International Research Journal of Social Sciences______________________________________ ISSN 2319–3565

Vol. 4(4), 74-80, April (2015) Int. Res. J. Social Sci.

Shi’ism in Kashmir, 1477-1885

Zaheen
Centre for Historical Studies (CHS), School of Social Sciences (SSS) Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) New Delhi-67, INDIA
Available online at: www.isca.in
Received 17th December 2014, revised 18th February 2015, accepted 16th March 2015
Abstract
The present study aims to trace the genesis of shia faith in Kashmir; formation of shia philosophy and propagation of shia
doctrine among the people of Kashmir; growing contradictions and clashes between shia-sunni followers; and implications
of the political and religious policies of various rulers of later medieval period on Kashmiri society. Shia’ism didn’t enter
in the region of Kashmir as a distinct sect but an extension of the Islamic ideology propagated by Sayyid Sharaf-ud-din
Bulbul Shah which got further impetus by missionary zeal of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamdani who converted Kashmir in a Muslim
majority state by the end of 13th century. The shi’ite doctrine was established in Kashmir by Shams-ud-din Iraqi who
earlier propagated it as mere extension of Sunni orientation of Islam brought in the valley by the Sayyids but later on, took
it on the path of twelver Islam and motivated certain major state dignitaries to adopt the upcoming shia ideology. The
conversion of ruling family of Chaks resulted in the emergence of shi’ism as the state religion which continued to exist till
the subjugation of Kashmir by the Mughal armies. Later on, the continuous targeting of shia community during the Afghan
rule, widened the gulf between these two sects which had started opposing each other right from the Chak times.
Sometimes triggered by political interests of the governing authorities, the frequent shia-sunni clashes certainly had their
long term impact on the internal politics of the region. Though, confrontation between the people of these two sects
occurred very frequently but some of the disastrous events of shia-sunni riots which will be discussed in the paper,
occurred in the years 1719-20, 1741, 1762, 1801, 1803 and 1872.

Keywords: Shia’ism in Kashmir, Shams-ud-din Iraqi, Shia-sunni clashes, religious policies of rulers belonging to various
dynasties in Kashmir.

Introduction Kashmir, especially Chaks. He not only stopped the propagation

of Shia ideology in Askardo but also tried to expose its
The frequent clashes between the Shia and Sunni population of shortcomings in a treatise, Fiqah Ahwat, written by Sayyid
the valley from the later half of Mughal rule which quite often Mohammad Nurbaksh1.
resulted in the killing of people, plunder and loot of wealth and
property, and destruction of khanaqahs and other symbolic In order to understand the causes and consequences of Shia-
buildings depicts the picture of Kashmiri society where peaceful Sunni conflicts in Kashmiri society, one has to introspect into
co-existence of different religions and sects had become the very introduction of Shia philosophy in early period of
challenging. The contradictions between these two Islamic medieval Kashmir. In the beginning of sixteenth century, there
ideologies existed in pre-Mughal Kashmir but the frequency and was no Islamic land which was spared from the vicious division
magnitude of such fierce conflicts kept on increasing in of Shia-Sunni discord and the region of Kashmir proved no
medieval times because of the growing antagonism between the exception to it. The political incompatibility justified in the light
two sects. In order to understand the reasons for the frequent of religious discourses between groups became wide enough to
outburst of people towards the other sect, one has to look at the create two distinct sects within Islam. To the surprise of many,
history of Shi'ite philosophy in Kashmir and various stages of Shi'ism didn't enter into Kashmir as a separate Islamic sect but
developments through which it ultimately became a discernible an extension of sufi philosophy of Kubarvi thought which was
part of Kashmiri culture. The genesis of Shia-Sunni conflict lies propagated by early sufis right from the time of Sayyid Sharaf-
in the emergence of Chak rule in Kashmir and yet in mild form, ud-din, commonly recognised in Kashmir by the name of Bulbul
this dissension continued in society till the first half of twentieth Shah and later on, reached its zenith through the missionary
century. A proper introduction of Shi'ite orientation of Islam efforts of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamdani. Then it took shape of a
came in the declining years of Sultan Fateh Shah (1496-1505) religious discourse from the precepts of Nurbakshia school of
but the first confrontation between Shias and Sunnis as two sufi thought and ultimately emerged as a full-fledged sect in
distinct sectarian identities happened in the rule of Mirza Haider which thousands of Pandits (Kashmiri Hindus are generally
Dughlat, the representative of Mughal Emperor, Humayun in addressed as Pandits) and Muslims were converted to adopt this
the year 1548 ACE. The first spark was ignited by Mirza Haider distinct identity of Islam.
