ABSTRACT

Industrial trusses form one of the major structural systems, Nhichrequire accurate

analysis and design. Their span and corresponding cost plays an important role in

planning the industrial area. The shape and configuration is decided upon the span, pitch,

spacing , various loads and naturally the cost,. In this project an humble attempt is made

to compare various truss configurations with same span, pitch, spacing regarding the cost

aspects.

Following trusses selected:

1) Fan truss

2) Pratt 1 truss

3) Compound fink truss

4) Howe truss

5) Pratt truss

All the above types of trusses have been analyzed, designed and typical drawings

are prepared for span ranging from 10 to 30 Mts. which arethe most common spans in

practices. Cost comparison between various configurations of trusses is made graphs are

drawn.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General:

The majority of buildings constructed today may be classified structurally as

either load bearing or skeleton frame. As the least dimension of the building becomes

larger and thus impossible or uneconomical to span with simple beams or joists, columns

and roof support Such systems extend to the perimeter of bearing walls or walls with

integral load bearing piers. An alternative solution is to span the distance between walls

with trusses. The truss frequently offers the added advantages of permitting a wider

variety of roof shapes and greater unobstructed interior floor area at less cost. In

Industrial buildings, we use trusses for roofing system ,where spans are larger.

1.2 Definition of truss

When a roof is to be provided for a building which does not have interior

supports, but the exterior walls of which are more than 12 meters apart, some system of

framing would be more economical than simple, beams, such a frame is called a 'truss'.

The basic form of a truss is triangle, formed by three members joined together at their

common ends forming three joints .Such a triangle is clearly rigid Another two members

connected to two of the joints with their far ends connected member of such

geometrically rigid triangles can be interconnected to give a stable configuration .The

joints may be bolted, welded or fastened together with pins but in the present treatments,

members are subjected to axial forces of tension or compression only and are not

subjected to bending.
1.3 Components of truss

Some components of truss are defined as follows.

Span : Thecenter to center distance between end bearings of truss.

Rise : The overall height of the truss measured from the bearing level

to its peak.

Pitch : The ratio of the truss rise to its span .

Slope : The ratio of the rise truss to half of its span.

TopChord : The top chord is defined as the upper most line of members

extending from one support to the other and that passes through

out the peak of the truss,

BottomChord : The bottom chord Is defined as the lower most line or members

of the truss extending from one support to the other.

1.4 Classification of truss

There are great many steel truss forms used in building construction However,

they may be classified as follows:

(1) Planetruss

(2) Space truss

Planetruss :

If all the members of the truss lies in one plane,( two dimensional)it is called a

plane truss.
Space truss

A three dimensional truss is called space truss.

1.5 Materials used in construction of truss

In general, the materials used in the construction of truss are timber ,steel,

aluminum, concrete and plastics. Timber is one of the oldest building materials, and it

has high strength at low weight. Steel is most frequently used in truss construction and is

an ideal material for such trusses. Steel trusses may be constructed of cold rolled

sections, angles or tubes and riveted, bolted or welded together or to suitably shaped

gusset plates or connectors. Prestressed steel is used for strengthening of building of very

large span. Fibre reinforced plastic is used in the construction of airplane, helicopter,

solar panel or space ship etc.

1.6 Aims and scope of the work

 To study the change in force with the change in span for a particular truss

configuration.

 To evaluate cost of different truss configuration.

 To utilize general computer program "STAAD-III "for truss analysis and design.

 To plot the graphs and prepare tables for the better understanding of cost benefit

for different truss configurations.

2.0 TYPES OF TRUSSES

When a roof is to be provided for a building which does not have any interior

supports the exterior walls and which are more than 12 m apart, some system of framing
would be more economical than simple beams. Such a frame is called a truss. The

common types of building trusses are as follows:

(1) King post truss

 The central post known as king post forms a support for the tie beam.

 The inclined members, known as struts, prevent the principal rafters from

bending in the middle.

