Critical Pressure Coefficient

Critical Pressure

Is the local pressure at the point in the air flow where M=1.0 and the velocity is critical.

Critical Velocity
Example # 1: An Airplane is flying at 480mph at an altitude of 30,000ft.What is the
critical Velocity?
Example # 2: An Airplane is flying at 500knots in air at -50°F. What is the critical Velocity?
Example # 3: What is the critical value of pressure and pressure coefficient for an
airplane flying at 500knots in air at 25°F.
Example # 4: An airfoil has a lift curve slope of 6.3 per radian and angle of attack zero
lift of -2°. At what angle of attack will the airfoil developed a lift of 140 lb/ft at 100mph
under standard sea level condition. Assume c=8ft.
 NACA AIRFOILS DESIGNATION

4 –DIGIT AIRFOILS: Example NACA 4412

4=Camber 0.04c
4=Position of the camber at 0.4c from L.E.
12=Maximum thickness 0.12c

5-DIGIT AIRFOILS: Example NACA 23012

2=camber 0.02c
=design lift coefficient is 0.15 times the first digit for this series

12=Maximum thickness 0.12c

 NACA AIRFOILS DESIGNATION

6-SERIES AIRFOILS: Example NACA 653-421

6=series designation

5=min. pressure at 0.5c

3=The drag coefficient is near its minimum value over a range of lift coefficient of
0.3 above and below the design lift coefficient.

4=design lift coefficient 0.4

21=max. thickness 0.21c

 NACA AIRFOILS DESIGNATION

7-SERIES AIRFOILS: Example NACA 747A315

7=series designation
4=favourable pressure gradient on the upper surface from L.E. to 0.7c at the
design lift coefficient.
7=favourable pressure gradient on the lower surface from L.E. to 0.7c at the
design lift coefficient.
A=a serial letter to distinguish different section having the same numerical
designation but different mean line or thickness distribution.

3=design lift coefficient 0.3

15=max thickness 0.15c

Example # 1: NACA 4412, c=100cm, find the camber, position of camber and max.
thickness.
Example # 2: NACA 23015,c=48 in., find the camber, position of camber and max.
thickness.