Daughlat who showed contempt towards Shia communities of

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Before coming to the introduction of Shi'ite philosophy in from the ideological clashes between the politico-religious elite
Kashmir, one has to have enough knowledge of Nukbakshai groups to the frequent riots among the followers of these two
School of thought which proved fountain head of Shi'ism in faiths will be dealt in this paper at length. It will further
Kashmir and its adjoining regions. Nurbakshia silsilla is investigate the changes or reasons which increased the
believed to be a distinguished sufi order because of being highly frequency of clashes between shia-sunni sects witnessed
influenced by the shi'ite twelver philosophy in Islam. This sufi majorly in post-Mughal period in Kashmir. The religious and
order was introduced by Mir Sayyid Mohammad Nurbaksh political policies of various medieval rulers towards the
Qahistani in Iran during 15th century. He was a great sufi sectarian discord, forms an important section in the paper. It will
theologian who wrote famous Islamic works like Fiqh-i-Ahwat bring forth the implication of Imperial policies in shaping the
and Kitab-ul-Auliqada. Mir Sayyid Mohammad Nurbaksh shia-sunni relationship which inturn influenced the social fabric
happened to be the great follower of Kubravi Sufi School which of the region. Thus, in addition to historical background of
was introduced by his uncle and spiritual guide, Mir Sayyid Ali shi'ism and socio-political factors responsible for its dispersion,
Hamdani. As far as the conversion of Kashmiris to Islam is another major objective of present study will be the changing
concerned, it is an accepted notion that Mir Sayyid Ali Hamdani policies of the rulers towards the sectarian discord in post-
played an ultimate role in spreading Islam not only in Kashmir Mughal period.
but also in the adjoining regions of Tibet, Ladakh, Baltistan,
etc2. Prior to that, if one considers the initial conversion of Emergence of Shams-ud-din Iraqi and the
Rinchana Shah (the first converted Muslim king of Kashmir) Commencement of Shi'ism in Kashmir
along with numerous other people, the credit goes to Sayyid
Shihab-ud-din (locally famous by the name of Bulbul Shah) Shi'ism which transmitted through the sufi doctrines of
who belonged to Suharwardi sufi order. Sayyid Sharaf-us-din Nurbakshia order, was introduced by Shams-ud-din Iraqi in the
was a disciple of Shah Ni’amat Allah Farsi who had come from 16th century. His full name was Shaikh Shams-ud-din
Turkistan for the propagation of suharwardi school of Sufi Mohammad Al-Isfahani who originally belonged to Iraq and
philosophy in Kashmir during the reign of King Suhadeva3. had travelled to many places from Iran to Kashmir in order to
Both the above mentioned schools spread sufi philosophy which propagate the teaching of Nurbakshia school of Sufism. He
hailed precisely from what is now called the Sunni orientation entered Kashmir for the first time in the regnal years of Hasan
of Islam. Thus, the conversions which happened till the coming Shah (1477-1484), as an ambassador from the court of Sultan
of Sayyid Shams-ud-din Iraqi occurred mainly in sunni Husain Mirza who was the then governor of Khurasan. As
orientation of Islam. This order of Nubakshia made prominence already mentioned that the commencement of Shi’ite
in the places like Kashmir and Baltistan under the leadership of philosophy occurred in three phases which to a greater extent
Shaikh Shams-ud-din Mohammad Al-Isfahani in the 16th were connected with the three major visits of Iraqi to the valley.