 It is suitable for roofs of span varying from 5 -8 m.

 It is usually built of wood or of wood combined with steel.

 Steel rods are used as tension members.

(2) Queen post truss

 It has 2 vertical members known as queen posts.

 The upper ends of the queen posts are kept in position by means of a horizontal

member known as straining beam.

 In this truss a straining sill is introduced on the tie beam between the queen posts

to constrict the throats of sturts.

 This truss is suitable for roof of spans varying from 6 m- 9m

(3) Pratt truss

 The pratt truss has diagonals in tension under normal vertical loading so that the

shorter vertical web members are in compression

 For pratt roof truss the most economical span to depth ratio is between 4 and 5,

with a span range of 6 m to 12 m.

the longer web members in compression.

 The parallel ( or nearly parallel Le. flat) pratt trusses have on economic span

range between 6 m and 50 m ,with a span to depth ratio between 15 and 25

depending on the intensity of applied loads.

 For the top end of the span range the bay width should be such that the web

members are inclined at approximately 50° or slightly steeper.

 For long deep trusses the bay, width become too large and are often subdivided

with secondary web members.

 Flat part trusses are used for flatter roofs.

 For longer spans the pitched trusses are used for drainage purposes.

 Pratt truss is not so economical for steep slopes.

(4) Howe Truss

 The tension chord is more heavily loaded than the compression chord at mid-span

under normal vertical loading.

 The most economical span to depth ratio is between 4 to 5 , with a span range of

8 m to 12m.

 It can be used for steep slopes but they are usually not too economical.

(5) Compound Fink Truss

 The most economical span to depth ratio is between 4 and 5 with a span range of

8m to 12 m.

 It is most economical for higher end of the span range.

 It is more economical as most of the members are in tension while those that are

in compression are very short.

 They can be divided into a large number of panels to suit almost any span or

purlin spacing.

 The disadvantage is that the number of panels can be increased only by doubling

the previous number of members.

(6) Fan truss

· It is a modification of the fink truss that permits greater flexibility in number of panels.

(7) Mansard truss

 It is a variation of fink truss.

 For spans between 15 m and 30 m. the Mansard truss reduces the unusable roof

space.

(8) Warren truss

 It has equal length of compression and tension web members, resulting in a net

saving in steel weight for smaller span.

 They have economic span rangebetween6 m to 50 m with a span to

 depth ratio between 15 and 25 depending on intensity of applied loads.

 It can be used for large spans.

 It may be adopted where additional restraint to the chords is required.

(10) Saw tooth truss or Butterfly truss

 It may be used when adequate natural lighting is desired from skylights in wide

building like factory.

(11) Bow-string truss

 If a curved roof is acceptable, bow string truss can be used economically for

spans upto 35 m.

 When properly designed , this truss has the unusual feature of having very small

stresses in the web members.

 A recommended radius of curvature for the top chord is given as.

4 x ℎ2 + 4 𝑥 𝑖 2
 Radius =
8ℎ

I = span length

h = height of truss

(12) Scissors truss

 It is used for supporting short span structures like churches and other Buildings

with steep roofs.

 It Is a long span truss Which is used for spans well over 30 m.

 Near the center line of this truss the diagonals are reserved for the purpose of

keeping as many of them in tension as possible.

(14) Hammer beam truss

 It Is used for long spans and also when more head room is required.

Fig.1: King Post Truss

Fig.2: Queen Post Truss

The roof trusses are subjected to normally, dead load ,live load. and wind

10ad.Andin addition to these loads, the roof trusses are also subjected to some special

loads such as ceiling suspended floors or heavy machinery.

3.1 Dead Loads

Dead loads are loads which are constant in magnitude and fixed position

throughout the life time of the structure. Dead load on roof trusses includes the weight of

roof covering, the weight of purlins, the weight of bracing and the self f weight of

trusses.