century. Shams-ud-in Iraqi was disciple of Mir Sayyid The three phases are marked by the following developments in
Mohammad Nurbaksh's son and spiritual heir, Shah Qasim Shi'ite philosophy in Kashmir:
Faizbaksh. Nurbakshia order had left marks of Shi'ite
philosophy in all the regions wherever it entered because of its Shams-ud-din's early teaching as an extension of sufi
major emphasis on the role and contribution of Imams in Islamic philosophy which was already propagated by the sayyids like
history. It is very important to mention here that Nurbakshia Bulbul Shah, Mir Sayyid Ali Hamdani and his followers who
order is majorly followed in the regions of Baltistan and its settled at different regions in Kashmir.
adherents follow doctrines which lie somewhere between Shia
and Sunni doctrines of Islam. Their belief is to follow the actual Preaching of an Islamic orientation which hailed from the
teachings of Mir Sayyid Mohammad Nurbaksh who mentioned doctrines of Nurbakshia order.
the role of Imams in his teachings but never recommended the
Shia'ite orientation of Islam which became prominent in 16th The creation of a full-fledged sect with the conversion of huge
century. They further believe that Mir Sayyid Mohammad number of Pandits and Muslims who were made to adopt the
Nurbaksh followed the footsteps of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamdani distinct identity of Shi'ite Islam.
who tried to propagate the actual sharia in the regions he visited
in his life time. It is because of the later influences from other First Phase
religious ideologies existing in Iraq and Iran which directed this
sufi order, Nurbakshia on the path of complete present day When Shams-ud-din Iraqi entered into the valley, the state of
Shi'ite philosophy. Kashmir was politically in ruins and the administration was torn
between high-handedness of Sayyid clan and the indigenous
chieftain groups. Though these local chieftains had managed to
Objectives of the Study occupy the higher administrative positions,the high-handedness
The present paper aims to study an emergence of shia faith in in state affairs continued to be enjoyed by a group of Sayyids
three major stages which correlate to the three visits of Shams- who were considered influential social elites because of their
ud-din Iraqi in the valley. The history of shia-sunni differences superior religious positions and had often proclaimed

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themselves superior to other classes and communities of changing the rulers at the centre for hundreds of years. After
Kashmiri society. During Hasan Shah’s rule, it was Sayyid hearing the brutal killing of Sayyid Hasan Baihaqi, his son
Mohammad Hasan Baihaqi who acted as a virtual head of the Sayyid Mohammad Baihaqi took up arms and decided to
state and continued to enjoy the same position in the initial annihilate the accused local chiefs. A ruthless battle was fought
years of Sultan Mohammad Shah's reign4. After making his first between two groups in which Sayyids came out victorious and
visit in Kashmir in 1477 CE, Shams Iraqi was detained from the Sayyid Mohammad Baihaqi and his other Sayyid companions
country for eight years because of the disturbed political restored their religious and political positions in the state for
conditions. Though, initially, Shams-ud-din didn't preach some time. Later on, the deteriorating political conditions of the
directly the Shia doctrine but tried to propagate his teachings as state forced these two groups for temporary reconciliation but
an extension of the philosophy (sufi or Islamic) whose basis they were always waiting for an opportunity to uproot the
were already laid by the former Sufi saints. But there must have political authority of their opponent and to monopolise the
been certainly some fundamental differences visible in his politics of the state.
preaching that made Sayyid Mohammad Baihaqi expel him
from the valley. This clearly shows that existing state ruled The worsening political equations between different
particularly by the Sayyid clan was against the Shi'ite orientation shareholders of power suggests the possibilities of local
of Islam which was in its embryonic stage in Kashmir. At this chieftains getting attracted towards an orientation of Islam
point of time, the Baihaqi Sayyids who besides enjoying propounded by Shams-ud-din Iraqi who was antagonistic
religious superiority in society, were also affluent in the politics towards the socio-religious group of Sayyids.
of the state. During the early years of Mohammad Shah's reign,
the state of Kashmir was virtually governed by Sayyid Hasan Second Phase
Baihaqi. The author of Baharistan-i-Shahi emphasizes the moral
character of Mirza Sayyid Mohammad Baihaqi but During Mohammad Shah's third term on the throne of Kashmir,
unhesitatingly suggests an unending discord between him and Sayyid Mohammad Baihaqi who was acting as a judicial head
those local chieftain classes who majorly constituted the of the state, aligned with Musa Raina and Ibrahim Magray (both
administrative machinery of the state. This Sayyid class seldom the chiefs had enjoyed the supreme administrative positions in
encouraged the teachings of Shams-ud-din Iraqi in Kashmir who the later Sultanate period) and other sirdars to destroy the
was preparing ground to challenge the orientation of Islam growing power of Chak dynasty. This confederacy resulted in
which this class was following and preaching which would curbing the anti-state activities of Chaks by expelling their
have, inturn, adversely affected the political and social position leader Malik Shams Chak from Trehgram to Drav and
they were enjoying from the very beginning of Muslim destroying their major property and resources. The growing
establishment in Kashmir. Consequently, they resisted Shams- power of Musa Raina in the administrative machinery prompted
ud-din Iraqi's missionary moves of preaching the Shi'ite Shams-ud-din Iraqi to enter the valley for the second time. It
philosophy among masses. They didn't let Iraqi to stay longer in was during this visit that Musa Shah became an ardent follower
the valley but he still managed to lay the foundation of Shi'ism, of Shi’ite philosophy and confronted Sayyid Mohammad
though, in a very crude form by attracting the disciples and Baihaqi for drawing Shams-ud-din Iraqi again out from the
converting some of them to his faith. Baba Ismail and Baba valley of Kashmir to some place at Tibet. This very incident
Abdul Najjar were among first few Kashmiris to adhere to the made Musa Raina shed the companionship of Sayyid
philosophy of Shi'ism. It was again during this visit, Shams Mohammad and King Mohammad Shah and join the camp of
Iraqi influenced Musa Raina who happened to be one of the Sultan Fatah Shah which included Chaks and Magray. An
prominent figures in state administration and belonged to the inevitable combat resulted in the replacement of Mohammad
indigenous group of Dangars. It is believed that Musa Raina Shah by Fatah Shah and political domination of Sayyids by the
was highly impressed by the missionary zeal and teachings of chieftains of the region. In this battle, Mohammad Shah and
Shams-ud-din Iraqi. The differences between Musa Raina and most of his kin mates and associates were killed and Musa
Sayyid Hasan Biahaqi further widened with the efforts of latter Raina managed to acquire the office of Wazir (Prime Minister)
in expelling Shams Iraqi from the valley. in 1501. Coincidentally, it was the year when Safavid rulers
declared Twelver Islam as state religion of Iran and forced
The animosity between Baihaqi Sayyids and local cheiftains majority of its subjects to embrace Shia faith5. Musa Raina
who majorly constituted of Magrays, Rainas, Chaks, Dars, etc continued to administer the state for the next nine years which
took worst turn with the killing of Shaikh Mohammad Hasan made the period congenial for Shams-ud-din Iraqi to propagate
Baihaqi, conspired by some of these local chiefs. He was the Shia faith among the people of Kashmir. Musa Raina
attacked in his office and murdered along with fourteen of his ordered the construction of khanaqah for Shams Iraqi at Zadibal
kinmates by some armed people already installed by the in the vicinity of Srinagar. With the constant support from
chieftains. The incident started from political disagreement indigenous chieftains, Shams Iraqi acquired a prominent
between Sayyids and local chieftains which later on turned into position of a Sufi saint in Kashmir and widened his mission of
a fierce feeling of hatred and continued even upto the period of converting the people into his orientation of Islam. Under the
Mughals and Afghans in Kashmir and played decisive role in guidance of Shams-ud-din, Musa Raina discarded all secular

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policies which were once adopted and installed by great ruler the most influential leaders and other prominent Hindu
Sultan Zain-ul-Abideen. Musa Raina patronized Iraqi and personalities were killed who actually used to exercise greater
bestowed him with jagir, orchards, gardens, ornaments, influence on people belonging to their community. The year
costumes, horses, jewelry, gold, etc which were utilised by 1518 witnessed the killing of around 700-800 Pandits who
Shams Iraqi for the construction of a khanaqah at zadibal. He formed an intellectual class of their community which gave
indulged in forceful conversion of Pandit population, crippling blow to the entire Pandit population along with their
destruction of temples and other institutions of Hindus. Musa age old beliefs and customs (the incident is recorded in
Raina acquired the reigns of government for nine years in which Baharistan Shahi). By the time Shams-ud-din Iraqi died in
he took stern measures to convert the people to his faith. He 1526, Shi'ism had taken already deep roots in the religious life
destroyed all the idol-houses which almost included eighteen as well as the politics of Kashmir; not all Chaks (Chaks from
big temples of Hindus in the city of Srinagar and the adjoining Kupwara belonged to Sunni faith) but prominent among them
rural areas. Musa Raina resorted to coercive measures and later, who had acquired huge political eminence and managed to
changed his policy to appeasement by rewarding those converts transfer the throne of Kashmir from Shahmir dynasty to their
who came into the Shi'ite fold of Islam. It is believed that own community, had joined the Shi'ite faith openly by reading
twenty four thousand Hindu families were converted to the Khutba on the name of twelve Imams of Islam.