3.1.1 Weight of roof covering

It includes the weights of asbestos cement corrugated and semi corrugated sheets,

G.I Sheets, tiles, glass and slates. The weights of truss materials are given in KN. per

square meter of plan areas. The unit weights of building materials have been given in IS:

875 ( PART I )- 1987 &Table I and II of IS: 1991 -1967

3.1.2 Weight of bracing

The weight of bracing is assumed as 0.015 KNof plan area.

3.1.3 Weight of purllns

The weight of purlins is assumed as 0.070 to 0.150 KN. per meter of plan area.
3.1.4 Weight of trusses

For the design of roof trusses, the weight of truss is assumed . The weight of truss

varies with the span, and the rise of truss I the spacing of trusses, the type of roof

covering material, the geographical situation of the roof structure. The self weight of

truss is a small part of the total design for the roof truss. The self weight of truss may be

assumed as 0.090 to 0.150 km per square meter of plan area. The self weight of truss can

also be found by empirical formula given below :

The self weight of truss in KNper square meter of plan area.

W = 11 100 ( U3 + 5) KN. 1m2

Where I is the span of truss in meters.

3.2 Live Loads

Live loads are the loads which very in magnitude and/or in positions. Live loads

are also known as imposed or transient loads. Live loads are expressed as uniformly

distributed static 10ads.Theimposed ( live) loads on various types of roofs other than

wind load and snow load. as per IS : 875-1987, for roofs with slopes upto and including

10 degrees, is adopted as 1.5 KN I m2 of plan area where access is provided to roof . The

minimum live load measured on plan shall be 3.75 KN uniformly distributed over any

span. of one meter width of the roof slab and 9.0 KN uniformly distributed over the span

in the case of all beams.

Where the access is not provided , except the maintenance , live load on roofs is
adopted as 0.150 KN/ m2of plan as in the case, the minimum live load measured on plan

shall be 1.9 KN uniformly distributed overly span of one meter width of roof slab and

4.5 KN uniformly distributed over the span in the case of beams. The live load for

sloping roof with slopes greater than 10° is adopted as 0.75 KN per square meter of plan

area. less 0.020 KNlm2for every degree increase In slope over 10° subjected to minimum

f 0.400 KN I m2per square meter of plan area.

3.3 Wind Load

The wind load is one of the most important loads that an engineer has to deal

with and is also one that is most difficult to evaluate properly . The magnitude of wind

pressure depends on wind velocity and the shape of the structure . The magnitude of

wind velocity varies with the geographical location of the structure and the height of the

structure.

3.3.1 Basic wind speed

The basic wind speed, Vb is the wind speed measured in a 50 year return period,.

The basic wind speed is based on peak gust velocity averaged over a short Internal of

time of about 3 seconds and it corresponds to mean heights above ground level In an

open terrain (category) As per IS : 815 (part 3) wind loads - 1987 , six wind zones have

been formed which corresponds to basic speed of 55,50,47,39 and 33 meter per second,

respectively shown in map in IS :875 .

After noting the basic wind speed, it is modified to include the effects of risk,

level, terrain roughness, height size of the structure, and local topography, The design
wind speed, Vz may be mathematically expressed as under. The design wind speed is the

wind speed for which the structure is designed.

Vz = ( k1 . k2 . k3 ) Vb

Where Vz = design wind speed at any height in m/sec

k1 = risk coefficient ( probability factor)

k2 = terrain, height and structure size factor

k3= topography factor

Above factors k1 , k2 and k3 have been described in IS :875 ( part 3) -1987 ,Is to

note that the design wind speed upto the height from the mean ground level shall be

considered constant.

3.3.3 Design wind pressure

The design wind pressure, pz depends upon the basic wind speed, Vb, the height

of structure above ground level, the terrain categories ,the local topography ,the aspect

ratio ( viz.,length and breath of structures),the shape of structure and the solidity ratio or

opening in the structure.

The design wind pressure at any height above mean ground level shall be obtained from

the following expression.