Islamic faith mostly by the coercive measures undertaken by
state authorities6. It is substantiated by the fact that as soon as Shia-Sunni and the Beginning of Sectarian
Musa Raina died, these Hindus reverted to their original faith Discord in Kashmir
and customs.
Before any Chak chiefs ascended the throne of Kashmir as a
Third Phase legitimate rulers, the growing animosity and factions between
the local chiefs made an opportunity for Mughal forces to attack
Till the second phase one can't find any group of Shia, as a sect and intervene in the sovereignty of the state. Mirza Haider
trying to oppose or reject the faith of Sunni Islam. Furthermore, Daughat who occupied the state of Kashmir in 1540 for 10
the indifferences between the groups belonging to different years, made every possible attempt to eliminate Shia'ite
orientations of Islam was confined to the ruling gentry as one philosophy in the valley. Being a follower of Hanafi School of
seldom witnesses any confrontation between the general public Islamic jurisprudence, he crushed all the activities which could
on sectarian issues in earlier two phases. There were certainly have given any flip to further development of Shia'ite
ideological clashes between Shams-ud-din Iraqi and Baihaqi philosophy in the region. He ordered the burning of khanaqah
Sayyids, at individual levels, yet there is no incident recorded in of Shaikh Shams-ud-in Iraqi and tried to uproot the entire shi'ite
the sources which could confirm any sort of confrontation discourse by enforcing Hanafi School of Jurisprudence in the
between two sects on the basis of religious differences. state. Such was his contempt towards Shia ideology that nobody
However, it was actually in the third phase that the seeds of in Kashmir dared to recite the names of Imams or Nurbakshia
sectarian discord between the sub-faiths of Islam were laid by saints during his entire regime.
converting the entire dynasty of Chaks to the Shia faith. By
converting Musa Raina to Shia faith didn't necessarily confirm The seeds of discord were already sown by Shams-ud-din Iraqi
that the entire clan of Rainas got influenced by the teachings of by designating his ideology, the purest form of Islam which
Shams Iraqi. Meantime, Shams Iraqi shifted his attention indirectly questioned the faith of Muslims who were practicing
towards another Chak chiefs who were aspirants to the throne of Islam from hundreds of years in the valley. This ideological
Kashmir and actively participated in enthroning and dethroning conflict intensified by harsh treatment which Shia followers met
of earlier kings. After the death of Musa Raina, Margrays, under the orders of Mirza Haider Dauglat. These indifferences
Rainas, Dars, etc continued to dominate the political and and disagreements forced the followers to adopt sectarian
administrative scene of Kashmir but urge for power resulted in identities each professing themselves better than the opposing
constant opposition between these groups. In this constant tussle ideology. The harsh discrimination which Haider Dauglat
for power, Chaks ultimately came out victorious against Rainas inflicted on Shias started never ending clashes between Shias
and Magrays. Gradually, Chaks emerged as the most powerful and Sunnis of the valley. He murdered Shaikh Daniyal who was
group who were patronised by Shams-ud-din Iraqi. Shams Chak one of the prominent Shia figures which deeply moved his
who was acting as a wazir of the then Sultan Mohammad Shah, followers. In 1550, Malik Haider was murdered by the
undertook many religious works as per the orders of his patron aggravated nobles and the state once again came into the hands
and spiritual guide, Shams-ud-din Iraqi. During his regime, of Chak dynasty. It was Daulat Chak who revived Shi'ism in the
Shams Chak was guided by Iraqi to perform his religious as region by declaring it as state religion and read khutba in the
well as political obligations. The reign of terror which occurred names of twelve Imams. He also forced Sunni Muslim to adopt
during the regime of Musa Raina was repeated by Shams Chak. this Shia faith7.
Mir Shams-ud-din Iraqi ordered the massacre of Pandits and
polytheists. In 1518, there happened an open massacre of The Chak rule, as an independent dynasty to govern the state,
Hindus, infact a full-fledged state policy was executed in which was established with the coming of Ghazi Chak on the throne of

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Kashmir in 1554. By then, the religious differences had crept shifting from one ruler to another. Under Jahangir, a family of
into the society and the followers of Nurbakshia silsilla were Maliks of Chadura who happened to be Shia, dominated the
well aware of the differences which their orientation offered political scene of Kashmir for some period of time. Haider
from the one followed by their Sunni counterparts. With the Malik who was given the titles and of 'Rais-ul-Mulk' and
intervention of state policies under changing dynasties (to 'chughtai' and his brother Malik Ali became the most prominent
patronise Shi'ism at one point and repelling at the other), a political figure during Jahangir’s reign8. They reconstructed the
feeling of alienation started emerging between the two religious khanaqah of Shams-ud-din Iraqi at Zadibal and Hasanabad
groups. The first incident which gave us an impression that which increased the contempt of Sunni officials for shia creed.
sectarian denominations had been successfully hatched by the In the same period, a section of Srinagar along with Jamia
discriminatory policies of the state authorities and these groups Masjid caught fire and Maliks were given the responsibility to
were ready to emerge as two opposing socio-religious sects, was extinguish it but failed to save the Jamia Masjid. The Sunnis
the public killing of Yusuf Inder Mandav who attempted to kill held Maliks responsible for the destruction of masjid for which
one Sunni mulla. During the reign of Husain Shah Chak, in the Emperor Jahangir ordered them to reconstruct the mosque at
year 1568, Yusuf Mandav, a Shia fanatic seriously wounded their own expenses. This episode further intensified enmity
Qazi-ul-Qazzat, Sayyid Habibullah Khwarizmi. An immediate between the two sects. The relationship between these two
arrest of the culprit was issued by the ruler and the jury groups had become so vulnerable that a minor argument
summoned Yusuf Mandav stoned to death. As the Qazi survived between people belonging to two opposite sects turned into ugly
his wounds, the Shia community demanded death sentence for clashes. For instance, the sectarian riots of the year 1636 got
the jurists responsible for Yusuf Mandav's killing. On the orders clicked by a fight between a few persons who started an
of Mirza Muqim (Shia follower) who had come to visit Sultan argument about Shia-Sunni differences. The fight started with a
Husain Shah's court along with Mir Yaqub as an envoy from mere argument and engulfed the entire population of Srinagar
Mughal emperor, Akbar, the execution of Sunni jurists, Qazi which resulted in targeting of the khanaqahs of Zadibal and
Musa and Mulla Yusuf was undertaken and their dead bodies Hasanabad. Besides, many Shias were victimized and some
were dragged around the city and caused dissension among the among them lost their lives and properties. The imperial
Sunni community. The representatives of Sunni population authority failed to come up with any effective policy which
approached Akbar to intervene in the issue. Though, there were would have checked if not eliminated the growing antagonism
certainly many underlying cause for the Mughal conquest of between the two groups.