Pz = 0.6 (Vz)2 N 1m2

the above expressions depend on a number of factors and mainly on the atmospheric

pressure and air temperature.

4.0 CONNECTIONS

After design and investigation of different structural elements, each of these

members must be connected to adjacent members in order to form a complete structure.

Connection between two adjacent members should be strong enough to sustain various

types of loads as the more common structural failures occur in connection rather than in

members.

Following are the main types of connections used for framework:

 Riveted

 Bolted

 Welded

 Ball and socket Joint

 Joint with partial fixity

4.1 Riveted connection

Rivets are made from mild steel rivet bars by a machine which forms the head

and cuts the rivet of the desired length. The different types of rivet are shown in the

fig.(4.1a)

Rivets are classified as :

 Power driven field rivets

 Hand driven rivets

Power driven shop rivets are the ones driven in fabrication shop under better

controlled. conditions. Therefore, they are stronger than the power driven field rivets or

hand driven rivets.

When a rivet is ready for driving, it should be free from slag, scale and other

adhering matter. All rivets should be driven by hydraulic or pneumatic process. This is

the case when riveting is done by heating. The rivets can be driven cold also with the use

of special equipment and considerable success has been obtained up to for 24 mm

diameter rivets but at the present time cold driving of rivets of diameter. greater than

10mm is not permissible.

4.1.1 Lap Joints

These are generally the simplest type of connection used when two member are in the

same plane. In this the planes to be connected together overlap each other as shown in

fig.(4lb).

The lap joints are usually of the following types.

Single riveted lap joints in which a single row of rivets parallel to the edges of

plates is used for the connection. Which is shown in fig. (4.1b).Double riveted lap joint

in which two parallel rows of rivets are used which may be in the form of chain or in the

zig - zag form which is shown in fig. (4.1c)

In the butt joint, the plates to be connected together are kept flush, their central

planes being just opposite to each other. These may be connected through cover plates on

one side only. Butt joint may be of single row of riveting or of chain riveting or zig-zag

riveting fig. (4.1). Transmission of load in a riveted joint occurs either by friction

between the connected plates due to large gapping forces produced by the tension in rivet

or by shearing action on the cross section of the rivet and bearing stress on the rivet and

plates in contact with each other fig.( 4.2).

4.1.3 Failure of riveted Joint

If a riveted joint carrying one rivet in lap joint such as the one shown in fig (4-3)

is subjected to load 'P' increasing from zero to the stage when the joint fails.

There are following ways in which the joint can fail, as shown in fig. (4 '3).

 Tearing of the connected plate along the line of rivets.

 Bearing of plate or rivets.

 Shearing of rivets. It

 Bursting and shearing at end of plate.

4.1.4 Efficiency of joint

Due to rivet holes in the jointed plates, the original strength of the full section is

reduced. A joint which causes smaller reduction of strength is said to be more efficient.
The efficiency of a joint is the ratio of the actual strength of the connection to the gross

strength of the connected members and is expressed as a percentage. For better

efficiency, therefore, a section should have the least possible number of holes at the

critical section.

So for better efficiency, grouping of rivets should be done. The rivets should be

so grouped that a minimum loss of strength takes place due to rivet holes.

4.2 Bolted connections

Bolts are made from mild steel or high tensile steel and consists of a Hexagonal

head, a plain part of a shank and a threaded part as shown in fig. (4.4). For connecting

two steel plates together, holes are made in the parts, the parts are brought together, the

bolt is passed through the holes and a nut is threaded on the other end.

The bolts are classified as,

 Black bolts.

 Fitted bolts.

 High strength friction grip bolts.

 Turned bolts.

 Standard unfinished bolts.

 Ribbed bolts.

4.2.1 Blackbolts

Black bolts are usually made from mild steel and the surface of the shank is left

unfinished, that is rough as rolled. The bearing of such bolts on the walls of the holes
remains imperfect, hence the allowable stress is kept less than the other types of bolts.

Also the joints remain quite loose resulting in large deflection of the structure due to

movements of the joints. Black bolts are commonly used during erection and for

temporary structures.

4.2.2 Fitted bolts

Fitted bolts are also usually made from mild steel but the surface of the shank is

finished by turning to a diameter which is larger than the nominal diameter of the bolt by

1.2 mm for bolts M8 to M16 and by 1.3 mm for larger sizes. These bolts will fit the bolt

holes, which are larger by 1.5 mm more readily and provide much better bearing contact

between the bolts and the holes.

4.2.3 Ribbed bolts

The Ribbed bolt Is a comparatively a recent innovation. It has the head of a rivet

and the thread and nut of a ballet as shown in fig( 4.1a). The shank has longitudinal ribs

which project from its core and result in an over all diameter slightly larger than the

diameter of the hole. When driven into the hole, the ribs are deformed wedging the bolt

tightly and allowing the nut to be tightened. The ribs, by gripping the sides of the fitted

pieces, provide greater resistance to vibration than ordinary bolts.

4.2.4 High strength bolts

High Strength bolts are the major type of field fastener used in steel structural

building. These bolts are made from high tensile steel and their surface is kept

unfinished, that is, as rolled and rough. Therefore, they remain loose fit in holes like
black bolts, but their action in the joint takes place differently. These bolts are tightened

to a very high tension, reaching their proof load, through calibrated torque wrenches.

Thus a very high compression is created between the connected parts, which is equal to

the proof load. The bolt of the joint is subjected to a shear load, it is primarily resisted by

the frictional force. Therefore the bearing of bolt on the hole surface does not come to

play at all. Such joints remain fully tight .

4.2.5 Design of bolted Joints

The analysis and design of joints is exactly similar to the riveted joints except that the

allowable stresses in the bolt are different. The pitch and edge distance for bolted joints

are the same.

4.3 Welded connections

Welding consists of joining of two pieces of metal by establishing a metallurgical

bond between them. Many different welding processes may be used to produce bending

through the application of pressure or through fusion. The bond between the metals is

produced by reducing the surface to be joined to a liquid state and than allowing the

liquid to solidify.

4.3.1 Welding process

The shield Metal arc welding process is the most common type used for structural

welding. In this process, the intense heat required to reduce the metal to a liquid state is

produced by an electric arc fig. (4.5).

phenomenon and to improve the quality of the weld metal.

3.2 Type of welds fig.(4. 6)

Welds are classified in three different ways :

(i) According to their position,

 flatweld

 horizontal weld

 vertical weld

 overhead weld

(ii) According to their type,

 groove weld

 fillet weld

 plug weld

 slot weld

(iii) According to the type of joint,

 buttweld

 lap weld

 tee weld

 comer weld

 edge weld
 Flat weld is one which is made right on top, the electrode being downward in a

vertical plane. Horizontal weld is made on a horizontal side, the electrode being in a

horizontal plane or only slightly inclined.

Vertical weld is made from bottom upward on a vertical joint. Overhead weld is

made from looking up, the electrode being upward in almost vertical plane. The flat weld

is the easiest to make and overhead weld the most inconvenient.

Butt and fillets welds are the ones most commonly used for structural work plug

and slot welds are generally used where it is not possible to provide the required weld

area by butt or fillet welds and additional area is required.

Buttwelds

These are used in joints between two abutting parts lying in approximately in the

same plane. They are classified according to the method of grooving or preparing the

base metal before weld metal is deposited.

Fillet welds

Lap, tee or corner joints require fillet type welds. Such welds are usually in the

shape of a right angled triangle with equal or unequal legs. Different types of fillet are

shown in the fig. ('1.6).

The size of the fillet welds Is denoted by the sizes of the sides of the right angle.