Kashmir, this first Shia-Sunni conflict made Kashmir
apparently, a soft target of Mughal subjugation. On another occasion, Malik Haider's son, Malik Husain
disrespected Shaikh Rashid who appealed to Saif Khan, the then
Throughout the later medieval period in Kashmir, one finds that Mughal governor for justice. The intervention of Imperial
the policies of different administrators had a clear impact on the authority resulted in the execution of Malik Hasan and his
relationship between these two sects. The greatest tool for servants9. If there could be riots led by a minor argument, one
Akbar or any other foreign ruler to strengthen their power in can imagine the disturbance caused by the killing of some
Kashmir, was the disunity among the local chieftains or ruling prominent religious personality which and its adverse impact on
elites; as long as they were divided and busy fighting each other, already vulnerable relationship between these sects. For
one could not have expected any organised opposition to instance, again in the year 1685-86, Kashmir witnessed fierce
overthrow any imperial rule. One non-native dynasty was riots which began with a quarrel between a businessman and
replaced by another but the estranged sects were pre-occupied Abdul Shakoor, a resident of Hasanabad and involved not only
with their socio-religious differences and allegations; they local public in the combat but mullas and administrative
sustained their political subjugation to the outside rulers for agencies got involved in it. The mob became uncontrollable and
hundreds of years but never accepted to be ruled by each other. the state authorities restored to oppressive measures which
This is substantiated by a fact that last Chak ruler, Sultan Yaqub resulted in the killing of forty people10. There are certain
Shah executed Mulla Musa for not reciting the name of 'Ali', incidents of such conflicts in the villages of adjoining regions,
the first Iman in the prayers which made the Sunni community in the sources but the major confrontations occurred in the
under the leadership of Shaikh Yaqub Sarfi, prompt Akbar to capital city of Srinagar which suggests the political orientation
take over the reins of the country. of these riots stronger than the religious designs. Though, a
highly secular state of its times, Mughal administration failed to
In the initial years of Mughal rule, one can't find any aggressive diminish the ever growing animosity between the two groups
encounter between the two sects, as the political representatives which got heightened under the sectarian rule of later dynasties.
of both the sects had lost their prominence in the administrative
functions of the state; both Sayyids and local chieftains were In later and post-Mughal period, the Shias became one of the
deprived of their political prerogative. In later medieval period, most vulnerable communities which were quite often oppressed
the Shia-Sunni conflict got institutionalised and was deeply and humiliated by the state authorities and attacked by the mob,
embedded in Kashmiri society, and popped up as soon one sect Sunni community during any clashes between the two. There
started enjoying political privileges on the other which kept on are a good number of incidents recorded in the sources where

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the opposing sects encountered each other but some of the widened during the subadari of Amir Khan Jawan Sher who
incidents which occurred in the years like 1719-20, 1741, 1762, persecuted Sunnis and patronised the Shia community. He
1801, 1830 and 1872 proved deadly and disastrous for Shia constructed a splendid palace at Nandpora (present Hazratbal)
inhabitants of the valley. These riots resulted in large and laid a beautiful garden there, where Shias used to
destruction of human and material resources of the region in the commemorate Muharram. An attempt which further estranged
form of killing of large number of Kashmiri people, mostly the people against the governor and Shias was Amir Khan's
Shias, burning down of khanaqahs of saints associated with order to include the term Ali-wali-ullah in the Azaan. It all
these faiths which most of the times ruined the entire locality happened when some Shia people teased the Mullas of
surrounding those shrines and loot and plunder of public Khanaqah-i-Naqashbandi and used some foul words regarding
property. In 1719, Mohammad Shah ascended the throne of the famous Sufi saint, Habibullah Nowsheri. The Sunni crowd
Delhi which was followed by violent conflict between the Shias who had already gathered in huge numbers for performing
and Sunnis under the subadari of Innaytullah Khan in Kashmir. nimaz in Idgah, reciprocated by setting entire mohalla of
In the meantime, Mulla Abdul Nabi alias Muhtavi Khan, the Zadibal (Shia dominated area) on fire and looted houses and
then Shaikh-ul-Islam of Kashmir got murdered. The Sunnis property. Buland Khan Bamzai ordered for a committee to
suspected Shias in prompting the authorities to order the killing enquire about the clashes which held Shias responsible for
of Muhtavi Khan who had emerged as a politico-religious leader instigating the deadly riots. Those who were held directly
of masses against corrupt government officials, Hindu and Shia responsible were terribly tortured and humiliated by cutting off
population. After his death, his son, Sharaf-ud-Din mobilized their nose, ears, limbs, etc and imposed fines and penalty were
the masses and continued the agitation initiated by Muhtavi imposed by the government on rest of the community.
Khan. With the coming of Mohammad Shah on the throne of
Hindustan, Muhtavi Khan was deprived of his possessions in the Another incident of Shia exploitation in Kashmir occurred in the
form of mansab and jagirs granted by earlier ruler, Bahadur subadari of Haji Karim Dad Khan. He not only persecuted one
Shah which motivated him to organise demonstrations against of the prominent figures and representatives of Shia people,
the state authorities. As he was a religious fanatic, thus ordered Anwar Malik and suspended his dead body on the gates of
crusades against the non-Muslims; besides Hindus, Shia also Khanaqah-i-Naqashbandi but terrorized their entire community
were targeted and tortured. Some of the mansabdars like Sayyid and completely ruined Hasanabad (another Shia dominated
Athar Khan who had ideological clashes with Muhtavi Khan region in Kashmir). Later under the subadari of Juma Khan
conspired for his death which resulted in his killing on 12 Akhnoori, Shia people had created imambaras to mourn on the
September, 1720 in the house of Abdullah Khan, the then mir- occassion of the anniversary of karbala in Zadibal and
bakshi of Kashmir. The death of Shaikh-ul -Islam was followed Hasanabad. The very next day after naib-i-suba, Mahabat Khan
by mass uprising organised by the Sunnis under the leadership sent his official Islam Khan to enquire about the issues, reached
of his third son, Sharaf-ud-Din mainly against the Hindus and on the spot along with Sunni crowd and started mass killing of
Shias. The religious-cum-political uprising was subdued by Shias and destruction of imambaras.
arresting of Sharaf-ud-din and hanging of his fifty associates11.
The clashes between these communities again erupted in the It was almost for four centuries that Pandits remained under
year 1741 when Abu Barkat Khan forcibly seized the authority consistent subjugation of Muslim rule and with the downfall of
of Kashmir by uprooting the armies of Bab-rul-Lah Beig (the Afghans, this community got an opportunity to appeal Ranjit
then thanedar of kamraj). He took the reins of government in Singh to control the reins of Kashmir. Though, Sikhs didn't
his own hands for short period of time in which he inflicted prove much advantageous for the Pandit population, it started an
atrocities towards the Shia people. They were treated harshly by era of political and religious exploitation of majority community
his officials who forced them to pay discriminatory fines and of Muslims who not only became invisible in political affairs of
taxes.These sectarian clashes gained momentum in the times of the state but were deprived of many basic religions rights. Sikhs
political instability and disorder under the later Mughals. In the pronounced their political establishment as 'Dharma Raj' which
absence of any strong state because of political and means rule of religion and the discrimination and humiliation of
administrative crisis in the provincial government, these Muslim became inevitable12. No improvement was witnessed in
sectarian encounters accelerated in society. the later Dogra rule as they continued with the policies adopted
by the Sikhs. One doesn't find any improvement in the Shia-
The greatest of riots under the Afghans occurred during the Sunni relationship as the sectarian clashes continued to exist in
governorship of Buland Khan Bamzai (1762-1764) who the later period under Hindu Dynasty. The worst of Shia-Sunni
terrorised the entire Shia community throughout his subadari. riot recorded in Sikh period occurred during the governorship of
The Shias were looted, plundered and the houses in their Bhim Singh Ardali in 1831. It was the occasion of Muharam,
locality were burnt down. Those Shias who were accused of again when the fight between two sects erupted into a huge riots
initiating and sustaining the riots were arrested and punished by in which huge number of people including innocent women and
the Afghan officials. The brutality of Afghan administration children got massacred. The same unrest between the Shias and
gets depicted in their brutal orders of cutting off the noses and Sunnis of valley took brutal shape in 1872 during the Dogra
ears of accused. The rift between the two sects got further Raja Ranbir Singh.

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International Research Journal of Social Sciences____________________________________________________ISSN 2319–3565
Vol. 4(4), 74-80, April (2015) Int. Res. J. Social Sci.

Conclusion Reference
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