The strength of a fillet weld is determined by the throat dimension; therefore. small fillet

welds are the most economical. This is true because the throat dimension is proportional
to the leg size, while the amount of weld metal varies approximately, as the square of the

leg size.

Welds of this type fail through the throat as a result of the combined effect of

shear and tension or compression. For design purpose, it is generally assumed that

strength per linear inch of fillet weld is the shearing strength .

Plug and slot welds

If a sufficient length of fillet weld can not be provided in a joint, the connection

can be strengthened by the use of plug or slot welds. Plug and slot welds are made by

filling with weld, metal in a circular or slotted hole cut in one of the two parts to be

jointed, or by forming a fillet weld around the edge of the hole or slot. The strength of

such a weld is equal to mean length of weld times the Following methods are employed

the design of steel framework : throat dimension times the permissible stress.

Ball and socket Joints

This is the joint where all the loads are supported by the end reactions in all the

three directions, As shown in the fig. (it-f) In the figure all components of the force are

shown along x, y and z direction.

Method of design

(1) Simple design :

This method applies to structures in which the end connections between members

are such that they will not develop restraint moment and for the purpose of design pin

joints are to be assumed .

This method, as compared with the simple design method, permits a reduction in the

maximum bending moment in beams suitably connected to their supports, so as to

provide a degree of direction fixity, and in case of triangulated frames, it permits account

being taken of the rigidity of the connections and the moment of interactions of

members.

(3) Fully rigid design :

This method gives the greatest rigidity and economy in the weight of steel as

compared to the pervious method. The end connections of members of the frame shall

have sufficient rigidity to hold the original angles between such members and the

members they connect virtually unchanged.

The effective length of column

In the absence of more exact analysis, the effective length of column in firmed

structure may be obtained from the ratio I/L of effective length to unsupported length L

given in fig. (4.1)When relative displacement of the ends is not prevented .In the later

case the ratio ilL should not be less than 1.2 .

Po1, = P02 = EKe / EKe + Ekb

Where, kc = flexure stiffness for column.

kb = flexure stiffness for beam

5.1 Method of joints

In this method, to determine the forces in the members of a statically determinate truss.

The whole truss is consider as a free body to obtain reaction and then each joint as a free

body to obtain the axial forces at a time. The joints where the number of unknowns are

two or less than two should be solved first. For example the truss ABC shown in fig find

the forces in member AB, BC and AC

A
Taking moment@ B

R2X L - P X L1 = 0

Ѳ1 Ѳ2 R2 = PL1I L KN
B C
L1 R2 = ( P - R2 ) KN
L
R1 R2
KN KN

Ʃfy = 0

R1 + FAB sin Ѳ1 = 0

FAB= R1sinѲ1 ( compression)

Ʃfx = 0

FBC + FAB COS Ѳ1 = 0

FBC + (- R1 / sin Ѳ1 )= 0

FBC + (- R1 / sin Ѳ1 ) (Tension)

Ʃfy = 0
Ѳ1
B FBC
R2 + FAC sin Ѳ1 = 0

R1
FAC + (- R2 / sin Ѳ1 ) (compression)

Ʃfx = 0

FAC cos Ѳ2 + FBC= 0

FAC
(-R2 / sin Ѳ2) cos Ѳ2 + FBC = 0

FAB= R1sinѲ1 ( compression)

FBC = R2 /tan Ѳ1 (tension)

FBC C

R2 KN
 5.2 Method of section

In this method the truss is cut in to two parts and equilibrium equations are

formed for either one of the parts of the truss treating it as a free body. The method of

section is superior if we see the forces only in some of the member

V1 A V2 V3

N1
Ѳ2

L1
Ѳ1 Ѳ1 L2 L3
R1 P1 A P2 P3 R2

section AA cuts the trusses in to the parts . The left part of the truss takes in to

consideration the equilibrium condition

V1 A V1 A V2 V3

LO
L1 L2 L3 L4
H1
A1 A1 P2 P3

R2
TR1